1.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
2.
Sergeant Stubby
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He was the official mascot of the 102nd Infantry Regiment, assigned to the 26th Division. Stubby served for 18 months and participated in seventeen battles on the Western Front, back home, his exploits were front page news in major newspapers. Stubby is the subject of an animated film, scheduled for release in April 2018. Stubby was described in news items as a Bull Terrier or Boston Terrier. Stubby was found wandering the grounds of the Yale University campus in New Haven, the dog hung around as the men drilled and one soldier, Corporal Robert Conroy, developed a fondness for the dog. When it came time for the outfit to ship out, Conroy hid Stubby on board the troop ship, as they were getting off the ship in France, he hid Stubby under his overcoat without detection. Upon discovery by Conroys commanding officer, Stubby saluted him as he had trained to in camp. Stubby served with the 102nd Infantry Regiment in the trenches in France for 18 months and he entered combat on February 5,1918 at Chemin des Dames, north of Soissons, and was under constant fire, day and night for over a month. In April 1918, during a raid to take Schieprey, Stubby was wounded in the foreleg by the retreating Germans throwing hand grenades and he was sent to the rear for convalescence, and as he had done on the front was able to improve morale. When he recovered from his wounds, Stubby returned to the trenches and he ultimately had two wound stripes. In his first year of battle Stubby was injured by mustard gas, after he recovered, he returned with a specially designed gas mask to protect him. He was solely responsible for capturing a German spy in the Argonne, due to his capture of the enemy spy, the commander of the 102 Infantry nominated Stubby for the rank of sergeant. However, whether Stubby was actually promoted or even a member of the Army has been disputed. Following the retaking of Château-Thierry by the US, the women of the town made Stubby a chamois coat on which were pinned his many medals and he also helped free a French town from the Germans. He was later injured in the chest and leg by a grenade, at the end of the war, Robert Conroy smuggled Stubby home. After returning home, Stubby became a celebrity and marched in and he met Presidents Woodrow Wilson, Calvin Coolidge, and Warren G. Harding. In 1921 General John J. Pershing presented a medal from the Humane Education Society to Stubby. Starting in 1921, he attended Georgetown University Law Center with Conroy and he would be given the football at halftime and would nudge the ball around the field to the amusement of the fans
3.
American Revolution
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The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
4.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
5.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
6.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
7.
Operation Enduring Freedom
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Operation Enduring Freedom comprises several subordinate operations, Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, lasted from October 2001 to 31 December 2014. Government used the term Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan to officially describe the War in Afghanistan, continued operations in Afghanistan by the United States military forces, both non-combat and combat, now occur under the name Operation Freedoms Sentinel. In September 2001, U. S. President George W, the term OEF-A typically refers to the phase of the War in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2014. Other operations, such as the Georgia Train and Equip Program, are loosely or nominally connected. All the operations, however, have a focus on counterterrorism activities, Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, which was a joint U. S. U. K. and Afghan operation, was separate from the International Security Assistance Force, which was an operation of North Atlantic Treaty Organization nations including the U. S. and the U. K. The two operations ran in parallel, although it had suggested that they merge. S. and British ships. The initial military objectives of OEF-A, as articulated by President George W, of those groups included are Abu Sayyaf Group, al-Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah. The operation consisted of training the AFP in counter-terrorist operations as well as supporting the people with humanitarian aid in Operation Smiles. In October 2002, the Combined Task Force 150 and United States military Special Forces established themselves in Djibouti at Camp Lemonnier, the stated goals of the operation were to provide humanitarian aid and patrol the Horn of Africa to reduce the abilities of terrorist organizations in the region. The military aspect involves coalition forces searching and boarding ships entering the region for illegal cargo as well as providing training, the humanitarian aspect involves building schools, clinics and water wells to enforce the confidence of the local people. Since 2001, the expenditure by the U. S. government on Operation Enduring Freedom has exceeded $150 billion. The operation continues, with military direction mostly coming from United States Central Command, seizing upon a power vacuum after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan after their invasion, the Taliban assumed the role of government from 1996–2001. Their extreme interpretation of Islamic law prompted them to ban music, television, sports, and dancing, amputation was an accepted form of punishment for stealing, and public executions could often be seen at the Kabul football stadium. Womens rights groups around the world were frequently critical as the Taliban banned women from appearing in public or holding many jobs outside the home and they drew further criticism when they destroyed the Buddhas of Bamyan, historical statues nearly 1500 years old, because the Buddhas were considered idols. In 1996, Saudi dissident Osama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan upon the invitation of the Northern Alliance leader Abdur Rabb ur Rasool Sayyaf, when the Taliban came to power, bin Laden was able to forge an alliance between the Taliban and his al-Qaeda organization. It is understood that al-Qaeda-trained fighters known as the 055 Brigade were integrated with the Taliban army between 1997 and 2001 and it has been suggested that the Taliban and bin Laden had very close connections. On 20 September 2001, the U. S. stated that Osama bin Laden was behind the 11 September attacks in 2001, the US made a five-point ultimatum to the Taliban, Deliver to the U. S
8.
Connecticut Military Department
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The Connecticut Military Department is a state agency of the government of Connecticut. Its primary components are the Connecticut Army National Guard, the Connecticut Air National Guard, the Military Department of the State of Connecticut traces its origins to May 11,1637, when the General Courts established a military arm of the provincial government. In 1939, the States Military Department, was established to consolidate the offices of Adjutant General, Quartermaster General, Armory Board, and Armory Board Inspector. It serves as the resource for the Governor in ensuring public safety in a variety of emergencies. The Constitution of the United States specifically charges the militia which is now the National Guard of the United States with dual Federal, in fact, the National Guard is the only United States military force empowered to function in a State status. The National Guard may be called into Federal service in response to a call by the President of the United States or by resolution passed by the United States Congress. The Federal mission assigned to the National Guard is, To provide properly trained and equipped units for prompt mobilization for war, the state mission assigned to the National Guard is To provide trained and disciplined forces for domestic emergencies or as otherwise provided by state law. The Connecticut National Guard bestows a number of decorations for services to or on behalf of the state, major General Thaddeus Martin is the current Connecticut Adjutant General. The Connecticut Army National Guard was originally formed in 1672, the Militia Act of 1903 organized the various state militias into the present National Guard system. Other major historical regiments of Connecticut were the 169th Infantry Regiment, after 1968, the main formation in the state became the 43rd Infantry Brigade of the 26th Infantry Division. Today the Connecticut Army National Guard is composed of approximately 5,000 soldiers and it maintains facilities in 22 communities. In 1999, these facilities included 22 armories, eight shops, four aviation facilities, four training site facilities. The primary combat unit is the 1st Battalion, 102nd Infantry, assigned to the 86th Infantry Brigade Combat Team, the Connecticut Air National Guard traces its history back to World War I with the beginnings also of the United States Army Air Service. It comprises approximately 1,200 airmen and officers assigned to the 103d Airlift Wing, the 103d Airlift Wing is based in East Granby at the Bradley Air National Guard Base at Bradley International Airport. Known as the Flying Yankees, the 103d Airlift Wing is the third-oldest Air National Guard unit in the United States with a history dating back to World War I. Until 2008, the organization was known as the 103rd Fighter Wing, operationally gained by the Air Combat Command, following this change in mission, the unit was redesignated the 103rd Airlift Wing and placed under the operational claimancy of Air Mobility Command. The 103rd Air Control Squadron is based in Orange, Connecticut, the mission of the 103rd Air Control Squadron is real-time detection, identification and surveillance of air traffic for combat operations and homeland defense. The 103rd ACS is the oldest unit of its kind in the United States military, the Connecticut Air National Guard counts one astronaut amongst its former members, Jack Swigert, who flew on Apollo 13
9.
