1.
428th Bombardment Squadron
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The 428th Bombardment Squadron is an inactive United States Air Force unit. Its last assignment was as part of the 310th Bombardment Wing, stationed at Shilling Air Force Base and it was inactivated on 1 January 1962. Activated as a B-25 reconnaissance squadron in early 1942, it was redesignated a medium bomber unit in April and it trained with the Third Air Force in the southeastern United States. It was deployed initially to England in September 1942 and flew some missions under VIII Bomber Command over German-occupied France, attacking enemy formations, bridges. It was part of the Operation Torch invasion of North Africa in November 1942 and it was assigned to the Twelfth Air Force in French Morocco in November. The squadron also engaged in psychological warfare missions, dropping propaganda leaflets behind enemy lines and it was inactivated in Italy after the German capitulation in September 1945. The squadron was activated in 1959 as a result of Strategic Air Commands decision to out the B-47 Stratojet. Additional squadrons were activated as part of the consolidation of Stratojet wings, in March 1961, President John F. Kennedy directed that the phaseout of the B-47 be accelerated. As a result, the squadron was inactivated on 1 January 1962 as part of the drawdown of the USAF B-47 force, Maurer, Maurer, ed. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II. Washington, DC, Office of Air Force History
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
4.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
5.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
6.
XIX Tactical Air Command
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The XIX Tactical Air Command is an inactive United States Air Force unit. The units last assignment was with the Ninth Air Force based at Biggs Field and it was inactivated on 31 March 1946. Formed in England in early 1944, XIX TAC was a command and control organization, designed to air support to Army ground forces, primarily with P-47 Thunderbolt. XIX TAC supported all of Third Armys operations and more and its roles included a bewildering number of missions, close air support, battlefield air interdiction, deep interdiction, dive bombing, counterair, reconnaissance, and even leaflet dropping. XIX TACs close air support mission took its most concerted, extended, the Third Armys tank crews and their accompanying air support officers pointed out enemy concentrations, and divisional artillery at times gave further assistance by marking targets with smoke. In return, the P-47 and P-51 pilots of XIX TAC provided cover for the tanks in one-hour shifts with four aircraft per flight, as little as three minutes after being contacted, they could strike the designated target, thereby freeing the armored forces to continue their advance. Another of XIX TACs missions, dive bombing, is thought of as a tactic. It resembled deep interdiction, for both types of missions made use of aerial bombing techniques and normally attacked similar, prearranged targets. But while deep interdiction was designed to cut off enemy movements either in or out of the combat zone and they were employed, for example, during the unsuccessful September attempt to seize Metz, and their most extensive use was during the siege at Brest. The results of Brest were not particularly impressive and it was soon obvious that the defenders––as part of Hitlers hold on to the ports strategy––had ample provisions and were determined to hold out. XIX TACs P-47s and P-51s simply did not have the power to bring about the desired results. Thus the American commander called on other air formations to assist, eighth Air Force responded between 11 August and 5 September with four missions in which 983 B-17s dropped 2520 tons of bombs. British Bomber Command made two raids with approximately 220 Lancasters taking part, U. S. IX Bomber Commands B-26s and new A-26s undertook six missions. IX TAC loaned some of its squadrons to XIX TAC––squadrons that flew 839 sorties between 5 and 11 September, when Brests capture was accorded a high priority. By the time the last of Germanys beleaguered troops capitulated on the 19th and its port facilities, for which the operation originally had been undertaken, were so badly damaged that the Americans never used it as a major supply port. Obviously, air power had affected the outcome of the battle, XIX TAC was also involved in counterair operations, although, because of the Luftwaffes relative weakness, to a lesser extent than it might have been. Only in critical situations or when they had a numerical advantage did Jagdkorps IIs Bf-109s and FW-190s venture out, while IX TAC led the counterair response, the RAF and XIX TACs 354th Fighter-Bomber Group of P-51s also lent a hand. Near Paris, U. S. pilots also encountered opposition, although the Allies remained aware that the situation might change, Allied aircraft now reigned supreme
7.
Texas
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Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
8.
United States Army Air Service
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The Air Service, United States Army was the military aviation service of the United States between 1918 and 1926 and a forerunner of the United States Air Force. It was established as an independent but temporary branch of the U. S and its life was extended for another year in July 1919, during which time Congress passed the legislation necessary to make it a permanent establishment. The National Defense Act of 1920 assigned the Air Service the status of combatant arm of the line of the United States Army with a general in command. By the end of the war, the Air Service used 45 squadrons to cover 137 kilometers of front from Pont-à-Mousson to Sedan,71 pursuit pilots were credited with shooting down five or more German aircraft while in American service. Overall the Air Service destroyed 756 enemy aircraft and 76 balloons in combat,17 balloon companies also operated at the front, making 1,642 combat ascensions. 289 airplanes and 48 balloons were lost in battle, the Air Service was the first form of the air force to have an independent organizational structure and identity. Although officers concurrently held rank in various branches, after May 1918 their branch designation in official correspondence while on aviation assignment changed from ASSC to AS, after July 1,1920, its personnel became members of the Air Service branch, receiving new commissions. Airmen such as Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell supported the concept, the Armys senior leadership from World War I, the United States Navy, and the majority of the nations political leadership favored integration of all military aviation into the Army and Navy. Aided by a wave of pacifism following the war that drastically cut military budgets, opponents of an independent air force prevailed, the Air Service was renamed the Army Air Corps in 1926 as a compromise in the continuing struggle. The declaration of war against Germany on April 6,1917, putting the United States in World War I, came too quickly to solve emerging engineering and production problems. The reorganization of the Aviation Section had been inadequate in resolving problems in training, leaving the United States totally unprepared to fight an air war in Europe, the Aviation Section consisted of 131 officers,1087 enlisted men, and approximately 280 airplanes. The Board dispatched Major Raynal C, by the time the bill passed, the term Air Service was in widespread if unofficial usage to collectively describe all aspects of Army aviation. Even so, the Aircraft Board in practice had little control over procurement contracts, nor did the Equipment Division of the Signal Corps exercise such control. Though individual areas within the industry responded well, the industry as a whole failed. Efforts to mass produce European aircraft under license largely failed because the aircraft, at the same time the Aeronautical Division of the OCSO was renamed the Air Division with continued responsibility for training and operations but with no influence on acquisition or doctrine. In the end the process in aircraft procurement was badly fragmented. Borglum had exchanged letters with President Wilson, a friend, from which he assumed an appointment to investigate had been authorized. Both the U. S. Senate and the Department of Justice began investigations into possible fraudulent dealings, Kenly brought back from France to be its head, to separate supervision of aviation from the duties of the Chief Signal Officer
9.
Kelly Field Annex
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Kelly Field Annex is a United States Air Force facility located in San Antonio, Texas. The base is under the jurisdiction of the 802d Mission Support Group, Air Education, Kelly Field was one of thirty-two Air Service training camps established after the United States entry into World War I, being established on 27 March 1917. It was used as a field, primary flying school, school for adjutants, supply officers, engineers, mechanics school. As of 2006, there are some isolated USAF activities on Port San Antonio subordinate to Lackland. Several large warehouses on the grounds of Port San Antonio were cleared, cleaned and equipped with large air conditioning units to house evacuees from Hurricane Katrina. The first evacuees began to arrive on September 2,2005, Kelly Field Annex is named in honor of 2d Lieutenant George Edward Maurice Kelly. Lt. Kelly, who after a course of training at the Curtiss Aviation School, Rockwell Field, California, was ordered to Fort Sam Houston, near San Antonio. While attempting to land on 10 May 1911 in order to avoid running into a tent and thereby possibly injuring several others, died in a crash, the center was to be built for the Aviation Section of the U. S. Army Signal Corps. General Scriven described San Antonio as “the most important strategic position of the South, ” in response to the unrest resulting from the Mexican Revolution. S. ”In November 1915, when the newly created 1st Aero Squadron arrived at Fort Sam Houston after a cross-country flight from Fort Sill, Oklahoma. Problems experienced by the 1st Aero Squadron on that expedition and the war in Europe persuaded Congress to improve. It was quickly apparent that Fort Sam Houston had inadequate space for flying operations, especially with newer. Major Benjamin Foulois, with the support of the San Antonio Chamber of Commerce, bordered by the Frio City Road on the northwest, the site was also adjacent to the Southern Pacific Railroad, providing easy access by road and rail. In addition, the new site was relatively flat, and thus suitable for flying operations, initially, the site was called the South San Antonio Aviation Camp. On 5 April 1917, four took off from Fort Sam Houston, flew across San Antonio and landed on the new airfield. Tents had been erected as hangars, however a permanent presence at the airfield was not established until 7 May when 700 men arrived, a week later, the population had grown to 4,000. Construction of the facility was rapid, with the United States now at war, the ground was cleared and scores of buildings - hangars, barracks, mess halls, a street system, electrical and plumbing systems, warehouses, machine shops were all constructed during the summer. By the end of June, it was clear that Foulois original site, a committee of the San Antonio Chamber of Commerce provided the necessary land and presented the proposition to the Aviation Production Board in Washington, D. C. in June 1917. A contract was signed in July 1917, comprising all of what was Kelly Field #2, Kelly soldiers organized approximately 250,000 men into Aero Squadrons during the hectic months of 1917 and 1918
10.