New Haven, Connecticut
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New Haven, in the U. S. state of Connecticut, is the principal municipality in Greater New Haven, which had a total population of 862,477 in 2010. It is located on New Haven Harbor on the shore of Long Island Sound in New Haven County, Connecticut. It is the second-largest city in Connecticut, with a population of 129,779 people as of the 2010 United States Census, according to a census of 1 July 2012, by the Census Bureau, the city had a population of 130,741. New Haven was founded in 1638 by English Puritans, and a year later eight streets were laid out in a four-by-four grid, the central common block is the New Haven Green, a 16-acre square, and the center of Downtown New Haven. The Green is now a National Historic Landmark and the Nine Square Plan is recognized by the American Planning Association as a National Planning Landmark, New Haven is the home of Yale University. The university is an part of the citys economy, being New Havens biggest taxpayer and employer. Health care, professional services, financial services, and retail trade also help to form a base for the city. The city served as co-capital of Connecticut from 1701 until 1873, New Haven has since billed itself as the Cultural Capital of Connecticut for its supply of established theaters, museums, and music venues. New Haven is also the birthplace of George W. Bush, New Haven had the first public tree planting program in America, producing a canopy of mature trees that gave New Haven the nickname The Elm City. The area was visited by Dutch explorer Adriaen Block in 1614. Dutch traders set up a trading system of beaver pelts with the local inhabitants, but trade was sporadic. In 1637 a small party of Puritans reconnoitered the New Haven harbor area, the Quinnipiacs, who were under attack by neighboring Pequots, sold their land to the settlers in return for protection. By 1640, the theocratic government and nine-square grid plan were in place. However, the north of New Haven remained Quinnipiac until 1678. The settlement became the headquarters of the New Haven Colony, at the time, the New Haven Colony was separate from the Connecticut Colony, which had been established to the north centering on Hartford. Economic disaster struck the colony in 1646, however, when the town sent its first fully loaded ship of goods back to England. This ship never reached the Old World, and its disappearance stymied New Havens development in the face of the rising power of Boston. In 1660, founder John Davenports wishes were fulfilled, and Hopkins School was founded in New Haven with money from the estate of Edward Hopkins, in 1661, the judges who had signed the death warrant of Charles I of England were pursued by Charles II
10.
26th Infantry Division (United States)
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The 26th Infantry Division was an infantry division of the United States Army. A major formation of the Massachusetts Army National Guard, it was based in Boston, today, the divisions heritage is carried on by the 26th Maneuver Enhancement Brigade. Sent to Europe in World War I as part of the American Expeditionary Forces, sent to Europe once again for World War II, the division again fought through France, advancing into Germany and liberating the Gusen concentration camp before the end of the war. Following the end of World War II, the division remained as a command in the National Guard. However, the division was never called up to any major contengencies or see major combat. The 26th Infantry Division was first constituted on 18 July 1917 and it was formally activated on 22 August of that year in Boston, Massachusetts, and it was celebrated by Boston writers and by composers in pieces such as The Yankee Division March and Battery A March. The division commanded two brigades comprising national guard units from Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Vermont, the 51st Infantry Brigade contained the 101st and 102nd Infantry Regiments, while the 52nd Infantry Brigade contained the 103rd and 104th Infantry Regiments, together with supporting units. Shortly thereafter, the commander, Major General C. R. Edwards. Edwards decided to settle on the suggestion of Yankee Division since all of the units of the division were from New England. Shortly thereafter, the division approved a shoulder sleeve insignia with a YD monogram to reflect this, on 21 September 1917, the division arrived at Saint-Nazaire, France. It was the division of the American Expeditionary Force to arrive on the Western Front at the time. Two additional divisions completed the first wave of American troop deployment, with the 2nd Division formed in France, the division immediately moved to Neufchâteau for training, as most of the divisions soldiers were raw recruits, new to military service. Because of this, much of the force was trained by the experienced French forces. It trained extensively with the other three US divisions, organized as the U. S, I Corps in January 1918, before being moved into a quiet sector of the trenches in February. The 26th Infantry Division remained in a quiet region of the lines along the Chemin des Dames for several months before it relieved the 1st Division near St. Mihiel on 3 April. The stay of the division in this sector was marked by several serious encounters with the enemy, there were furthermore almost nightly encounters between patrols or ambush parties, and the harassing fire of the artillery on both sides was very active. On 10,12 and 13 April, the lines held by the 104th Infantry in Bois Brule, in late April, German infantry conducted a raid on positions of the 26th Division, one of the first attacks on Americans during the war. At 0400 on 20 April, German field artillery bombarded the 102nd Infantrys positions near Seicheprey before German stoßtruppen moved against the village, the artillery box barrage, continuing 36 hours, isolated American units
11.
104th Infantry Regiment (United States)
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The 104th Infantry Regiment traces its history to 14 November 1639, when it was first mustered as the Springfield Train Band in Springfield, Massachusetts. In 1662 the unit was formed into the Hampshire Regiment of the Massachusetts Militia, the last active element of the regiment, the 1st Battalion, was deactivated in 2005 and the soldiers and lineage transferred to the 1st Battalion, 181st Infantry Regiment. Symbolism, The shield is white and blue – the old, Indian Wars and disturbances are indicated by the Indian arrowhead. The cross of St. George recalls Revolutionary War service, the per chevron division of the shield represents the Bloody Angle at Spotsylvania during the Civil War. The crenelated portion of the torch is representative of Spanish War service, the six mullets symbolize the six major engagements during World War I. Background, The coat of arms was approved for the 104th Infantry Regiment on 1926-11-05. It was redesignated for the 104th Infantry Regiment on 1961-04-08 under the Combat Arms Regimental System, attached below the shield a motto scroll inscribed FORTITUDE ET COURAGE in black letters. Symbolism, The insignia is the shield and motto of the coat of arms of the 104th Infantry, background, The distinctive unit insignia was originally approved on 1926-11-04 for the 104th Infantry Regiment. It was redesignated for the 104th Infantry Regiment on 1961-04-08, under the Combat Arms Regimental System, the insignia was amended on 1968-06-19 to include the motto scroll. First formed on 14 November 1639 as the Springfield Train Band, at Springfield and this original band trained on the highlands, which George Washington later selected as the site of the United States National Armory. Fellows Battalion, Pattersons Battalion. and Woodbridges Battalion, the Hampshire Regiment formed the following Continental Army units, 1st Massachusetts Regiment, 13th Massachusetts Regiment, Porter’s Regiment. 1st and 2nd Hampshire Regiments and Berkshire Regiment reorganized 29 November 1772 as the 9th Division and these companies serve as the light and flank companies for the Massachusetts Line. Flank companies in Federal Service September–October 1814 as elements of the Elite Brigade at Boston, 9th Division, reorganized 1 July 1834 to consist of the Regiment of Light Infantry. Mustered into Federal Service 21 June 1861 at Springfield, Massachusetts, as the 10th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry Regiment, reorganized 11 November 1868 in the Massachusetts Volunteer Militia as the 2nd Regiment of Infantry. For its gallantry the 104th Infantry was cited in an order of the French 32nd Army Corps on 26 April 1918. In an impressive ceremony occurring in a field near Boucq on 28 April 1918, I am proud to decorate the flag of a regiment which has shown such fortitude and courage, he said. I am proud to decorate the flag of a nation which has come to aid in the fight for liberty, thus, the 104th Infantry became the very first American unit to be honored by a foreign country for exceptional bravery in combat. In addition,117 members of the 104th Infantry received the award, including its commander, according to the The New York Times, in July 1918 it was the lot of the Americans—which involved the 104th Infantry Regiment—to drive the Germans back in the region lying north of Chateau-Thierry
12.
Chemin des Dames
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In France, the Chemin des Dames is part of the D18 and runs east and west in the département of Aisne, between in the west, the Route Nationale 2, and in the east, the D1044 at Corbeny. It is some thirty kilometres long and runs along a ridge between the valleys of the rivers Aisne and Ailette. It acquired the name in the 18th century, as it was the route taken by the two daughters of Louis XV, Adélaïde and Victoire, who were known as Ladies of France. At the time, it was scarcely a carriage road, the château belonged to Françoise de Châlus, former mistress of Louis XV, Countess of Narbonne-Lara and former lady of honour to Adélaïde, whom the two ladies visited frequently. To make the way easier, the count had the road surfaced, the ridges strategic importance first became evident in 1814 when Napoleons young recruits beat an army of Prussians and Russians at the Battle of Craonne. Three battles were fought along the Chemin des Dames east-to-west ridge located to the north of Paris during the First World War, all are named after the river which flows on the south side of the ridge. Their names are as follows, First Battle of the Aisne - Anglo-French counter-offensive following the First Battle of the Marne, Second Battle of the Aisne - main component of the Nivelle Offensive. Third Battle of the Aisne - third phase of the German Spring Offensive, during World War I, the Chemin Des Dames lay in that sector of the Western Front held by the French Army. Its strategic importance made it the ground of several major battles that took place between 1914 and 1918. The German army took a stand on the ridge in September 1914. After intensive combat, Germans took control of the plateau in November 1914, the front line then remained static until March 1917, during which time several thousand soldiers died in local attacks or coup de main operations. On 25 January 1915 German forces captured the Creute farm, the last remaining French position on the plateau, the best-known battle, called the Second Battle of the Aisne, took place between 16 April and 25 April 1917. To soften up the German defenses, General Robert Nivelle, an artilleryman by training and experience and this, of course, provided ample warning that a major French attack was coming. Then, on 16 April, seven French army corps attacked the German line along the Chemin des Dames ridge, the German positions also dominated the southerly slope over which the French attackers were progressing. On the first day, French infantry and some colonial Senegalese troops progressed to the top of the ridge in spite of intense German artillery counterfire and poor weather conditions. However, as French infantry reached the plateau, it was slowed down, as a result, the French took 40,000 casualties on the first day alone. Furthermore, during the following 12 days of the battle, French losses continued to rise to 120,000 casualties, the final count, when the offensive was over, was 271,000 French casualties and 163,000 Germans casualties. The German defenders suffered much less, but lost some 20,000 prisoners,40 cannons, the high French casualty count, in so few days and with such minimal gains, was perceived at headquarters and by the French public as a disaster
13.
Toul
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Toul is a commune in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department, Toul is located between Commercy and Nancy, and situated between the Moselle River and the Canal de la Marne au Rhin. Toul was known to the Romans as Tullum Leucorum, and was the capital of the Gaulish tribe of the Leuci, in 612, King Theudebert II of Austrasia was defeated by King Theuderic II of Burgundy near Toul. By the Treaty of Meerssen of 870, Toul became part of East Francia, during the High Middle Ages, it became a Free Imperial City. Toul was annexed to France by King Henry II in 1552 and it then was a part of the French province of the Three Bishoprics. Toul was the seat of the bishops of Toul, the diocese was founded around 365, the city was also the primary base of the Air Service, United States Army, a predecessor organization of the United States Air Force during World War I. As such, it was a base for many of the 45 wartime squadrons of the First Army Air Service, including the squadrons of the 1st Pursuit Group, First Army Observation Group, the Americans referred to the area around Toul as the Toul Sector. Two large operations were launched from this area, the St. Mihiel Offensive, the most striking features are the impressive stone ramparts. Those that exist today are the work of Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, in 1698 he designed a new enclosure and work began in 1699-1700. Several of Vaubans fortifications in France are listed as a combined UNESCO World Heritage Site, although the fortifications at Toul are not in that list they do follow the general defiladed fortification pattern for which Vauban is known. There appears to have been a town at this location since the earliest recorded history. Today, the ramparts encircle and define the old town and they are built of dressed white stone, and topped with grass, and in places are over five metres high. There is a deal of Roman archæology in the area. The Roman fortified town of Grand is some 30 km away, with its great amphitheatre, the old towns architecture is dominated by past glories in various states of decay, including a major Gothic cathedral, which is in a poor condition and is being slowly restored. Many of the houses were built as residences in the Late Middle Ages. There is no trace of the monastery, however its wine-cellars still exist, Toul is at the intersection of the Moselle River with the Canal de la Marne au Rhin, and was once, consequently, an important port. The barges known as péniches still navigate these watercourses commercially, typically carrying steel, there is a main-line railway station at Toul, the last major station before the marshalling yards at Nancy. However, the Paris-Strasbourg TGV line, now under construction, will pass about 20 km north of Toul and its completion will likely reduce Touls importance as a station
14.
United States campaigns in World War I
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This article is about the United States campaigns in World War I. The streamer uses the colors of the World War I Victory Medal ribbon which had a red center with a rainbow on each side of the center stripe, the double rainbow symbolizes the dawn of a new era and the calm which follows the storm. S. Army Exhibit Unit, to provide summaries of each of the campaign ribbons authorized to be displayed on the Army flag. It was subsequently updated by the Center of Military History to add the campaigns from Vietnam, the year the United States entered World War I was marked by near disaster for the Allies on all the European fronts. A French offensive in April, with which the British cooperated, was a failure and they thus became the first AEF units to meet the enemy. The German High Command decided to attack on the British-held Somme front in the direction of Amiens, British defense lines were pierced in rapid succession. By 26 March Amiens was seriously threatened, and on the day a gap was created between the French and British armies. But the Germans lacked reserves to exploit their initial successes. The Germans had advanced up to 40 miles, had captured 1,500 square miles of ground and 70,000 prisoners, and had inflicted some 200,000 casualties. They had failed, however, to any of their strategic objectives, destruction of the British, disruption of Allied lateral communicational. On 25 March 1918, at the height at the German drive, Pershing placed the four American divisions, but only a few American units actually engaged. They included the 6th, 12th, and 14th Engineers, the 69th Infantry Regiment and the 17th, 22d, and 148th Aero Squadrons, Ludendorff still hoped to destroy the hard-hit British Expeditionary Force before it had a chance to recover from the effects of the Somme drive. This was the purpose of a new German attack launched on 9 April 1918 on a front along the Lys River in Flanders. The Germans committed 46 divisions to the assault, and, using Hutier attacks once again, the British situation was desperate for some days. Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, Commander-in-Chief of the BEF, issued his famous backs to the order and appealed to Marshal Ferdinand Foch. But Foch, convinced that the British could hold their line, Fochs judgment proved to be correct, and Ludendorff called off the offensive on 29 April. Since 21 March the Germans had suffered some 350,000 casualties without having attained any vital objectives, about 500 Americans participated in the campaign, including troops of the 16th Engineers, 28th Aero Squadron, and 1st Gas Regiment. The next major German attack fell on 27 May on the thinly held, the French and British defenders were taken completely by surprise, and their positions were overrun rapidly on a forty-mile front
15.
Third Battle of the Aisne
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It was one of a series of offensives, known as the Kaiserschlacht, launched by the Germans in the spring and summer of 1918. The massive surprise attack lasted from 27 May until 4 June 1918 and was the first full-scale German offensive following the Lys Offensive in Flanders in April. The Germans held the Chemin des Dames Ridge from the First Battle of the Aisne in September 1914 to 1917, operation Blücher-Yorck was planned primarily by Erich Ludendorff, who was certain that success at the Aisne would lead the German armies to within striking distance of Paris. Thus, the Aisne drive was to be essentially a large diversionary attack, the defense of the Aisne area was in the hands of General Denis Auguste Duchêne, commander of the French Sixth Army. On the morning of 27 May 1918, the Germans began a bombardment of the Allied front lines with over 4,000 artillery pieces, huddled together, they made easy artillery targets. The bombardment was followed by a poison gas drop, the Kaiser came to inspect the progress of the battle. He interviewed captured British Brigadier-General Hubert Rees, the Kaiser was amused to learn that he was Welsh, the same nationality as Lloyd George. Taken completely by surprise and with their defences spread thin, the Allies were unable to stop the attack, Victory seemed near for the Germans, who had captured just over 50,000 Allied soldiers and over 800 guns by 30 May 1918. But advancing within 56 kilometres of Paris on 3 June, the German armies were beset by problems, including supply shortages, fatigue, lack of reserves. On 6 June 1918, following many successful Allied counter-attacks, the German advance halted on the Marne, much as the Michael and Georgette offensives had in March, the French had suffered over 98,000 casualties and the British around 29,000. German losses were nearly as great, if not slightly heavier, duchene was sacked by French Commander-in-Chief Philippe Petain for his poor handling of the British and French troops. The Americans had arrived and proven themselves in combat for the first time in the war, Ludendorff, encouraged by the gains of Blücher-Yorck, launched further offensives culminating in the Second Battle of the Marne. Chemins des Dames Ridge Evans, M. M. Battles of World War I,1918, A Very British Victory, Phoenix Books, London. A Young Mans War, Medlar Press
16.