Fort Sam Houston
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Fort Sam Houston is a U. S. Army post in San Antonio, Texas. Known colloquially as Fort Sam, it is named for the U. S. Senator, Texas Governor, on October 1,2010, Fort Sam Houston joined Lackland and Randolph Air Force Bases to create Joint Base San Antonio, under Air Force administration. Army Institute of Surgical Research U. S. S, because Fort Sam Houston is part of Joint Base San Antonio, the installation commander is the commander of the 502d Air Base Wing. Fort Sam Houston is known as the Home of Army Medicine, at the end of World War II, the Army decided to make Fort Sam Houston the principal medical training facility. In conjunction with this came the determination to develop Brooke General Hospital into one of the Armys premier medical centers. Despite the installation transitioning to Air Force control, the command, the command and other key positions will rotate between the Army and Air Force. Staffing consist of members of both services, as well as a number of civilians. As of 2011, Fort Sam Houston is the largest and most important military training facility in the world. As a result of the Base Realignment and Closure Commission 2005 recommendations and this consolidation concluded with the opening of the Military Education and Training Campus in 2011. The Navy moved its medical training from San Diego, California, Great Lakes, Illinois, the Air Force moved its medical training from Sheppard Air Force Base in Wichita Falls, Texas. This increased the student load and required additional support staff. The expansion in training has required construction approaching one billion dollars, the Sundry Civil Service Bill of 3 March 1873, included a $100,000 for a new army post in San Antonio, on 93 acres of land deeded by the city on Government Hill. Edward Braden Construction Co. won the contract to build the post on 7 June 1876, included on the Quadrangle was a combination 87 foot watch tower and 6,400 gallon water tank designed by General Montgomery C. Meigs, based on one he had seen in Europe, on 19 Feb.1877, the new train station on Austin Street opened, connecting San Antonio to Galveston. The quartermasters soon moved their supplies from the Alamo to the Quadrangle. The hospital, now known as Sam Houston House, was built in 1886, the post was formally named Fort Sam Houston on September 11,1890. The Gift Chapel was dedicated by President William Taft on 17–18 Oct.1909, Construction at Fort Sam Houston began in the middle 1870s under the supervision of the military commander of the Department of Texas, Major General Edward Ord, a West Point-trained army engineer. The significant contributions of Fort Sam Houston to the United States were recognized in 1975 when the post was designated as a National Historic Landmark, the Fort Sam Houston Quadrangle, built by George Henry Griebel, is the oldest structure at Fort Sam Houston
11.
North American O-47
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The North American O-47 was an observation fixed-wing aircraft monoplane used by the United States Army Air Corps. It had a low-wing configuration, retractable landing gear and a three-blade propeller, the O-47 was developed as a replacement for the Thomas-Morse O-19 and Douglas O-38 observation biplanes. It was larger and heavier than most preceding observation aircraft and its crew of three sat in tandem under the long canopy, windows in the deep belly overcame the obstacle that the wings presented to downward observation and photography. The design for the XO-47 prototype originated in 1934 with General Aviation, the Air Corps ordered 174 O-47s in 1937 to 1938,93 of which were assigned to National Guard units. In 1938, the Army ordered 74 O-47Bs with an engine cowling for better cooling, a more powerful engine. Training maneuvers in 1941 demonstrated the shortcomings of the O-47, light airplanes proved more capable of operating with ground troops, while fighters and twin-engine bombers showed greater ability to perform recon and photo duties. Thus, O-47s during World War II, except for those caught at overseas bases by the Japanese attacks, were relegated to duties as towing targets, coastal patrol. An O-47A is in storage at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, an O-47A is under restoration at Planes of Fame Air Museum in Chino, California as of August 2013. An O-47B is on display at Combat Air Museum in Topeka, KS
12.
San Antonio
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San Antonio, officially the City of San Antonio, is the seventh-most populated city in the United States and the second-most populous city in the state of Texas, with a population of 1,409,019. It was the fastest growing of the top 10 largest cities in the United States from 2000 to 2010, the city straddles South Texas and Central Texas and is on the southwestern corner of an urban megaregion known as the Texas Triangle. San Antonio serves as the seat of Bexar County, recent annexations have extended the citys boundaries into Medina County and, though for only a very tiny area near the city of Garden Ridge, into Comal County. Due to its placement, the city has characteristics of other urban centers in which there are sparsely populated areas. San Antonio is the center of the San Antonio–New Braunfels Metropolitan Statistical Area, growth along the Interstate 35 and Interstate 10 corridors to the north, west and east make it likely that the metropolitan area will continue to expand. San Antonio was named for Saint Anthony of Padua, whose feast day is on June 13, the city contains five 18th-century Spanish frontier missions, including The Alamo and San Antonio Missions National Historical Park, which were designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2015. Other notable attractions include the River Walk, the Tower of the Americas, the Alamo Bowl, the city is home to the five-time NBA champion San Antonio Spurs and hosts the annual San Antonio Stock Show & Rodeo, one of the largest such events in the country. The U. S. Kelly Air Force Base operated out of San Antonio until 2001, the remaining portions of the base were developed as Port San Antonio, an industrial/business park and aerospace complex. San Antonio is home to six Fortune 500 companies and the South Texas Medical Center, at the time of European encounter, Payaya Indians lived near the San Antonio River Valley in the San Pedro Springs area, calling the vicinity Yanaguana, meaning refreshing waters. In 1691, a group of Spanish Catholic explorers and missionaries came upon the river and Payaya settlement on June 13 and they named the place and river San Antonio in his honor. It was years before any Spanish settlement took place, father Antonio de Olivares visited the site in 1709, and he was determined to found a mission and civilian settlement there. He directed Martin de Alarcón, the governor of Coahuila and Texas, differences between Alarcón and Olivares resulted in delays, and construction did not start until 1718. The families who clustered around the presidio and mission formed the beginnings of Villa de Béjar, on May 1, the governor transferred ownership of the Mission San Antonio de Valero to Fray Antonio de Olivares. On May 5,1718 he commissioned the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar on the west side of the San Antonio River, one-fourth league from the mission. On February 14,1719, the Marquis of San Miguel de Aguayo proposed to the king of Spain that 400 families be transported from the Canary Islands, Galicia, or Havana to populate the province of Texas. By June 1730,25 families had reached Cuba, and 10 families had sent to Veracruz before orders from Spain came to stop the re-settlement. Under the leadership of Juan Leal Goraz, the group marched overland from Veracruz to the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar, due to marriages along the way, the party now included 15 families, a total of 56 persons. They joined the community established in 1718
13.
Northrop A-17
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The Northrop A-17, a development of the Northrop Gamma 2F was a two-seat, single-engine, monoplane, attack bomber built in 1935 by the Northrop Corporation for the U. S. Army Air Corps. A-17s used by air forces of the British Commonwealth designated the aircraft as the Nomad, the Northrop Gamma 2F was an attack bomber derivative of the Northrop Gamma transport aircraft, developed in parallel with the Northrop Gamma 2C, designated the YA-13 and XA-16. The Gamma 2F had a tail, cockpit canopy and wing flaps compared with the Gamma 2C. It was delivered to the United States Army Air Corps for tests on 6 October 1934, a total of 110 aircraft were ordered as the A-17 in 1935. The resulting A-17 was equipped with perforated flaps, and had fixed landing gear with partial fairings and it was fitted with an internal fuselage bomb bay that carried fragmentation bombs and well as external bomb racks. Northrop developed a new landing gear, this time completely retractable and this version was again purchased by the Army Air Corps, who placed orders for 129 aircraft. By the time these were delivered, the Northrop Corporation had been taken over by Douglas Aircraft Company, the A-17 entered service in February 1936, and proved a reliable and popular aircraft. However, in 1938, the Air Corps decided that aircraft should be multi-engined. From 14 December 1941, A-17s were used for patrols by the 59th Bombardment Squadron on the Pacific side of the Panama Canal. The last remaining A-17s, used as utility aircraft, were retired from USAAF service in 1944, argentina purchased 30 Model 8A-2s in 1937 and received them between February and March 1938. Their serial numbers were between 348 and 377 and these remained in frontline service until replaced by the I. Ae. 24 Calquin, continuing in service as trainers and reconnaissance aircraft until their last flight in 1954, Peru ordered ten Model 8A-3Ps, these being delivered from 1938 onwards. These aircraft were used in combat by Peru in the Ecuadorian-Peruvian war of July 1941, the survivors of these aircraft were supplemented by 13 Model 8A-5s from Norway, delivered via the United States in 1943. These remained in service until 1958, the Swedish government purchased a licence for production of a Mercury-powered version, building 63 B 5Bs and 31 B 5Cs, production taking place from 1938 to 1941. They were replaced in service with the Swedish Air Force by SAAB 17s from 1944, the Swedish version was used as a dive bomber and as such it featured prominently in the 1941 film Första divisionen. The Netherlands, in urgent need of modern aircraft, placed an order for 18 Model 8A-3Ns in 1939. Used in a role for which they were unsuited, the majority were destroyed by Luftwaffe attacks on 10 May 1940. Iraq purchased 15 Model 8A-4s, in 1940 and they were destroyed in the Anglo-Iraqi War in 1941
14.
Albrook Air Force Station
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Albrook Air Force Station is a former United States Air Force facility in Panama. It was located on the east side of the Panama Canal just south of Fort Clayton and north of the township of Balboa, beginning in January 1999, the air field initiated civilian air service as Albrook Marcos A. Gelabert International Airport. Airport is under Panamas Civil Aeronautics Authority, a number of shops, markets, mall and government agencies operate out of some of the old buildings and hangars, and most of the officers quarters are now private homes. The Civil Aviation Authority has its headquarters in Building 805 and this article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http, //www. afhra. af. mil/. Air Force Combat Units Of World War II, maxwell AFB, Alabama, Office of Air Force History. Maurer, Maurer, ed. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History
15.
Aguadulce Army Airfield
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Aguadulce Army Airfield is a former United States Army Air Forces World War II airfield in Panama used as part of the defense of the Panama Canal. It was closed on 1 March 1948, established on 1 April 1941, Aguadulce Airfields mission was to defend the Panama Canal. Most of its history was that of an auxiliary airfield. Training of South American air force personnel was conducted at the field. It was closed on 1 March 1948 due to budget reductions, for several years, it was used as a civil airport, but was later closed, today the airfield is abandoned, with the runway still visible but in poor condition. This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http, Maurer, Maurer, ed. Air Force Combat Units of World War II. Washington, DC, Office of Air Force History, Maurer, Maurer, ed. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II. Washington, DC, Office of Air Force History
16.