Second Battle of the Marne
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The Second Battle of the Marne, or Battle of Reims was the last major German offensive on the Western Front during the First World War. The attack failed when an Allied counterattack by French and American forces, including several hundred tanks, overwhelmed the Germans on their right flank, the German defeat marked the start of the relentless Allied advance which culminated in the Armistice with Germany about 100 days later. To shield his intentions and draw Allied troops away from Belgium, the battle began on 15 July 1918 when 23 German divisions of the First and Third armies—led by Bruno von Mudra and Karl von Einem—assaulted the French Fourth Army under Henri Gouraud east of Reims. The U. S. 42nd Division was attached to the French Fourth Army and commanded by Gouraud at the time. Meanwhile,17 divisions of the German Seventh Army, under Max von Boehn, aided by the Ninth Army under Johannes von Eben, Ludendorff hoped to split the French in two. The German attack on the east of Reims was stopped on the first day, the defenders of the south bank of the Marne could not escape the three hour bombardment. Under cover of gunfire, stormtroopers swarmed across the river in every sort of transport—30-man canvas boats or rafts and they began to erect skeleton bridges at 12 points under fire from those Allied survivors who had not been suppressed by gas or artillery fire. Some Allied units, particularly COL Ulysses G. McAlexanders 38th Infantry Regiment of the 3rd U. S, the British XXII Corps and 85,000 American troops joined the French for the battle, and stalled the advance on 17 July 1918. The Allied preparation was very important in countering the German offensive and it was believed that the Allies had the complete picture of the German offensive in terms of intentions and capabilities. The Allies knew the key points of the German plan down to the minute, There is a legend, possibly true, that engineer Cpt. Hunter Grant, along with the help of engagement coordinator and engineer Cpt, the Germans, on finding and being taken in by these plans, then adjusted their attack to thwart the false Allied plan. Consequently, the French and American forces led by Foch were able to unleash a different attack on exposed parts of the lines, leaving the Germans with no choice. This engagement marked the beginning of a German withdrawal that was never effectively reversed, in September 1918 nine American divisions joined four French divisions to push the Germans from the St. Mihiel salient. By May, Foch had spotted flaws in the German offensives, the force which defeated the German offensive was mainly French, with American, British and Italian support. However, the presence of fresh American troops, unbroken by years of war, floyd Gibbons wrote about the American troops, saying, I never saw men charge to their death with finer spirit. On 19 July, the Italian Corps lost 9,334 officers, nevertheless, Berthelot rushed two newly arrived British infantry divisions, the 51st and 62nd, threw the Italians straight into attack down the Ardre Valley. The Germans ordered a retreat on 20 July and were forced back to the positions from which they had started their Spring Offensives and they strengthened their flank positions opposite the Allied pincers and on the 22nd, Ludendorff ordered to take up a line from the upper Ourcq to Marfaux. Costly Allied assaults continued for minimal gains, by 27 July, the Germans had withdrawn their center behind Fère-en-Tardenois and had completed an alternative rail link
17.
St. Mihiel
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Saint-Mihiel is a commune in the Meuse department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. Saint-Mihiel lies on the banks of the Meuse River, a benedictine abbey was established here in 708 or 709 by Count Wulfoalde and his wife Adalsinde. The library, containing over 9,000 works, is still on the original site, during World War I Saint-Mihiel was captured by the Germans in 1914, and was re-captured during the Battle of Saint-Mihiel from 12 September to 19 September 1918. Saint-Mihiel is known for its sculptures by Renaissance sculptor Ligier Richier, Saint-Mihiel serves both as the starting and ending point of the 2014 video game Valiant Hearts, The Great War. Communes of the Meuse department INSEE commune file Official website, World War 1 Memorials and Cemeteries in the St Mihiel salient by Ligier Richier in the St Mihiel area
18.
Battle of Saint-Mihiel
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The U. S. Army Air Service played a significant role in this action. This battle marked the first use of the terms D-Day and H-Hour by the Americans, the fighting was depicted in the 1927 film Wings. The attack at the St. Mihiel salient was part of a plan by Pershing in which he hoped that the Americans would break through the German lines and capture the fortified city of Metz. It was the first and only offensive launched solely by the United States Army in World War I, and this meant that their artillery was out of place and the American attack, coming up against disorganized German forces, proved more successful than expected. The St. Mihiel attack established the stature of the U. S, the U. S. attack faltered as artillery and food supplies were left behind on the muddy roads. The attack on Metz was not realized, as the Germans refortified their positions, Saint-Mihiel is a town in the Meuse department in northeastern France. Since the end of the 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War, the town was no longer considered important strategically and this changed early in World War I with the town inside the battlefront. In 1914, the German command wished to take the Verdun fortifications which formed a point in the French lines. A first attempt, at Bois-le-Pretre, failed despite violent fighting, during two more attempts, German troops took Saint-Mihiel and the fort at Camp des Romains, but they were ultimately stopped at the Fort de Troyon to the south of Verdun. During the course of the war the front did not change much in this area, Saint-Mihiel formed a salient inside the French lines, blocking communications between Nancy and Verdun. The area near St. Mihiel would know much fighting, The Crête des Éparges, the Bois dAilly and the Tranchée de la Soif, isolated behind German lines, Commander dAndrés men fight three days without food or water before surrender in May 1915. Bois Brûlé, many casualties when German conquer a redoubt on December 1914 and it is here that the sub-officer Jacques Péricard pronounced the famous words, Debout les morts. on 8 April 1915. The forêt dApremont, the Tête à vache trenches, Calonne trenches… But despite French attacks the German forces were able to retain this strategic location until the last months of the war. General John Pershing thought that a successful Allied attack in the region of St. Mihiel, Metz, for this, he placed his confidence in a young First Infantry Division Major, George Marshall, to move troops and supplies effectively throughout the battle. After these goals were accomplished, the Americans could launch offensives into Germany proper, the American First Army had been activated in August and taken over the sector of the Allied line. Pershing had to persuade Marshall Foch to permit an American attack on the salient, the weather corps of Corps I Operation Order stated, Visibility, Heavy driving wind and rain during parts of day and night. This would pose a challenge to the Americans when the order to advance was given, in some parts of the road, the men were almost knee-deep in mud and water. After five days of rain, the ground was impassable to both the American tanks and infantry
19.
Verdun
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Verdun is a small city in the Meuse department in Grand Est in northeastern France. It is an arrondissement of the department, Verdun is the biggest city in Meuse, although the capital of the department is the slightly smaller city of Bar-le-Duc. Verdun was founded by the Gauls and it has been the seat of the bishop of Verdun since the 4th century, with interruptions. The 843 Treaty of Verdun divided Charlemagnes empire into three parts, the city has been famous for dragées or sugared almonds from 1200 onwards, they were distributed at the baptism of French princes. Verdun was part of the kingdom of Lotharingia, and in 1374 it became a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire. The Bishopric of Verdun formed together with Tull and Metz the Three Bishoprics, from 1624 to 1636, a large bastioned citadel was constructed on the site of the Abbey of Saint Vanne. In 1670, Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban visited Verdun and drew up a scheme to fortify the whole city. Although much of his plan was built in the following decades, despite the extensive fortifications, Verdun was captured by the Prussians in 1792 during the War of the First Coalition, but abandoned by them after the Battle of Valmy. During the Napoleonic War, the citadel was used to hold British prisoners of war, in the Franco-Prussian War, Verdun was the last French fortress to surrender in 1870. Shortly afterwards, a new system of fortification was begun and this consisted of a mutually supporting ring of 22 polygonal forts up to 8 kilometres from the city, and an inner ring of 6 forts. The Battle of Verdun was fought on August 20,1792 between French Revolutionary forces and a Prussian army and this therefore opened the path to Paris. Norwich Duff visited Verdun in 1819, shortly after the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars and he writes, Verdun is prettily situated in a valley surrounded by hills. The River Meuse runs through the town and forms several canals and ditches round the town which is fortified and, I believe, the citadel and are a good deal out of repair and were at work on them. Though there is little to see at Verdun, every part of it felt interesting from the number of our countrymen confined here during the war, Verdun is famous for its sweetmeats, sugar plums, confits etc. which are said to be the best in France. They made us show our passports it being a fortified town, Verdun was the site of a major battle, and the longest-lasting, of the First World War. One of the costliest battles in history, Verdun exemplified the policy of a war of attrition pursued by both sides, which led to an enormous loss of life and very large casualty lists. Following the failure of the Schlieffen Plan in 1914 and the solidifying of the Western Front, once the French army had bled to death, Britain could be brought down by Germanys submarine blockade and superior military strength. Recent scholarship by Holger Afflerbach and others, however, has questioned the veracity of the Christmas memo, no copy has ever surfaced and the only account of it appeared in Falkenhayns post-war memoir
20.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
21.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
22.
SS Kaiser Wilhelm II
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The second SS Kaiser Wilhelm II, named for the German Emperor, was a 19,361 gross ton passenger ship built at Stettin, Germany, completed in the spring of 1903. The ship was seized by the U. S. Government during World War I, designed for high speed trans-Atlantic service, Kaiser Wilhelm II won the Blue Riband for the fastest eastbound crossing in 1904. In the years before the outbreak of World War I, she made trips between Germany and New York, carrying passengers both prestigious and profitable. Kaiser Wilhelm II was west-bound when war with Britain began on 4 August 1914 and, after evading patrolling British cruisers and she was seized by the U. S. While this work progressed, she was employed as a ship at the New York Navy Yard. The U. S. Navy placed the ship in commission as USS Kaiser Wilhelm II in late August 1917. Her name was changed to Agamemnon at the beginning of September and active war work commenced at the end of October, when she left for her first troopship voyage to France. While at sea on 9 November 1917, she was damaged in a collision with another large ex-German transport, USS Von Steuben, following her return to the U. S. The routine was punctuated by encounters with real or suspected U-boats and, during the autumn of 1918. In mid-December 1918, just over a month after the Armistice ended the fighting and she made nine voyages by August 1919, carrying nearly 42,000 service personnel, some four thousand more than she had transported overseas during wartime. USS Agamemnon was decommissioned in late August and turned over to the War Department for further use as a U. S. Army Transport, laid up after the middle 1920s, she was renamed Monticello in 1927 but had no further active service. Monticello was considered too old for use and sold for scrap in 1940. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, the entry can be found here
23.
Fort Devens
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Fort Devens is a United States Army Reserve military installation in the towns of Ayer and Shirley, in Middlesex County and Harvard in Worcester County in the U. S. state of Massachusetts. It was named after jurist and Civil War general Charles Devens, the nearby Devens Reserve Forces Training Area is located in Lancaster. Although closed in 1996, the fort was reopened the day as the Devens Reserve Forces Training Area. The name reverted to Fort Devens in May 2007, the fort has a population of 306 enlisted personnel,2,151 reservists,348 civilians, and 1,399 family members. It also maintains 25 ranges,21 training areas, and 15 maneuver areas on nearly 5,000 acres of land, furthermore, it is also home to the United States Army Base Camp Systems Integration Laboratory as well as the United States Army System Integration Laboratory. Part of the area of the military base is now home to Federal Medical Center, Devens. The first military base on the site was established by Major Simon Willard, willards home was situated near the Verbeck Gate of Fort Devens, and was destroyed in 1676 in a Nehântick raid during King Philips War. A memorial erected in 1934 marks the location today, during the Civil War the site was used for Camp Stevens, home to the 53rd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry. Camp Devens was established on September 5,1917 as a cantonment for training soldiers during World War I. It was a center for war selectees and became a demobilization center after the war. Three divisions were activated and trained at Devens during the war, Robert Goddard briefly used the post for his rocket operations in 1929. The camp became a permanent installation in 1931 and was named Fort Devens the following year, a few years later, Fort Devens Army Airfield was established. In 1940, at the onset of World War II, Fort Devens was designated a reception center for all men in New England who would serve one year as draftees, a massive $25 million building project was begun, including more than 1200 wooden buildings and an airfield. The 1st, 32nd, and 45th Divisions trained at Devens during the war, Devens also housed a prisoner of war camp for German and Italian prisoners from 1944 to 1946. It was designated as early as 1942 for detaining enemy aliens of Italian, German, the 7th Infantry Regiment, 3rd Infantry Division was located at Fort Devens from 1946 to 1950. The 7th Infantry deployed to San Francisco, California and sailed for Japan on 20 August 1950, arriving on 16 September 1950 to marry-up with the 15th Infantry Regiment and the division headquarters. In the 1950s or 1960s the fort was home to the 56th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, part of 1st Region, on 15 February 1958 the 2nd Infantry Brigade was re-activated at Fort Devens, Massachusetts as the Pentomic 2nd Infantry Brigade with its own shoulder sleeve insignia. It spent the five years training in northern Massachusetts and Cape Cod
24.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
25.
43rd Infantry Division (United States)
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The 43rd Infantry Division was a formation of the United States Army from 1925 to 1967, serving in the Pacific during World War II. It was activated on 21 March 1925 as a National Guard Division in Connecticut, Maine, Rhode Island, the 143rd Area Support Group of the Connecticut National Guard now carries on the heritage. The 43rd Infantry Division was first activated in 1923, with the headquarters in Hartford. The 43rd Division consisted of two brigades, the 85th in Connecticut, and the 86th in Vermont. The 85th Brigade included the 102nd and 169th Infantry Regiment, both based in Connecticut, the 86th Brigade was made up of the 172nd Infantry Regiment in Vermont and the 103rd Infantry in Maine. In addition, the 68th Field Artillery Brigade was based in Providence, campaigns, New Guinea, Northern Solomons, Luzon. Presidential Unit Citations,4 Infantry Battalions, personal Awards, MH-2, DSC-40, DSM-2, SS-736, LM-53, SM-51, BSM-2,496, AM-27. Payne, Maj. Gen. John H. Hester, Maj. Gen. John R. Hodge, returned to U. S.19 October 1945. The 172nd Infantry Regiment arrived at Espiritu Santo,26 October, the Division moved to Noumea, New Caledonia, in November and to Guadalcanal,17 February 1943. The Russell Islands were occupied without opposition,21 February, elements landed on Vangunu and Rendova Islands against minor resistance,30 June. Rendova served as the staging point for the assault on the Island of New Georgia. The assault on New Georgia was met with determined enemy resistance, the Japanese fought fiercely before relinquishing Munda and its airfield,5 August. Vela Cela and Baanga were taken easily, but the Japanese resisted stubbornly on Arundel Island before withdrawing,22 September, after training at Munda, the 43d moved to Guadalcanal and thence to New Zealand for rest and rehabilitation. On 9 January 1945, the 43rd made a landing in the San Fabian area, Lingayen Gulf. Under enemy fire, the Division secured the beachhead and fought into the Lingayen Plain by 12 February, the offensive was resumed against the enemy north and west of Fort Stotsenburg,27 February. After ending Japanese resistance in the Zambales Mountains with help from the Philippine Commonwealth Army and Philippine Constabulary, on 6 May 1945, the attack continued in the Bulucan area. Ipo Dam was secured and enemy opposition smashed in the Ipo area,19 May, mopping-up activities continued until 30 June 1945. The Division left Manila,7 September 1945, and arrived in Yokohama, the division began preparations for departure for home on 27 September 1945, and officially began their departure on the 29 September
26.
Connecticut
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Connecticut is the southernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Connecticut is also often grouped along with New York and New Jersey as the Tri-State Area and it is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. Its capital city is Hartford, and its most populous city is Bridgeport, the state is named for the Connecticut River, a major U. S. river that approximately bisects the state. The word Connecticut is derived from various anglicized spellings of an Algonquian word for long tidal river, Connecticut is the third smallest state by area, the 29th most populous, and the fourth most densely populated of the 50 United States. It is known as the Constitution State, the Nutmeg State, the Provisions State, and it was influential in the development of the federal government of the United States. Connecticuts center of population is in Cheshire, New Haven County, Connecticuts first European settlers were Dutch. They established a small, short-lived settlement in present-day Hartford at the confluence of the Park, initially, half of Connecticut was a part of the Dutch colony New Netherland, which included much of the land between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers. The first major settlements were established in the 1630s by England, the Connecticut and New Haven Colonies established documents of Fundamental Orders, considered the first constitutions in North America. In 1662, the three colonies were merged under a charter, making Connecticut a crown colony. This colony was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution, the Connecticut River, Thames River, and ports along the Long Island Sound have given Connecticut a strong maritime tradition which continues today. The state also has a history of hosting the financial services industry, including insurance companies in Hartford. As of the 2010 Census, Connecticut features the highest per-capita income, Human Development Index, and median household income in the United States. Landmarks and Cities of Connecticut Connecticut is bordered on the south by Long Island Sound, on the west by New York, on the north by Massachusetts, and on the east by Rhode Island. The state capital and third largest city is Hartford, and other cities and towns include Bridgeport, New Haven, Stamford, Waterbury, Norwalk, Danbury, New Britain, Greenwich. Connecticut is slightly larger than the country of Montenegro, there are 169 incorporated towns in Connecticut. The highest peak in Connecticut is Bear Mountain in Salisbury in the northwest corner of the state, the highest point is just east of where Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York meet, on the southern slope of Mount Frissell, whose peak lies nearby in Massachusetts. At the opposite extreme, many of the towns have areas that are less than 20 feet above sea level. Connecticut has a maritime history and a reputation based on that history—yet the state has no direct oceanfront
27.