19th Composite Wing
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The 19th Air Division is an inactive United States Air Force unit. Its last assignment was with Eighth Air Force at Carswell Air Force Base, Texas, during World War II, the unit was designated as IX Bomber Command and was the command and control organization for Ninth Air Force in the Western Desert Campaign. The 19th Air Division was first organized on 30 June 1929 as the 19th Composite Wing at France Field and it was a consolidation of Air Corps units in the Canal Zone, and was activated on 1 April 1931. In January 1939, it flew missions to aid victims in Santiago. It was redesignated as the 19th Bombardment Wing on 19 October 1940 as the United States prepared for a possible war. By late August 1941, a total of 71 aircraft, consisting of B-18 Bolos, B-17B Flying Fortresses, A-20 Havocs and it was replaced by the 13th Bombardment Wing in an administrative reorganization of the Panama Canal Air Force on 25 October 1941. Reactivated as IX Bomber Command, the unit was assigned to Ninth Air Force in Egypt on 17 November 1942, b-17s which were assigned were determined to be non-operational and never used in combat. IX Bomber Command was quickly put together in late 1942 to aid the British Eighth Armys drive west from Egypt into Libya against Rommels Afrika Corps during the Western Desert Campaign. The United States Army Air Forces began planning for a buildup of American air power in the Middle East in January 1942 in response to a request from the British Chief of the Air Staff, the initial unit to arrive was given the codename HALPRO. It was under the command of Colonel Harry A. Halverson, hALPROs first mission was flown on 12 June 1942 against the Romanian oil facilities at Ploieşti. Thirteen B-24s flew this first U. S. mission against a European target causing negligible damage, on 15 June, seven planes assisted the Royal Air Force in attacking an Italian fleet which had put to sea to intercept a British resupply convoy on its way to Malta. HALPRO then flew in support of British Commonwealth forces fighting in the deserts of Egypt, hALPROs primary mission became the interdiction of supplies to Rommels Army in North Africa by bombing strikes on Axis cargo ships at sea or in the ports of Tobruk and Benghazi. In May 1943 after the Tunisian Campaign ended, Tunisia became available for launching attacks on Pantelleria, Sicily, IX Bomber groups attacked airfields and rail facilities in Sicily and took part in Operation Husky, carried paratroopers, and flew reinforcements to ground units on the island. Heavy bomb units of the Ninth also participated in the famed assault on oil refineries at Ploesti Romania on 1 August 1943. Later in August 1943, it was decided to reassign Ninth Air Force to England to be the air force in the planned invasion of France scheduled for May 1944. The commands headquarters at Soluch Airfield, Libya, was inactivated on 1 October 1943, the IX Bomber Command was reassigned to Marks Hall, England on 16 October 1943. It took over the 3rd Bombardment Wing of the Eighth Air Force VIII Air Support Command and its initial mission was attack to German Atlantic Wall defenses along the English Channel coast of France. After D-Day, its mission was changed to fly tactical bombardment missions supporting Allied ground forces as they advanced from the Normandy Beaches across France into Germany
17.
Panama Canal
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The Panama Canal is an artificial 48-mile waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a key conduit for maritime trade. The original locks are 33.5 metres wide, a third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded canal began operation on June 26,2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, Post-Panamax ships, capable of handling more cargo, France began work on the canal in 1881 but stopped due to engineering problems and a high worker mortality rate. The United States took over the project in 1904 and opened the canal on August 15,1914, Colombia, France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. The U. S. continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for handover to Panama. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, in 1999 the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government and is now managed and operated by the government-owned Panama Canal Authority. Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, by 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal. It takes six to eight hours to pass through the Panama Canal, the American Society of Civil Engineers has called the Panama Canal one of the seven wonders of the modern world. Such a route would have given the Spanish a military advantage over the Portuguese, during an expedition from 1788 to 1793, Alessandro Malaspina outlined plans for its construction. Given the strategic location of Panama and the potential offered by its narrow isthmus separating two great oceans, other links in the area were attempted over the years. The ill-fated Darien scheme was launched by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to set up a trade route. Generally inhospitable conditions thwarted the effort, and it was abandoned in April 1700, another effort was made in 1843. They referred to it as the Atlantic and Pacific Canal and it was a wholly British endeavor and it was expected to be completed in five years, but the plan was never carried out. At nearly the same time, other ideas were floated, including a canal across Mexicos Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Nothing came of that plan either. )In 1846 the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty, negotiated between the U. S. and New Granada, granted the United States transit rights and the right to intervene militarily in the isthmus. In 1849, the discovery of gold in California created great interest in a crossing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Panama Railway was built by the United States to cross the isthmus and opened in 1855
18.
12th Pursuit Wing
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The 12th Air Division an inactive United States Air Force unit. Its last assignment was with the Eighth Air Force, based at Ellsworth Air Force Base and it was inactivated on 31 July 1990. The division was established as the 12th Pursuit Wing in the Panama Canal Zone on 20 November 1940, the organization commanded pursuit groups and squadrons for Sixth Air Force until 6 March 1942. It was reassigned to Eighth Air Force in England during November 1942 as a bombardment wing, all personnel and equipment were withdrawn in January 1943, and the organization did not serve in combat. Reactivated in 1951, the 12th Air Division was a command echelon of Strategic Air Command. It conducted training for worldwide bombardment operations and it was inactivated in 1990 as part of the military drawdown of the USAF after the end of the Cold War. 6 March 1942 32d Pursuit Group, c.1 January 1941-c,6 March 1942 37th Pursuit Group, c.1 February 1940 –6 March 1942 53d Pursuit Group, c. List of United States Air Force air divisions This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http, Maurer, Maurer, ed. Air Force Combat Units of World War II. Washington, DC, Office of Air Force History, Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage & Honors Histories 1947-1977. Washington, DC, Office of Air Force History
19.
Stinson L-1 Vigilant
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The Stinson L-1 Vigilant was a 1940s American light observation aircraft built by the Stinson Aircraft Company at Wayne, Michigan. The aircraft was operated by the United States Army Air Corps as the O-49 until 1942, the Vigilant was designed in response to a 1938 United States Army Air Corps design competition for a two-seat light observation aircraft. When the German-manufactured Fieseler Storch was demonstrated at the Cleveland Air Races, Stinson, won the $1.5 million contract over 11 competitors, including the Bellanca YO-50 and Ryan YO-51 Dragonfly. The Model 74 was a radial engined high-wing monoplane with trailing-edge high-lift devices for low speed. The prototype aircraft was built full-span leading-edge automatic slots manufactured by Handley Page, the Model V-74 was given the Army designation YO-49 for evaluation, with the first flight by test pilot Al Schramm on 15 July 1940. The aircraft was built of steel tubing and fabric, with the forward of the wing enclosed in sheet metal. Control surfaces and the empennage were fabric-covered stainless steel, the Lycoming power plant was hand-cranked inertia starting, and was fitted with a Hamilton Standard constant speed propeller. At least 12 ambulance conversions were fitted with Edo 49-4000 pontoons for amphibious landings, the Vigilant was capable of stopping in less than its own length, and could maintain stable flight at 31 miles per hour. Anecdotally, the Vigilant was said to be capable of flight in a strong headwind. The Stinson Vigilant was used in roles such as towing training gliders, artillery spotting, liaison, emergency rescue, transporting supplies. Another contract was awarded for the O-49A which had a slightly longer fuselage. In April 1942 the aircraft were redesignated the L-1 and L-1A, up to 17 L-1 and 96 L-1A aircraft were allocated to the British Royal Air Force under the Lend-Lease Act, with varying numbers given for aircraft actually delivered. The RAF designated the aircraft the Vigilant Mk I and Vigilant Mk II respectively, general Harry Crerar, Commander of the First Canadian Army in Europe during World War II, maintained a Vigilant for his personal use. Aircraft were modified for a variety of including as an ambulance aircraft. No further production orders were placed as the aircraft was superseded by procurement of vast numbers of the L-5 Sentinel, a Vigilant was modified in 1943-44 for experiment in boundary layer control. Stinson Model 74 company designation O-49 Vigilant U. S. Army designation for first production batch,142 built, L-1 Vigilant 1942 redesignation of O-49. O-49A Vigilant Fuselage lengthened 13 in 182 built, O-49B Vigilant Conversion to ambulance variant, three or four converted. L-1A Vigilant 1942 redesignation of O-49A, l-1B Vigilant 1942 redesignation of O-49B
20.
72d Observation Group
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The 72d Air Base Wing is a United States Air Force unit assigned to the Air Force Materiel Command Oklahoma City Air Logistics Center. It is stationed at Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma, the wing is also the host unit at Tinker. The diverse, multi-unit, multi-mission wing includes base services and support for the OC-ALC and associate organizations as well as dependents and retirees. Established in 1941, the 72d is a unit to the World War II 72d Reconnaissance Group combat organization that had earned Antisubmarine. The 72d Bombardment Wing, Heavy was a component wing of Strategic Air Commands heavy bomber deterrent force throughout the Cold War, the wing earned two Air Force Outstanding Unit Awards, flying RB-36, B-52 and KC-135 aircraft, before its inactivation on 30 June 1971 in Puerto Rico. Its Command Chief Master Sergeant is Chief Master Sergeant Eric A. Harmon, redesignated as 72d Strategic Reconnaissance Wing and received 3 squadrons of RB-36D/E/F/H Peacemaker bombers. Conducted global strategic reconnaissance 1953–1955, gradually shifting to a bombardment training mission beginning in 1954, redesignated 72d Bombardment Wing and received a squadron of KC-135A tankers in 1958. With the phaseout of the B-36s in 1958, received B-52G Stratofortess intercontinental strategic bombers and it stood nuclear alert between 1959–1971 with the B-52G, was equipped with the AGM-28 Hound Dog cruise missile. The wing earned two Air Force Outstanding Unit Awards, flying RB–36, KC–135 and B–52 aircraft, before its inactivation, in 1972, SAC activated the 72d Strategic Wing, Provisional at Andersen AFB, Guam. Although assigned the number, this wing is unrelated to the 72d Air Base Wing. The wing was reactivated as a base host wing under Air Force Materiel Command in 1994 and it provides services and support for the Oklahoma City Air Logistics Complex and other organizations at Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma. afhra. af. mil/. Maurer, Maurer, ed. Air Force Combat Units of World War II, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History. Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage & Honors Histories 1947-1977, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History. United States Air Force Unit Designations Since 1978, USAF Factsheet, 72d Air Base Wing Air Force Historical Research Agency, 72d Air Base Wing
21.