Putnam, Connecticut
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Putnam is a town in Windham County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 9,584 at the 2010 census and it is home to WINY, an AM radio station. Putnam, originally known as Aspinock, then part of Killingly, is a New England mill town incorporated in 1855, created from sections of Killingly, Pomfret, and Thompson, the town was named in honor of Revolutionary War General Israel Putnam. Putnam was a key contributor in providing clothing and other goods to the Civil War soldiers, there were numerous mills and a train ran through the town, providing transportation for the goods being produced. On August 19,1955, Putnam was devastated by floods from torrential downpours caused by two hurricanes, which hit Connecticut within the span of a week, hurricane Connie affected Connecticut on August 13, dropping between four and six inches of rain across the state. Hurricane Diane soaked the state with 14 inches of rain on August 18–19, the result was flooding in many of the states rivers, including the Quinebaug River. The resulting torrent of water destroyed homes, businesses and factories, floating magnesium barrels burst, lighting up the night. The railroad bed was washed away, toward the end of the twentieth century, the town took advantage of the empty mills and underutilized downtown commercial buildings to develop a large antique center. Antique shops line Main Street and other areas in town, Putnam was also the unlikely base of operations for the All-Russian Fascist Organization, a pre-war Russian emigre group that advocated fascism for the country under Anastasy Vonsyatsky. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 20.4 square miles. The town is drained by the Quinebaug River, which runs north and south through the center of town, a tributary of the Quinebaug, the Five Mile River, runs north and south through East Putnam. Putnam has common boundaries with Thompson on the north, with Rhode Island on the east, with Killingly on the south and with Pomfret and Woodstock on the west. The town is crossed by Interstate 395, U. S. Route 44, Connecticut Route 12, Connecticut Route 21 and Connecticut Route 171. Putnam District Putnam Heights East Putnam As of the 2010 census, there were 9,584 people,3,950 households, the population density was 472.1 people per square mile. There were 4,299 housing units at a density of 211.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 94. 1% White,1. 3% African American,0. 6% Native American,1. 0% Asian,0. 0% Pacific Islander,0. 6% from other races, and 2. 3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 9% of the population,30. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the family size was 2.89
28.
Hartford, Connecticut
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Hartford is the capital of the U. S. state of Connecticut. It was the seat of Hartford County until Connecticut disbanded county government in 1960, as of the 2010 Census, Hartfords population was 124,775, making it Connecticuts third-largest city after the coastal cities of Bridgeport and New Haven. Census Bureau estimates since then have indicated Hartfords subsequent fall to fourth place statewide as a result of sustained growth in the coastal city of Stamford. Nicknamed the Insurance Capital of the World, Hartford houses many insurance company headquarters, founded in 1635, Hartford is among the oldest cities in the United States. In 1868, resident Mark Twain wrote, Of all the towns it has been my fortune to see this is the chief. Following the American Civil War, Hartford was the richest city in the United States for several decades, today, Hartford is one of the poorest cities in the nation with 3 out of every 10 families living below the poverty line. In sharp contrast, the Hartford metropolitan area is ranked 32nd of 318 metropolitan areas in total economic production, various tribes, all part of the loose Algonquin confederation, lived in or around present-day Hartford. The area was referred to as Suckiaug, meaning Black Fertile River-Enhanced Earth, the first Europeans known to have explored the area were the Dutch, under Adriaen Block, who sailed up the Connecticut in 1614. Dutch fur traders from New Amsterdam returned in 1623 with a mission to establish a trading post, the original site was located on the south bank of the Park River in the present-day Sheldon/Charter Oak neighborhood. This fort was called Fort Hoop, or the House of Hope, in 1633, Jacob Van Curler formally bought the land around Fort Hoop from the Pequot chief for a small sum. It was home to perhaps a couple families and a few dozen soldiers, the area today is known as Dutch Point, and the name of the Dutch fort, House of Hope, is reflected in the name of Huyshope Avenue. The fort was abandoned by 1654, but its neighborhood in Hartford is still known as Dutch Point, the Dutch outpost, and the tiny contingent of Dutch soldiers that were stationed there, did little to check the English migration. The Dutch soon realized they were vastly outnumbered, the House of Hope remained an outpost, but it was steadily swallowed up by waves of English settlers. The English began to arrive 1637, settling upstream from Fort Hoop near the present-day Downtown, the settlement was originally called Newtown, but was changed to Hartford in 1637 in honor of Stones hometown of Hertford, England. Hooker also created the town of Windsor. The etymology of Hartford is the ford where harts cross, the Seal of the City of Hartford features a male deer, which in full maturity was referred to by the medieval hunting term hart. The fledgling colony along the Connecticut River had issues with the authority by which it was to be governed because it was outside of the jurisdiction of the Massachusetts Bay Colonys charter. Historians suggest that Hookers conception of self-rule embodied in the Fundamental Orders went on to inspire the Connecticut Constitution, today, one of Connecticuts nicknames is the Constitution State
29.
Rockville, Connecticut
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Rockville is a census-designated place and a village of the town of Vernon in Tolland County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 7,474 at the 2010 census, incorporated as a city in 1889, it has been consolidated with the town of Vernon since 1965. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 1.8 square miles. In 1726, Samuel Grant traded his farm in Bolton for 500 acres in the part of Bolton. This included the area which is now known as Rockville and for about the next century it was a nameless village, a prominent feature of the area is the Shenipsit Lake, or The Snip as it is currently affectionately called by the residents. The Snip feeds the Hockanum River which cascades 254 feet over 1.5 miles, the river was used by the farmers for a grist mill, a saw mill, an oil mill and even a distillery starting around 1740. Francis McLean had partnered previously with some others in the Warburton Mill in Talcottville, the Rock was a natural dam of solid stone that made a high falls on the Hockanum River. In what is now the center of Rockville, he dammed up the Hockanum River and built a powered mill known as the Rock Mill. By 1823 his mill was in full operation, the new mill was 80 by 30 feet, and its product was blue and blue-mix satinet. In 1826 power looms were introduced, the mill attracted people to this area and by 1836 the population grew to 440 consisting of 61 families including 89 children under the age of 10. Mail service was once a day by stagecoach from Vernon Center. In order to have their own post office the town needed a permanent name, the following were some of the recommendations for naming the town. Thus, Rockvillle became the official name and it was not until 1842, however, that Rockville actually acquired its own post office. Most of Rockville has been designated as part of the Rockville Historic District, the district is roughly bounded by Shenipsit Street, Davis Avenue, West Street and South Street was added in 1984 to the National Register of Historical Places. The district includes 842 buildings and one other structure and it includes examples of Greek Revival, Late Victorian, and Classical Revival architecture. The historic district includes 842 buildings and one other structure over 550 acres, the Kellogg House had been used by the State Department of Children and Families to house troubled youth under a contract with Community Solutions, Inc. This arrangement ended on May 2,2006 after a history of documented mismanagement by both agencies. The facility is now used for adult transitional housing, elm Street, Park Street, and one block of Prospect Street surround a small town park named Talcott Park
30.
Niantic, Connecticut
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Niantic is a census-designated place and village in the town of East Lyme, Connecticut in the United States. The population was 3,114 at the 2010 census and it is located on Long Island Sound, the Millstone Nuclear Power Plant in nearby Waterford is visible on the bays eastern horizon line, Rocky Neck State Park is also located in the area. Niantic was once famous for its Niantic River scallops, but the population has been in decline for a number of years. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 3.5 square miles, of which 1.5 square miles is land and 2.1 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 3,085 people,1,404 households, the population density was 2,110.3 people per square mile. There were 1,756 housing units at a density of 1,201.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 96. 63% White,0. 49% African American,0. 16% Native American,1. 23% Asian,0. 42% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 11% of the population. 33. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.20 and the average family size was 2.81. In the CDP, the population was out with 20. 3% under the age of 18,5. 9% from 18 to 24,29. 0% from 25 to 44,27. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 42 years, for every 100 females there were 91.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.7 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $54,872, and the median income for a family was $65,077. Males had an income of $46,887 versus $35,811 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $27,306, about 1. 9% of families and 3. 6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7. 2% of those under age 18 and 1. 8% of those age 65 or over. According to www. city-data. com, the income for a household in 2008 was $74,348. The median of all housing units in Niantic was $337,612 in 2008
31.
Camp Blanding
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The installation is located in Clay County, Florida near the city of Starke. The site measures approximately 73,000 acres and includes Kingsley Lake and it also hosts other Reserve, Army National Guard, Air National Guard, and some Active Component training for the U. S. Additionally, Camp Blanding serves as a center for many ROTC units. Jacksonville University and University of South Florida NROTC Battalions continue to conduct their week-long orientation at Camp Blanding each August before the semester starts. Camp Blanding is the training site for most of the Florida National Guards military units and the main combat arms brigade. It is also home to the headquarters and support companies of the 3-20th Special Forces Group, the 211th Infantry Regiment, and the 2-111th Airfield Operations Battalion Aviation Regiment. The base is also a location for several counter-drug units and law enforcement agencies in Florida. The Military Operations in Urban Terrain Collective Training Facility consists of 16 Buildings, in 2008 Camp Blanding became host to the Armys latest Air Assault course in response to the growing need for Air Assault trained individuals for the continuing operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. There is also a bombing and strafing target for aircraft, primarily used by the Navy, Marine Corps and Air Force. On base billeting facilities can accommodate 3000 personnel, i. e. one standard Army Brigade consisting of four Battalion Areas, each Battalion area has company dining facilities, orderly rooms, Officer/Enlisted barracks, a supply building, and a Battalion HQ building. Camp Blanding is also home to the Combating Transnational Organized Crime Center of Excellence, the CTOC COE provides unique, tuition-free CTOC training in support of Department of Defense strategies. The CTOC COE has campuses on Camp Blanding, at St. Petersburg College in St. Petersburg, Florida, the site that would eventually become Naval Air Station Jacksonville was already the location of the Florida National Guards Camp Foster and negotiations were started for a land-swap. In mid-1939, the transaction was accomplished and the armory board chose as compensation a tract of 30,000 acres in Clay County as a National Guard camp. The National Guard Officers Association of Florida recommended the new camp be named in honor of Lieutenant General Albert H. Blanding, the War Department agreed and Camp Blandings history began. Blanding graduated from the East Florida Seminary in 1894 and entered military service and he commanded the 2nd Florida Infantry during the Mexican Border Service in 1916 and 1917. In 1940, Camp Blanding was leased to the United States Army as an active duty training center, the post was originally used by New England and Southern troops preparing for deployment overseas. At the height of the war, the Army leased acreage from local landowners, from 1940 to 1945, more than 800,000 soldiers received all or part of their training here. At one point during the war, the contained the population of the fourth largest city in Florida
32.
Florida
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Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States, the Miami metropolitan area is Floridas most populous urban area. The city of Tallahassee is the state capital, much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south, the American alligator, American crocodile, Florida panther, and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park. It was a location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans. Today, Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth, the states economy relies mainly on tourism, agriculture, and transportation, which developed in the late 19th century. Florida is also renowned for amusement parks, orange crops, the Kennedy Space Center, Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes. It is internationally known for golf, tennis, auto racing, by the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major Native American groups included the Apalachee, the Timucua, the Ais, the Tocobaga, the Calusa and the Tequesta. Florida was the first part of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans, the earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2,1513 and he named the region La Florida. The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is a myth, in May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described seeing a wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet. Very soon, many smokes appeared along the whole coast, billowing against the sky, the Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language, and more to Florida. Both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, in 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was abandoned by 1561. Spain maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the tribes to Christianity. The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north, the English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Florida attracted numerous Africans and African-Americans from adjacent British colonies who sought freedom from slavery, in 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St
33.
Square division
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A square division is a designation given to the way military divisions are organized. In a square organization, the main body is composed of four regimental elements. Since a regiment could be split into separate battalions for tactical purposes, on an organizational chart and if the entire division were formed up in the field, the two brigades of two regiments would typically form a square, hence the name. Most European divisions were organized as square divisions prior to World War I and they were generally reorganized as triangular divisions during that war. A triangular division generally had its infantry organized into three regiments, either controlled by the division headquarters or under a single brigade command. See, for example, the changes of the Imperial German Armys 1st Division. Triangular divisions were smaller, allowing for more divisions to be formed, in positional warfare, the regiments were formed in line to cover as much of a sector as possible, and typically formed their own reserves, with one or two battalions forward and the rest in reserve. During World War I, the United States Army formed its divisions as square divisions, U. S. Army divisions remained organized as square divisions after the war and up to World War II. In World War II, the U. S. Army reorganized its divisions as triangular divisions, since the war, combined arms doctrine has all but eliminated the purpose of the all-arms regiment, and brigades are generally organized as combined arms units. The brigades are themselves typically triangular, with three subordinate battalions, Imperial Japanese Army divisions were organized as square divisions prior to 1938 when they began to form triangular divisions during the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Chinese National Revolutionary Army divisions were organized as square divisions prior to mid-1938 during the Second Sino-Japanese War, triangular division House, Jonathan M. Toward combined arms warfare, a survey of 20th century tactics, doctrine and organization. Fort Leavenworth, KS, Combat Studies Institute, US Army Command and General Staff College
34.
Triangular division
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A triangular division is a designation given to the way military divisions are organized. In a triangular organization, the main body is composed of three regimental maneuver elements. These regiments may be controlled by a headquarters or directly subordinated to the division commander. By contrast, in a division, there were typically two brigades of two regiments. United States Army divisions were square divisions until the beginning of World War II, during that war, infantry divisions were typically triangular, with the division controlling three infantry regiments. Armored divisions were also triangular, but typically organized into combined arms combat commands, after World War II, this structure was retained until the Pentomic Era described above. In the 1960s, United States Army divisions were reorganized as triangular divisions, Combined arms doctrine has all but eliminated regimental purpose, and regiments generally exist only as traditional designations. Most European armies reorganized their divisions as triangular divisions during World War I, many European armies now place greater emphasis on the brigade and in some cases, such as the Portuguese and the Belgian armies, have eliminated the division entirely as a tactical unit. Soviet Army divisions during World War II were generally triangular, with three subordinate regiments, post-war reforms led to a four-regiment division, with three regiments of one arm and the fourth of the other arm. In combat operations, however, the regiment could be divided among the other three to create three combined arms formations essentially the same as a brigade. This structure has for the most part retained in the Russian Army. See, for example, the organization of the 2nd Guards Tamanskaya Motor Rifle Division, imperial Japanese Army and National Revolutionary Army Divisions were organized as square divisions prior to 1938 when they began to form triangular divisions during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Square division Toward Combined Arms Warfare, A Survey of 20th-Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization
35.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
36.