Waller Air Force Base
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Waller Air Force Base is a former United States Army Air Forces World War II air base located in northeastern Trinidad. It is located about 5 miles southwest of Valencia south of the Churchill-Roosevelt Highway, Waller Army Airfield was activated on 1 September 1941 with the assignment of the 92d Service Group. The units mission was to establish a facility within the United States Army Fort Read post. The unit consisted of the groups Headquarters, and the 92d Air Base, the group was assigned to the Caribbean Air Force. The airfield was intended to have four runways, but the two southern ones were cancelled due to the nature of the ground, Waller was built to be the premier US combat airbase in Trinidad, but events overtook the plan. The South Atlantic Air Route to Europe quickly developed and became the most often used method of getting aircraft to the African and European theaters of war. Airfield congestion at Waller became so acute that the combat aircraft, with the establishment of United States bases on Trinidad and other Caribbean islands, the Nazi menace was eliminated by the action of numerous air and naval patrols. In 1943, President Roosevelt visited Waller Field on his way to the Casablanca Conference in North Africa and it was also used as a long-range reconnaissance base by several photo-recon squadrons. With the end of World War II Waller Airfield was reduced in scope to a skeleton staff and it was redesignated Waller Air Force Base on 26 March 1948, by the Department of the Air Force General Order Number 10. President Harry S. Truman stopped at Waller Field on 31 August 1947 on his way to Brazil during a South American visit, Waller AFB was closed on 28 May 1949 due to budgetary cutbacks and MATS operations were shifted to bases in the Panama Canal Zone. After the bases closure, it became the home of various types of racing for over 40 years. This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http, Air Force Combat Units Of World War II. Maxwell AFB, Alabama, Office of Air Force History, Maurer, Maurer, ed. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II. Washington, DC, Office of Air Force History, History of Waller Air Force Base Truman Library photos of President Truman at Waller Field Waller Airfield History at the National Library of Trinidad and Tobago
22.
Lesser Antilles
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The Lesser Antilles are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. Most form a long, partly volcanic island arc between the Greater Antilles to the north-west and the continent of South America, the islands form the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. Together, the Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles compose the Antilles, when combined with the Lucayan Archipelago, all three are known as the West Indies. The islands of the Lesser Antilles are divided into three groups, the Windward Islands in the south, the Leeward Islands in the north, and the Leeward Antilles in the west. The Windward Islands are so called because they were more windward to sailing ships arriving in the New World than the Leeward Islands, the trans-Atlantic currents and winds that provided the fastest route across the ocean brought these ships to the rough dividing line between the Windward and Leeward Islands. The Leeward Antilles consist of the Dutch ABC islands just off the coast of Venezuela, the Lesser Antilles more or less coincide with the outer edge of the Caribbean Plate. Many of the islands were formed as a result of the subduction of oceanic crust of the South American Plate under the Caribbean Plate in the Lesser Antilles subduction zone. This process is ongoing and is not only for many of the islands. The Lesser Antilles are divided into eight independent nations and numerous dependent, over one third of the total area and population of the Lesser Antilles lies within Trinidad and Tobago, a sovereign nation comprising the two southernmost islands of the Windward Island chain. Several islands along the north coast of Venezuela and politically part of country are also occasionally considered part of the Lesser Antilles. These are listed in the section below, the main Lesser Antilles are, Virgin Islands St. Thomas St. John St. They are the most southern islands of the Caribbean region, a Brief History of the Caribbean. New York, Facts on File,1992, the dictionary definition of Lesser Antilles at Wiktionary
23.
Bell P-39 Airacobra
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The Bell P-39 Airacobra was one of the principal American fighter aircraft in service when the United States entered World War II. The P-39 was used by the Soviet Air Force, which scored the highest number of individual kills attributed to any U. S. fighter type in the Eastern European theatre. Other major users of the type included the Free French, the Royal Air Force, the United States Army Air Forces, and the Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force. Designed by Bell Aircraft, it had a layout, with the engine installed in the center fuselage, behind the pilot. It was also the first fighter fitted with a tricycle undercarriage, although its mid-engine placement was innovative, the P-39 design was handicapped by the absence of an efficient turbo-supercharger, preventing it from performing high-altitude work. As such it was rejected by the RAF for use over western Europe but adopted by the USSR where most air combat took place at medium, together with the derivative P-63 Kingcobra, the P-39 was one of the most successful fixed-wing aircraft manufactured by Bell. It was a request for a single-engine high-altitude interceptor having the mission of interception. Despite being called an interceptor, the aircrafts role was simply an extension of the traditional pursuit role, using a heavier. This was the most demanding set of fighter specifications USAAC had presented to that date and this happened because H. M. Poyer, designer for project leader Robert Woods, was impressed by the power of this weapon and pressed for its incorporation. This was unusual, because fighter design had previously driven by the intended engine. Although devastating when it worked, the T9 had very limited ammunition, a low rate of fire, a secondary benefit of the mid-engine arrangement was that it created a smooth and streamlined nose profile. Much was made of the fact that this resulted in a configuration “with as trim, entry to the cockpit was through side doors rather than a sliding canopy. There were no problems with propeller shaft failure, the XP-39 made its maiden flight on 6 April 1938. At Wright Field, Ohio, achieving 390 mph at 20,000 ft, however, the XP-39 was found to be short on performance at altitude. Flight testing had found its top speed at 20,000 feet to be lower than the 400 mph claimed in the original proposal, as originally specified by Kelsey and Saville, the XP-39 had a turbo-supercharger to augment its high-altitude performance. Bell cooled the turbo with a scoop on the side of the fuselage. Kelsey wished to shepherd the XP-39 through its early engineering teething troubles, the XP-39 project was handed over to others, and in June 1939 the prototype was ordered by General Henry H. Arnold to be evaluated in NACA wind tunnels to find ways of increasing its speed, tests were carried out, and Bell engineers followed the recommendations of NACA and the Army to reduce drag such that the top speed was increased 16%
24.
Antilles Air Command
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The Antilles Air Command is an inactive United States Air Force unit. Its last assignment was with Sixth Air Force, based at Borinquen Field and it was inactivated on 25 August 1946. On 28 July 1948, it was reactivated as the Antilles Air Division and it was to act as a supply organization for all U. S. Air Force Bases in the Caribbean area and to maintain operational and administrative control over these bases. afhra. af. mil/. Air Force Combat Units Of World War II, maxwell AFB, Alabama, Office of Air Force History
25.
10th School Group
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The 10th School Group is an inactive United States Air Force unit. It was last assigned to the 24th School Wing, and was demobilized on 15 July 1931 at Duncan Field, the unit was an early United States Army Air Service flying training group, becoming the center for Advanced Army pilot training in 1922. It was demobilized in 1931 as part of a reorganization of flying units in the San Antonio, Texas, Kelly Field, Texas, was the major Air Service facility in the United States during World War I. During the war, approximately 250,000 men were organized into aero squadrons at Kelly, Kelly Field graduated 1,459 pilots and 398 flying instructors during the course of the war. Advanced flying training during the war occurred primarily at Ellington Field, Texas, at the end of the war, the Air Service, along with the rest of the Army, faced crucial reductions and most wartime training fields were closed. Kelly, however, was one of the few remained open. Cadets arriving at the 1st Pursuit Group in the summer of 1920 had finished primary training and their advanced instruction at Kelly started with formation flying, stunting in formation, combat with camera guns, observation, elements of bombing, and elementary gunnery in JN training planes. After flying in Dayton-Wright DH-4s the students progressed to Royal Aircraft Factory S. E. 5s, budget reductions and a need for better coordination of flight training brought on a major Air Service reorganization in 1922. San Antonio thereupon became the training center of the Air Service. To accommodate this consolidation, the Air Corps Advanced Flying School was organized at Kelly Field Number 1, the 10th School Group was organized on 19 July 1922 to perform duties as the headquarters for the school. Four Flying Training Squadrons were assigned to the group to train the students, the pursuit course taught pilots tactics, acrobatics, and fancy formation, night, and cross-country flying. They became proficient in landing on fields, aerial gunnery, individual combat, battle maneuvers. Initially flying Curtiss Jennies for gunnery training, they were assigned to DH-4s, Training exposed them to Army paperwork and the duties of operations, armament, radio, engineering, supply, and mess officers. Running about six months, the course aimed to do more than just qualify men for the wings of the airplane pilot. It sought to turn out first-rate pursuit pilots who were confident, accurate flyers and excellent shots, Advanced training in bombardment and observation, like that in pursuit, entailed work in classrooms and hangars as well as in the air. Students flew DH-4s and were schooled in flying, bombsights, camera obscura, gunnery, and, among other things, at the Observation School, students transitioned to and learned DH-4 airplanes. Cadets completing advanced training were certified for appointment in the Officers’ Reserve Corps, most newly rated pilots who had enlisted as cadets took discharges and entered the Reserve Corps. Those who had enlisted men when they entered flying training reverted to their enlisted rank
26.
United States Air Forces Southern Command
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The United States Air Forces Southern Command is an inactive Major Command of the United States Air Force. It was headquartered at Albrook Air Force Base, Canal Zone, the command supported disaster relief to countries such as Guatemala, Jamaica, Nicaragua, the Dominican Republic, Panama and Colombia. It also assisted nations in Central and South America in purchases of United States military aircraft and trained their technicians in logistics, the first United States air units arrived in the Canal Zone in February 1917, with the 7th Aero Squadron being organized on 29 March at Ancon. It was equipped with Curtiss JN-4 Jennys and Curtiss R-3 and R-4 floatplanes, the squadron initially came under the control of Headquarters, U. S. During World War I, the 7th Aero was assigned to patrol for German U-Boats offshore of the Canal Zone under direction of Coast Defenses of Cristobal, a third airfield, Howard Field was built on the Canal Bruja Point Military Reservation, opening on 1 December 1939. Through all these redesignations it was part of the Caribbean Defense Command, the Caribbean Interceptor Command, was the Air Force component of the CIC until being inactivated and replaced by VI Interceptor Command. In early 1942 the Nazi Germanys Kriegsmarine, began anti-shipping operations using U-Boats in the Caribbean, the subs sank several tankers in the harbor at Sint Nicholaas, Aruba and even shelled an oil refinery on the island. Its important to note that the refineries at the island of Aruba and Curaçao possessed oil from wells in Venezuela and counted for one-third of the Allies supply of gasoline. The first wartime mission of the newly created Sixth Air Force was to perform operations in the Caribbean. Air bases were established along the western coast of South America, in Peru, Ecuador as well as in the Galápagos Islands, Panama, Guatemala and Costa Rica. In order to protect the vital Air Transport Command South Atlantic Air Route to Europe and North Africa, as most shipping in the Caribbean was not in defensive convoys, aerial surveillance of the area was crucial to their safety. With the end of the war, most of the wartime Caribbean air bases used for antisubmarine patrols were returned to authorities in late 1945 or early 1946. The Lend-Lease air bases from Great Britain, which were on 99-year leases were reduced to skeleton units and they were all closed for budgetary reasons in 1949. In the post Vietnam War drawdown of the USAF, the United States Air Forces Southern Command was inactivated in 1976 for budgetary reasons. afhra. af. mil/, Air Force Combat Units Of World War II. Maxwell AFB, Alabama, Office of Air Force History, Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977. Maxwell AFB, Alabama, Office of Air Force History, armyAirforces. Com United States Air Forces Southern Command at US Air Force Historical Research Agency United States Air Forces Southern Command Factsheet
27.
72d Air Base Wing
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The 72d Air Base Wing is a United States Air Force unit assigned to the Air Force Materiel Command Oklahoma City Air Logistics Center. It is stationed at Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma, the wing is also the host unit at Tinker. The diverse, multi-unit, multi-mission wing includes base services and support for the OC-ALC and associate organizations as well as dependents and retirees. Established in 1941, the 72d is a unit to the World War II 72d Reconnaissance Group combat organization that had earned Antisubmarine. The 72d Bombardment Wing, Heavy was a component wing of Strategic Air Commands heavy bomber deterrent force throughout the Cold War, the wing earned two Air Force Outstanding Unit Awards, flying RB-36, B-52 and KC-135 aircraft, before its inactivation on 30 June 1971 in Puerto Rico. Its Command Chief Master Sergeant is Chief Master Sergeant Eric A. Harmon, redesignated as 72d Strategic Reconnaissance Wing and received 3 squadrons of RB-36D/E/F/H Peacemaker bombers. Conducted global strategic reconnaissance 1953–1955, gradually shifting to a bombardment training mission beginning in 1954, redesignated 72d Bombardment Wing and received a squadron of KC-135A tankers in 1958. With the phaseout of the B-36s in 1958, received B-52G Stratofortess intercontinental strategic bombers and it stood nuclear alert between 1959–1971 with the B-52G, was equipped with the AGM-28 Hound Dog cruise missile. The wing earned two Air Force Outstanding Unit Awards, flying RB–36, KC–135 and B–52 aircraft, before its inactivation, in 1972, SAC activated the 72d Strategic Wing, Provisional at Andersen AFB, Guam. Although assigned the number, this wing is unrelated to the 72d Air Base Wing. The wing was reactivated as a base host wing under Air Force Materiel Command in 1994 and it provides services and support for the Oklahoma City Air Logistics Complex and other organizations at Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma. afhra. af. mil/. Maurer, Maurer, ed. Air Force Combat Units of World War II, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History. Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage & Honors Histories 1947-1977, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History. United States Air Force Unit Designations Since 1978, USAF Factsheet, 72d Air Base Wing Air Force Historical Research Agency, 72d Air Base Wing
28.
Second Air Force
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The Second Air Force is a USAF numbered air force responsible for conducting basic military and technical training for Air Force enlisted members and support officers. In World War II the CONUS unit defended the Northwestern United States and Upper Great Plains regions and during the Cold War, was Strategic Air Command unit with strategic bombers and missiles. Elements of Second Air Force engaged in operations during the Korean War, Vietnam War. The Northwest Air District of the GHQ Air Force was activated on 19 October 1940 at McChord Field along with 3 other CONUS districts, the district was redesignated 2nd Air Force on 9 April 1941. 5th Bombardment Wing was assigned to Second Air Force up to 5 September 1941, on 11 December 1941, four days after the Pearl Harbor attack, 2d Air Force was placed under Western Defense Command. However, on 5 January 1942, it was returned to the Air Force Combat Command, from December 1941, 2d Air Force organized air defense for the northwest Pacific Ocean coastline of the United States and flew antisubmarine patrols along coastal areas until October 1942. It appears that immediately after 7 December 1941, only the 7th, 17th, 39th, as the Second Air Force it became predominantly the training organization of B-17 Flying Fortress and B-24 Liberator heavy bombardment groups. Nearly all new heavy bomb groups organized after Pearl Harbor were organized and trained by Second Air Force OTU units, under the newly organized XX Bomber Command, B-29 aircraft were received from Boeings manufacturing plants and new combat groups were organized and trained. XX Bomber Command and the first B-29 groups were deployed in December 1943 to airfields in India for Operation Matterhorn operations against Japan, a football team made up of Second Air Force personnel defeated Hardin-Simmons University in the 1943 Sun Bowl. A third B-29 organization, XXII Bomber Command was formed by Second Air Force in August 1944, however the organization never got beyond forming Headquarters echelon and Headquarters squadron. Inactivated before any operational groups were assigned, as XX Bomber Command units were reassigned from India to the Marianas, the training of B-29 groups and replacement personnel continued until August 1945 and the end of the Pacific War. With the wars end, Second Air Force was inactivated on 30 March 1946, the command was reactivated on 6 June 1946 under Air Defense Command, at Fort Crook, Nebraska. During this period of the forces history its home base was redesignated Offutt Air Force Base, the Second Air Force assumed responsibility for the air defense of certain portions of the continental United States. In 1947, the 73d Bomb Wing was reactivated with the 338th and 351st Bomb Groups being assigned to it, the wing was assigned to Second Air Force. A third group, the 381st was added in 1948, however SAC was having enough difficulties keeping its front-line active duty bomb units in the air to maintain even minimal pilot proficiency in the late 1940s. The wing and its groups were all inactivated in 1949. The Second Air Force was also assigned the reserve 96th Bomb Wing, which was redesignated an air division. One of these groups was the 440th Troop Carrier Group and it was again inactivated on 1 July 1948
29.
Third Air Force
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The Third Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Forces in Europe - Air Forces Africa. Its headquarters is Ramstein Air Base, Germany and it is responsible for all U. S. Air Forces in Europe and Africa operations and support activities in the U. S. European Command and U. S. Africa Commands areas of responsibility, during the war, its primary mission became the organization and training of combat units prior to their deployment to the overseas combat air forces. Its Command Chief Master Sergeant is Chief Master Sergeant Phillip L. Easton, the command directs all USAFE and AFAFRICA forces engaged in contingency and wartime operations in the United States European Command and United States Africa Command areas of responsibility. It also has a mission as the U. S. militarys primary liaison to the British government. Through the Partnership for Peace program, Third Air Force manages military contact, Third Air Force is also responsible for contingency planning and support of American security interests in Africa. It is composed of more than 25,000 military people, Third Air Force is assigned more than 200 aircraft, while tasked to provide support servicing to thousands of other transient aircraft that visit its bases each year. It was redesignated Third Air Force on 26 March 1941 with a mission for the defense of the Southeast and it moved to offices in downtown Tampa on 8 January 1941. MacDill Field was one of two major Army Air Corps bases established in the Tampa Bay area in the prior to World War II. Tampas Drew Field Municipal Airport, established in 1928 was leased by the Air Corps in 1940, a major expansion of the airport was initiated and Drew Army Airfield was opened in 1941. Two secondary Army Airfields, Brooksville Army Airfield and Hillsborough Army Airfield were built and opened in early 1942 to support the operations of MacDill. The Bonita Springs Auxiliary Field, located near Fort Myers provided an emergency landing field for MacDill. All of these came under the jurisdiction of Third Air Force. III Fighter Command, the arm, was headquartered at Drew Field. Third Air Force initially provided air defense for the southeastern United States and flew patrols along coastal areas of the Atlantic Ocean. Third Air Force primarily trained B-25 Mitchell and B-26 Marauder medium bomber groups and A-20 Havoc, Third Air Force also provided support to the Army Air Forces School of Applied Tactics in Florida. Also by 1944, the majority of the Numbered Air Forces of the AAF were fighting in parts of the world, such as the Eighth Air Force in Europe. When the Army Air Forces reorganized in 1946, Tactical Air Command was established as one of its three major commands
30.
69th Reconnaissance Group
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The 69th Reconnaissance Group is an active United States Air Force unit. It is part of Air Combat Command stationed at Grand Forks AFB, the group served in the American and European Theaters of World War II as a reconnaissance unit until returning to the United States where it was inactivated. It was reactivated in the fall of 2011 as an aircraft reconnaissance group. The group was activated in the fall of 1941 as the 69th Observation Group with two squadrons assigned, the group flew antisubmarine patrols along the Pacific coast after the Attack on Pearl Harbor. The group engaged primarily in air to ground training during 1943 and 1944 while it was successively designated 69th Reconnaissance Group and it began training with North American F-6 Mustangs in January 1945 for duty overseas. The 69th moved to France in February to March 1945 where it was assigned to Ninth AF and it flew visual and photographic reconnaissance missions to provide intelligence for ground and air units. It was again designated the 69th Reconnaissance Group in June 1945, the group returned to the United States in July and August 1945. There it trained with F-6 Mustangs and Douglas A-26 Invader aircraft, the group was inactivated on 29 July 1946. The 69th was once again activated on 19 September 2011 to conduct reconnaissance with unmanned aerial vehicles, the 69th Reconnaissance Group is currently commanded by Col Christopher Larson. afhra. af. mil/. U. S. Army Air Forces Continental Airfields D-Day to V-E Day, maxwell AFB, AL, Research Division, USAF Historical Research Center. Maurer, Maurer, ed. Air Force Combat Units of World War II, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History. Maurer, Maurer, ed. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History
31.
74th Reconnaissance Group
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The 74th Reconnaissance Group is an inactive United States Air Force unit. It was last assigned to the 91st Air Division at Stewart AFB, the uniit was first activated at Lawson Field, Georgia in February 1942 as the 74th Observation Group, shortly after the United States entered into World War II. However, the groups first operational squadrons, the 11th, the newly activated 13th, the unit flew reconnaissance, mapping, artillery adjustment, bombing, dive bombing, and strafing missions to support ground units in training or on maneuvers. It trained personnel in aerial reconnaissance, medium bombardment, and fighter techniques throughout the war until it was inactivated in November 1945, the group was reactivated in the reserves in 1946 at Stewart Field, New York. Redesignated 74th Reconnaissance Group, allotted to the reserve, and activated, on 27 December 1946 Inactivated on 27 June 1949. April 1942 IV Air Support Command,28 December 1942 III Reconnaissance Command, ca.14 April 1942 Esler Field, Louisiana, c.13 December 1942 Desert Center Army Air Field, California, Maurer, Maurer, ed. Air Force Combat Units of World War II. Washington, DC, Office of Air Force History, Maurer, Maurer, ed. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II. Washington, DC, Office of Air Force History
32.
Chanute Field
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Chanute Air Force Base is a decommissioned United States Air Force facility, located in Champaign County, Illinois, south of and adjacent to Rantoul, Illinois, about 130 miles south of Chicago. Its primary mission throughout its existence was Air Force technical training, Chanute Field was established on 21 May 1917, being one of thirty-two Air Service training camps established after the United States entry into World War I. The base was closed in 1993 and is currently being redeveloped for civilian uses, Chanute Field was named in honor of Octave Chanute, a pioneer aeronautical engineer and experimenter, and friend and adviser to the Wright Brothers. Chanutes biplane glider with two arched wings held together by vertical struts and diagonal wire bracing served as a prototype design for airplanes. Although the United States had been the birthplace of powered flight, even as World War I progressed in Europe, America did little to build its air strength. In April 1917, the United States was woefully weak in the air, the United States possessed only one fully manned and equipped Aero squadron, and about 250 aircraft outfitted the Aviation Section of the Armys Signal Corps. In comparison, France began the war with over 1,500 aircraft, to meet the demand, Congress appropriated $640 million to build up the Air Service. The War Department immediately opened ground schools at eight colleges and established twenty-seven flying fields to train pilots. The War Department selected Rantoul because it was one of the few sites in Illinois in close proximity to the Illinois Central Railroad. The village of Rantoul would also be a source for electricity, the contract to build Chanute Field was given to English Brothers Construction of Champaign, Illinois on 22 May 1917, with the expectation that construction would be complete in 60 days. Building materiel began arriving on site on 25 May, and work began in earnest on 4 June. At its peak construction,2,000 men,200 teams of horses,3 steam shovels and multiple steam tractors were working on Chanute Field, Chanute Fields first commander, Captain Charles C. Benedict, arrived in late June, and on 4 July, Major James L. Dunsworth arrived on 15 July 1917 and took command. He ordered flight training to begin on 17 July and Curtiss JN-4 Jenny trainers were flying from dawn until dusk, the airfield was completed on 22 July 1917 at a cost of about $1 Million, and was officially accepted by the Air Service on 31 July. On 20 August, the field was closed to visitors as they had become a distraction to the training school. Chanute Field was an Air Service primary flying school, offering a course to new aviation cadets. It had a student capacity of 300. In December, the last Aero Squadrons were demobilized and the airplanes flown out to other airfields, the base became a storage depot for OX-5 aircraft engines and paint, with a staff of about 30 personnel
33.
Illinois
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Illinois is a state in the midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1818. It is the 6th most populous state and 25th largest state in terms of land area, the word Illinois comes from a French rendering of a native Algonquin word. For decades, OHare International Airport has been ranked as one of the worlds busiest airports, Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics. With the War of 1812 Illinois growth slowed as both Native Americans and Canadian forces often raided the American Frontier, mineral finds and timber stands also had spurred immigration—by the 1810s, the Eastern U. S. Railroads arose and matured in the 1840s, and soon carried immigrants to new homes in Illinois, as well as being a resource to ship their commodity crops out to markets. Railroads freed most of the land of Illinois and other states from the tyranny of water transport. By 1900, the growth of jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted a new group of immigrants. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars, the Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in Chicago, who created the citys famous jazz and blues cultures. Three U. S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, additionally, Ronald Reagan, whose political career was based in California, was the only U. S. president born and raised in Illinois. Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official slogan, Land of Lincoln. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the capital of Springfield. Illinois is the spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers name for the Illinois Native Americans. American scholars previously thought the name Illinois meant man or men in the Miami-Illinois language and this etymology is not supported by the Illinois language, as the word for man is ireniwa and plural men is ireniwaki. The name Illiniwek has also said to mean tribe of superior men. The name Illinois derives from the Miami-Illinois verb irenwe·wa he speaks the regular way and this was taken into the Ojibwe language, perhaps in the Ottawa dialect, and modified into ilinwe·. The French borrowed these forms, changing the ending to spell it as -ois. The current spelling form, Illinois, began to appear in the early 1670s, the Illinois name for themselves, as attested in all three of the French missionary-period dictionaries of Illinois, was Inoka, of unknown meaning and unrelated to the other terms. American Indians of successive cultures lived along the waterways of the Illinois area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, the Koster Site has been excavated and demonstrates 7,000 years of continuous habitation
34.
Rich Field
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Rich Field is a former World War I military airfield, located in Waco, Texas, near what is now the intersection of Bosque Boulevard and 41st Street. It operated as a field for the Air Service, United States Army from 1917 until 1919. The airfield was one of thirty-two Air Service training camps established in 1917 after the United States entry into World War I, the base was named Rich Field in honor of 2nd Lt. C. Perry Rich of the Philippine Scouts. Richs body was recovered and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, a contract was signed on August 24,1917 giving the War Department title to the property, which was in private hands. Formerly cotton fields, a significant number of buildings on the property had to be torn down. A labor force of about 3,400, including 1,000 Mexican workers, erected buildings, poured concrete, and laid down pipes and an electrical system. On September 17,1917, the first officer reported for duty, and various pieces of equipment, the first shipment of 25 aircraft arrived on November 14 and were uncrated and assembled by the 150th Aero Squadron, moved from Kelly Field. Twenty-five flight cadets reported for training on Thanksgiving Day 1917, eventually a total of 243 Standard J-1 trainers were assigned to Rich Field. In June 1918, the J-1s were replaced by the Curtiss JN-4 which was standardized by the War Department as the standard training plane for the Air Service, eventually some 400 pilots received their wings at Rich Field. The airfield was ordered closed in May 1919, and in December the flag was lowered for the last time, although it was closed as a military airfield after World War I, aviation activity continued at Rich Field as a civil airport. Flying lessons were available and during the 1920s and 1930s traveling airshows occasionally visited Rich Field, ford Trimotor offered the public a 10-minute flight to downtown Waco and back for one dollar. On one visit the Trimotor was put into a spin for show, for many years Braniff International Airways provided passenger service to Waco at Rich Field. The airport was closed near the beginning of World War II, Rich Field was reopened as an auxiliary training field to Waco Army Airfield in 1942. Two hard-surface gravel runways were laid down in an X pattern, the northwest/southeast being 3,700 feet by 100 feet and it may also have been used as a storage depot and limited civil flight operations during the war. Flying ended from Rich Field after the end of World War II, the Heart O Texas Fairgrounds and coliseum were built in the 1950s, it is now known as Extraco Events Center. A high school was constructed on part of the site in the early 1960s and was called Richfield High School in honor of the former airfield and it was later renamed Waco High School. List of Training Section Air Service airfields This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http, //www. afhra. af. mil/
35.
Panama Canal Zone
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The Panama Canal Zone was an unincorporated territory of the United States from 1903 to 1979, centered on the Panama Canal and surrounded by the Republic of Panama. Its border spanned two of Panamas provinces, when reservoirs were created to assure a steady supply of water for the locks, those lakes were included within the Zone. On February 26,1904, the Isthmian Canal Convention was proclaimed, from 1903 to 1979 the territory was controlled by the United States, which had built the canal and financed its construction. Proposals for a canal across the Isthmus of Panama date back to 1529, Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón, a lieutenant of conquistador Vasco Núñez de Balboa, suggested four possible routes, one of which closely tracks the present-day canal. Saavedra believed that such a canal would make it easier for European vessels to reach Asia, although King Charles I was enthusiastic and ordered preliminary works started, his officials in Panama soon realized that such an undertaking was beyond the capabilities of 16th-century technology. One official wrote to Charles, I pledge to Your Majesty that there is not a prince in the world with the power to accomplish this, the Spanish instead built a road across the isthmus. Although additional canal building proposals were made throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, the late 18th and early 19th centuries saw a number of canals built. The success of the Erie Canal in the United States and the collapse of the Spanish Empire in Latin America led to a surge of American interest in building an interoceanic canal. Beginning in 1826, US officials began negotiations with New Granada, jealous of their newly obtained independence and fearing that they would be dominated by an American presence, New Granadan officials declined American offers. The new nation was politically unstable, and Panama rebelled several times during the 19th century and his agreement was repudiated by the Jackson administration, which wanted rights to build a canal. In 1846, the new US envoy to Bogotá, Benjamin Bidlack, was surprised when, soon after his arrival, the resulting Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty allowed the United States to intervene militarily to ensure that the interoceanic road would not be disrupted. The treaty led the U. S. government to contract for service to Panama from ports on both coasts. When the California Gold Rush began in 1848, traffic through Panama greatly increased and this first transcontinental railroad opened in 1850. There were riots in Panama CIty in 1856, several Americans were killed, US warships landed Marines, who occupied the railroad station and kept the railroad service from being interrupted by the unrest. The demand was dropped in the face of resistance by New Granadan officials, through the remainder of the 19th century, the United States landed troops several times to preserve the railway connection. At the same time, it pursued a canal treaty with Colombia, one treaty, signed in 1868, was rejected by the Colombian Senate, which hoped for better terms from the incoming Grant administration. Under this treaty, the canal would have been in the middle of a 20-mile zone, under American management but Colombian sovereignty, the Grant administration did little to pursue a treaty, and in 1878, the concession to build the canal fell to a French firm. The French efforts eventually failed, but with Panama apparently unavailable, the Spanish–American War of 1898 added new life to the canal debate
36.
Trinidad
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Trinidad is the larger and more populous of the two major islands and numerous landforms which make up the island nation of Trinidad and Tobago. The island lies 11 km off the northeastern coast of Venezuela, though geographically part of the South American continent, from a socio-economic standpoint it is often referred to as the southernmost island in the Caribbean. With an area of 4,768 km2, it is also the sixth largest in the West Indies, many believe the original name for the island in the Arawaks language was Iëre which meant Land of the Hummingbird. Some believe that Iere was actually a mispronunciation or corruption by early colonists of the Arawak word Kairi which simply means Island, Christopher Columbus renamed it La Isla de la Trinidad, fulfilling a vow he had made before setting out on his third voyage of exploration. Caribs and Arawaks lived in Trinidad long before Christopher Columbus encountered the islands on his voyage in 1498. Tobago changed hands between the British, French, Dutch and Courlanders, but eventually ended up in British hands, Trinidad remained Spanish until 1797, but it was largely settled by French colonists from the French Caribbean, especially Martinique. In 1889 the two became a single British Crown colony. Trinidad and Tobago obtained self-governance in 1958 and independence from the United Kingdom in 1962, major landforms include the hills of the Northern, Central and Southern Ranges, the Caroni, Nariva and Oropouche Swamps, and the Caroni and Naparima Plains. Major river systems include the Caroni, North and South Oropouche, there are many other natural landforms such as beaches and waterfalls. Trinidad has two seasons per year, the rainy season and the dry season. El Cerro del Aripo, at 940 metres, is the highest point in Trinidad and it is part of the Aripo Massif and is located in the Northern Range on the island, northeast of the town of Arima. Diversity is the status quo in Trinidad and it is sometimes known as a rainbow island or more fondly a callaloo. There is a range of ethnicity, religion, and culture. As of the 2011 Trinidad and Tobago Census, the population was 34. 22% East Indian,35. 43% African,7. 66% Mixed - African and East Indian, and 15. 16% Mixed - Other. Venezuela has also had a impact on Trinidads culture, such as introducing the music style parang to the island. Many of these groups overlap heavily due to admixture, for example Dougla is a term used to describe a person who is of African and East Indian descent. Trinidad religion primarily centers round Roman Catholic, Anglican, other Christian denominations, Hindu, catholicism constitutes the largest religious denomination of the country. There are also multiple festivals featuring the music of the Caribbean and the steelpan and these festivals include the world-famous Carnival, Jouvert, and Panorama, the national steel pan competition
37.
Dalhart Army Air Base
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Dalhart Army Air Base is a former World War II military airfield complex near the city of Dalhart, Texas. It operated three training sites for the United States Army Air Forces from 1943 until 1945, the majority of the namesake city of Dalhart, Texas lies in southern Dallam County, while those parts of Dalhart city south of 11th Street are actually in northern Hartley County, Texas. The main airfield of Dalhart Army Air Base was 3.4 miles southwest of the city, auxiliary #1 was 10.2 miles west-southwest of the city, also in Hartley County. Auxiliary #2 was located 5.5 miles east-northeast of the city in Dallam County, in the wake of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the Dalhart Texan newspaper began asking its readers what they could do to support America’s war effort. On Wednesday,20 May 1942, The Dalhart Texan reported they had been successful in bringing to Dalhart a new glider school, the official announcement came from Representative Eugene Worley’s office. Construction proceeded on the new airfield and Dalhart Army Airfield opened in May 1942. While under construction the commands temporary headquarters operated from a tent city in Amarillo, during the summer of 1942 three runways were laid down along with a large parking ramp and taxiway system. Four large hangars along with buildings, barracks a street network, electric. On 1 July 1942, the still uncompleted was assigned to the Central Flying Training Command, in September 1942, Cadets began arriving for training at the school. Glider training was performed by the 14th Troop Carrier Squadron, which arrived on 9 October 1942 with C-47 Skytrains being used for tow planes, the 878th, 879th and 880th Glider Training Squadrons were established at the base, equipped with the new Waco CG-4A Hadrian Glider. Cadets honed their skills, takeoff, and towed flight on a 350 nylon rope behind a C-47 Skytrain tow plane, the pilots held their position with two gliders being double towed. Also gliders were prepared on the ground for being snatched by a tow aircraft flying overhead, Cadets also were trained in infantry skills, as they were expected to serve as combat soldiers after landing. In February 1943, Dalhart was transferred to Second Air Force, the new mission of the base was to be B-17 Flying Fortress and B-24 Liberator Heavy Bomber aircrew replacement training. Graduated of the training would then be assigned to new groups or be sent directly to the European Theater of Operations for assignment as replacements. On 21 February, the 46th Bombardment Training Wing was organized at the base, in March 1943, the Glider School was transferred to South Plains Army Airfield near Lubbock. The 333d Bombardment Group became the Replacement Training Unit, Cadets flew training missions over practice target areas in the Texas Panhandle. Along with the 333d, the Third Air Force 415th Bombardment Group trained medium bomber pilots in A-20 Havoc, A-26 Invader, Fighter cadets were also trained in P-39 Airacobras and A-24 Banshee Dive Bombers. The 415th utilized the Hartley and Dallum satellite airfields for training leaving the base to the heavy four-engine bomber training
38.
Esler Airfield
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Esler Field, also known as Esler Regional Airport, is a military and public use airfield in Rapides Parish, Louisiana, near the City of Pineville. This airport is included in the FAAs National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015 and it has no scheduled commercial airline service at present but was served by Delta Air Lines in the past with mainline passenger jet service. The United States needed a ground for American troops. In 1940 the land was returned to the War Department for use as a World War II training area and that area included the now-abandoned Camps Claiborne and Livingston and what has become Esler Regional Airport. Construction of the airport, originally called Camp Beauregard Army Field, in the summer of 1940 and throughout 1941 the area was used for the Louisiana Maneuvers. In addition, the 109th Observation Squadron used the airport from 27 February 1941 until 18 December 1942 flying light observation planes. The airfield was renamed Esler Army Airfield in 1941 to honor Lt. Wilmer Esler, Esler AAF was assigned to Third Air Force, III Air Support Command. The 333d Air Base Group was the host unit at the airfield, the first unit assigned for training at Esler was the 12th Bombardment Group, arriving for B-25 Mitchell training on 21 February 1942. The unit remained at Esler until July until being deployed to the Middle East, in December 1942, the mission was changed to training Reconnaissance units, and Esler was reassigned directly to Third Air Force. The 347th Army Air Force Base Unit became the host unit at the station, the Division moved its headquarters to the field in April 1944. The P-40 Warhawk-equipped 372d Fighter Group trained at Esler in March, with the departure of the 372d, the 353d Army Air Force Base Unit took over training for replacement pilots, and unit training ended. On 20 April 1945, the 353d BU was redesignated as the 353d AAF BU, on 1 August 1945, the airfield was again reassigned directly to Third Air Force. With the end of the war, inactivation of Esler Field began on 7 September 1945, however, the Air Forces inactivation was quite slow, with the airfield being put on standby status 31 January 1946. The 353d was redesignated as a Standby Unit, but not inactivated, the airfield remained Federal property until the 1950s when it was finally ceded to the Police Jury as surplus property. A small civilian airport opened after return to civil control, in the 1970s, the airport had scheduled passenger airline service provided by several air carriers including Delta Air Lines which operated mainline jet aircraft from Esler. According to the February 1,1976 edition of the Official Airline Guide, Delta operated eight flights a day from the airport with Boeing 727-200 and McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30 jetliners. Destinations served on a nonstop or direct, no change of basis by Delta included Atlanta, Dallas/Fort Worth, New Orleans, Washington. Texas International Airlines also served the airport at this time with Convair 600 turboprop aircraft with flights to Houston, Jackson, MS, Beaumont/Port Arthur, TX, in 1984, Best Airlines served Esler with nonstop Douglas DC-9-10 jet service to Atlanta, GA and Gulfport, MS
39.
Louisiana
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Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the state in the U. S. with political subdivisions termed parishes. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana is bordered by Arkansas to the north, Mississippi to the east, Texas to the west, and the Gulf of Mexico to the south. Much of the lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh. These contain a rich southern biota, typical examples include birds such as ibis, there are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a process in the landscape. These support a large number of plant species, including many species of orchids. Louisiana has more Native American tribes than any other state, including four that are federally recognized, ten that are state recognized. Before the American purchase of the territory in 1803, the current Louisiana State had been both a French colony and for a period, a Spanish one. In addition, colonists imported numerous African people as slaves in the 18th century, many came from peoples of the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643 to 1715, when René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane. The suffix -ana is a Latin suffix that can refer to information relating to an individual, subject. Thus, roughly, Louis + ana carries the idea of related to Louis, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist 250 million years ago when there was but one supercontinent, Pangea. As Pangea split apart, the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico opened, Louisiana slowly developed, over millions of years, from water into land, and from north to south. The oldest rocks are exposed in the north, in such as the Kisatchie National Forest. The oldest rocks date back to the early Tertiary Era, some 60 million years ago, the history of the formation of these rocks can be found in D. Spearings Roadside Geology of Louisiana. The sediments were carried north to south by the Mississippi River
40.
Stuttgart Municipal Airport
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For the airports World War II history, see Stuttgart Army Airfield Stuttgart Municipal Airport is in Prairie County, Arkansas. It is eight miles north of Stuttgart, which owns the airport and is the county seat of Arkansas County, the FAAs National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2009–2013 categorized as a general aviation facility. Stuttgart Municipal Airport dates to 1942 when it was built by the United States Army Air Forces and it was used as an advanced twin-engine flying school and glider training. With the end of World War II, Stuttgart Army Airfield was declared excess and it was conveyed though the War Assets Administration to the City of Stuttgart to establish a municipal airport. Stuttgart Municipal Airport covers 2,560 acres at an elevation of 224 feet and it has two runways, 9/27 is 5,002 by 150 feet concrete, 18/36 is 6,015 by 100 feet asphalt. In the year ending June 30,2008 the airport had 40,200 aircraft operations, average 110 per day, 87% general aviation,7. 5% military,34 aircraft were then based at the airport, 82% single-engine, 12% multi-engine, 3% jet and 3% helicopter. A 3-mile SCCA road course used the runways, with the first race in 1959, the last sports car race was in 1978. A drag strip, Stuttgart Dragway, existed from 1970 to 1972, Stuttgart Municipal Airport Google Maps Page of Stuttgart AFB. Features layout of 2. 6-mile road course
41.
Arkansas
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Arkansas is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Its name is of Siouan derivation from the language of the Osage denoting their related kin, the states diverse geography ranges from the mountainous regions of the Ozark and the Ouachita Mountains, which make up the U. S. Interior Highlands, to the forested land in the south known as the Arkansas Timberlands, to the eastern lowlands along the Mississippi River. Arkansas is the 29th largest by area and the 33rd most populous of the 50 United States, the capital and most populous city is Little Rock, located in the central portion of the state, a hub for transportation, business, culture, and government. The northwestern corner of the state, such as the Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers Metropolitan Area and Fort Smith metropolitan area, is a population, education, the largest city in the eastern part of the state is Jonesboro. The largest city in the part of the state is Pine Bluff. The Territory of Arkansas was admitted to the Union as the 25th state on June 15,1836, in 1861 Arkansas withdrew from the United States and joined the Confederate States of America during the Civil War. Upon returning to the Union in 1868, the state would continue to suffer due to its reliance on slavery. White rural interests continued to dominate the politics until the Civil Rights Movement. Arkansas began to diversify its economy following World War II and relies on its service industry, aircraft, poultry, steel, tourism, cotton, and rice. The culture of Arkansas is observable in museums, theaters, novels, television shows, restaurants, wright, and physicist William L. McMillan, who was a pioneer in superconductor research, have all lived in Arkansas. The name Arkansas derives from the root as the name for the state of Kansas. The Kansa tribe of Native Americans are closely associated with the Sioux tribes of the Great Plains, the word Arkansas itself is a French pronunciation of a Quapaw word, akakaze, meaning land of downriver people or the Sioux word akakaze meaning people of the south wind. In 2007, the legislature passed a non-binding resolution declaring the possessive form of the states name to be Arkansass which has been followed increasingly by the state government. Arkansas borders Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, Oklahoma to the west, Missouri to the north, as well as Tennessee, the United States Census Bureau classifies Arkansas as a southern state, sub-categorized among the West South Central States. The state line along the Mississippi River is indeterminate along much of the border with Mississippi due to these changes. Arkansas can generally be split into two halves, the highlands in the northwest half and the lowlands of the southeastern half, the highlands are part of the Southern Interior Highlands, including The Ozarks and the Ouachita Mountains. The southern lowlands include the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Arkansas Delta and this dual split can yield to general regions named northwest, southwest, northeast, southeast, or central Arkansas
42.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
43.
United States Army Air Forces
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Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff. S. Army to control its own installations and support personnel, the peak size of the AAF during the Second World War was over 2.4 million men and women in service and nearly 80,000 aircraft by 1944, and 783 domestic bases in December 1943. By V-E Day, the Army Air Forces had 1.25 million men stationed overseas, in its expansion and conduct of the war, the AAF became more than just an arm of the greater organization. By the end of World War II, the Army Air Forces had become virtually an independent service and this contrast between theory and fact is. fundamental to an understanding of the AAF. Gen. Billy Mitchell that led to his later court-martial, a strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range bombers emerged, formulated by the men who would become its leaders. Since 1920, control of units had resided with commanders of the corps areas. Both were created in 1933 when a conflict with Cuba seemed possible following a coup détat. Activation of GHQ Air Force represented a compromise between strategic airpower advocates and ground force commanders who demanded that the Air Corps mission remain tied to that of the land forces. GHQ Air Force organized combat groups administratively into a force of three wings deployed to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts but was small in comparison to European air forces. Corps area commanders continued to control over airfields and administration of personnel. The expected activation of Army General Headquarters prompted Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to request a study from Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold resulting on 5 October 1940 in a proposal for creation of an air staff, unification of the air arm under one commander, and equality with the ground and supply forces. Marshall implemented a compromise that the Air Corps found entirely inadequate, naming Arnold as acting Deputy Chief of Staff for Air but rejecting all organizational points of his proposal. GHQ Air Force instead was assigned to the control of Army General Headquarters, although the latter was a training and not an operational component, when it was activated in November 1940. A division of the GHQ Air Force into four air defense districts on 19 October 1940 was concurrent with the creation of air forces to defend Hawaii. The air districts were converted in March 1941 into numbered air forces with an organization of 54 groups. Marshall had come to the view that the air forces needed a simpler system, Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy a general autonomy within the War Department until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a proponent of airpower, left understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence following the war
44.
V. C. Bird International Airport
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Bird International Airport is an international airport located on the island of Antigua,8 km northeast of St. Johns, the capital of Antigua and Barbuda. The airport originally was operated by the United States Army Air Forces, the airport was built as a United States Army Air Forces base around 1941, and named Coolidge Airfield after Capt. Hamilton Coolidge, a United States Army Air Service pilot killed in World War I. Agreements were subsequently reached with the United Kingdom and, later, Antigua Air Station was established on a portion of the former Coolidge AFB. As of 2011, NASA continues to utilize the Antigua facility for launch tracking services on an as-needed basis, upon the closure of the base in 1949 it became a civil airport. It was known as Coolidge International Airport until 1985, when it was named in honor of Sir Vere Cornwall Bird, in 2012, they announced the construction of its second terminal. The new terminal became operational on August 26,2015, all flights operate from the new facility. The terminal covers 23,000 square meters, with four jet bridges, modern security screening facilities, up-to-date passenger processing and monitoring facilities, and a CCTV security system. It contains 46 check in counters,15 self-check in kiosks,5 baggage carousels, mini food court, multiple VIP lounges, bank, retail stores, first class lounges, restaurants, and other Facilities. Other improvements included a newly constructed car park, parallel to the old terminal, the old airport terminal is not fully out of use, as some offices still remain there. The LIAT corporate headquarters, call centre, and customer relations departments are on the airport property, the Antigua Outstation of the Eastern Caribbean Civil Aviation Authority is on the airport property. The pilot mistakenly believed he was descending into Antigua, as a result, a VHF omnirange transmitter was installed at the St. Johns airport. On 10 May 2004, a LIAT de Havilland Canada DHC-8-311 flight made a landing after one of its wheels fell off shortly after takeoff. The flight operated by the Antigua-based airline had departed from St. Maarten en route to St. Kitts when one of its wheels fell off. The Dash 8-311 turboprop was diverted to Antigua and was able to land safely on its three remaining wheels, without causing damage to the aircraft, none of the 24 passengers and three crew members were injured. The airline has launched an investigation into the incident, on 12 November 2008, a LIAT de Havilland Canada DHC-8-311 circled around V. C. Bird International Airport in Antigua following reports of landing gear malfunction, the de Haviland Dash 8 -311 aircraft should have landed at the Robert Bradshaw International Airport in St Kitts, but was diverted to Antigua because of the problem. It turned out that the gear was in order. Firefighters, medical personnel and police were on alert but, after clearance and this article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http, //www. afhra. af. mil/
United States
United States Air Force
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This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http://www.afhra.af.mil/.
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