Kiritimati
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Kiritimati, or Christmas Island, is a Pacific Ocean raised coral atoll in the northern Line Islands. It is part of the Republic of Kiribati, the island has the greatest land area of any coral atoll in the world, about 388 square kilometres, its lagoon is roughly the same size. The atoll is about 150 km in perimeter, while the shoreline extends for over 48 km. Kiritimati comprises over 70% of the land area of Kiribati. It lies 232 km north of the Equator,2,160 km south of Honolulu, Kiritimati Island is in the worlds farthest forward time zone, UTC+14, and is one of the first inhabited places on Earth to experience the New Year. Despite being 2,460 km east of the 180 meridian, nuclear tests were conducted on and around Kiribati by the United Kingdom in the late 1950s, and by the United States in 1962. During these tests islanders were not evacuated, subsequently, British, New Zealand, and Fijian servicemen as well as local islanders have claimed to have suffered from exposure to the radiation from these blasts. The entire island is a Wildlife Sanctuary, access to five particularly sensitive areas is restricted, at Western discovery, Kiritimati was uninhabited. This trade route was used with some regularity by about AD1000. From 1200 onwards Polynesian long-distance voyages became less frequent, and had there been human settlement on Kiritimati, two possible village sites and some stone structures of these early visitors have been located. Today, most inhabitants are Micronesians, and Gilbertese is the language of any significance. English is generally understood, but little used outside the tourism sector, Kiritimati was discovered to Europeans by the Spanish expedition of Hernando de Grijalva in 1537, that charted it as Acea. This discovery was referred by a contemporary, the Portuguese António Galvão, governor of Ternate, Captain James Cook visited it on Christmas Eve 1777. It was claimed by the United States under the Guano Islands Act of 1856, many of the toponyms in the island go back to Father Emmanuel Rougier, a French priest who leased the island from 1917 to 1939 and planted some 800,000 coconut trees there. He lived in his Paris house located at Benson Point, across the Burgle Channel from Londres at Bridges Point where he established the port, joes Hill was named by Joe English, who served as plantation manager for Rougier between 1915 and 1919. English was left alone on the island for a year and a half, English was later rescued by Lord John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe, admiral of the British Fleet. English, still thinking the war was in effect and that the ship was German, pulled his revolver on the British admiral, upon his rescue, Englishs adventures were later chronicled in the Boston Globe. Kiritimati was occupied by the Allies in World War II, the Americans took over the island garrison, the first contingent of Americans was a company from the 102nd Infantry Regiment, a National Guard from New Haven, Connecticut
37.
Canton Island
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It is an atoll located in the South Pacific Ocean roughly halfway between Hawaii and Fiji at 2°50′S 171°40′W. The island is a ribbon of land enclosing a lagoon with an area of 40 square kilometers. Kantons closest neighbor is the island of Enderbury,63 km to the south. The capital of Kiribati, South Tarawa, lies 1,765 km to the west, as of 2005, the population was 41, down from 61 in 2000. In May 2010 the population was reportedly 24, with 14 adults and 10 children, the islands sole village is called Tebaronga. Kiribati declared the Phoenix Islands Protected Area in 2006, with the park being expanded in 2008, the 164, 200-square-mile marine reserve contains eight coral atolls including Kanton. The first recorded sighting by Europeans was in September 1595 by the second Spanish expedition of Álvaro de Mendaña. More precisely it was sighted by Lorenzo Barreto while in command of one of the vessels on a local voyage round the then called Santa Cruz. Visits were again reported on 5 August 1824, by two London whaling ships, the Phoenix, Capt, john Palmer, and the Mary, Capt. Edward Reed. The atoll was initially named Mary Ballcouts Island after the shipowners wife, Kanton got its permanent name from the New Bedford whaler Canton, which ran aground on the atoll on 4 March 1854, while under the command of Capt. Andrew Wing. The crew managed to escape on whaleboats and after a voyage of 49 days, reached Tinian Island in the Marianas. Three of the survivors, including Capt, Wing and Thomas E. Braley settled in Acushnet, Massachusetts. Kanton has been described as being shaped like a pork chop. From its northwest to southeast points is a distance of 14.5 km, the southeast corner of the island is known as Pyramid Point. The sole entrances to the lagoon are on the west side, the lagoon itself is filled with marine life, holding 153 different species of fish, including tuna, sharks, stingrays and eels. An unpaved road runs around the island, though its current state of repair is uncertain, Canton Island Airport lies at the northwest corner of the island, but it currently lacks any commercial scheduled service. The World Port Index number of Kanton Island is 56025, much of Kantons land surface is bare coral, sparsely covered with herbs and low bunch grass, trees and bushes are found near the village site. In 1937, the New Zealand eclipse expedition reported 23 bird species on Kanton, together with Polynesian Rats, lizards, hermit crabs, Two species of spiders were found on the island
38.
86th Infantry Brigade Combat Team
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It was reorganized from an armored brigade into an Infantry Brigade Combat Team as part of the United States Armys transformation for the 21st century. This large conventional unit level mountain warfare capability was lost when the 10th Mountain Division inactivated after World War II, the United States Army reorganized in the 1920s, following World War I. This reorganization included maintaining honors and legacy by reusing unit names for units deactivated after the war as designations for smaller formations, the 86th Infantry Brigade, made up of the 172nd, 103rd and 102nd Infantry Regiments, was organized as part of the 43rd Infantry Division. From 1921 until the start of World War II the 86th Brigade continued as a command of the 43rd Division. The 43rd Infantry Division, including the 86th Brigade, was activated for World War II on 24 February 1941, the 86th Brigade underwent pre-deployment training at Camp Blanding, Florida and Camp Shelby, Mississippi. On 19 February 1942 the 86th Brigade Headquarters was disbanded, as were other infantry brigade headquarters, the 43rd Division served in the Pacific throughout World War II, with the former 86th Brigade commander Leonard F. The 43rd Division continued in service after World War II, organized mainly in Connecticut, the 172nd Infantry Regiment continued in service as a Vermont organization. In 1963 the 86th Brigade Headquarters was reactivated, and in 1964 it was reorganized as an armored brigade. Army combat arms battalions kept regimental designations to maintain lineage and honors, 1st Battalion, 172nd Armor, a unit of the 86th Armored Brigade, was headquartered in St. Albans, and 2-172 Armor was headquartered in Rutland. In 1968 the 86th Brigade was assigned to the 50th Armored Division, receiving M48A1, between 1975-76 Vermont & New Jersey armor battalions started turning in their old tanks and began receiving M48A5 tanks. During this time, many Vermont tank crews competed in gunnery exercises held in West Germany, training was rigorous during the Soviet threat peak years of the late 1970s to mid 1980s. Germany was the area of operations of the 50th Armored Division if it had been activated. Reorganizing the Army National Guard to meet the new Division 86 structure in the mid-1980s was a challenging process and it was decided to dissolve the 50th Armored Division, thus by October 1986 the brigade was reassigned to the 26th Infantry Division. Shortly thereafter, the 86th Brigade received M60A3 medium tanks, when the 26th Division inactivated in 1993, the 86th Brigade joined the 42nd Infantry Division and was soon to receive M1A2 Abrams main battle tanks. The brigade was deployed with elements and attachments, to Iraq in 2004–2005 as Task Force Redleg, on a security mission to Kuwait in 2004 as Task Force Green Mountain. The 86th brigade turned in its Abrams tanks and ended its armor designation, turning armor formations into infantry and cavalry units while adding 1st Battalion 102nd Infantry from Connecticut, the brigade slowly formed from 2006 to 2008. The 86th IBCT welcomed the addition of the 1st Battalion, 101st Field Artillery Regiment from the Massachusetts Army National Guard on 14 September 2008, the brigade returned home in December 2010 after being replaced by 2nd IBCT, 34th Infantry Division. Around February 2008 Soldiers of the 86th Infantry Brigade Combat Team were beginning to receive notification of their upcoming deployment, the Brigade Commander at the time was Colonel William F. Roy
39.
42nd Infantry Division (United States)
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The 42nd Infantry Division is a division of the United States Army National Guard. The 42nd Infantry Division has served in World War I, World War II, the division is currently headquartered at the Glenmore Road Armory in Troy, New York. The division headquarters is a unit of the New York Army National Guard, as of 2007,67 percent of 42ID soldiers are located in New York and New Jersey. The 42ID came to be known as the Rainbow Division, when the United States declared war on Germany in 1917, it federalized National Guard divisions to quickly build up an Army. In addition, Douglas MacArthur, then a major, suggested to William A. Mann, the head of the Militia Bureau, that he form another division from the non-divisional units of several states. Secretary of War Newton D. Baker approved the proposal, the division was created using units from 26 states and the District of Columbia. The name stuck, and MacArthur was promoted to colonel as the chief of staff. The 42nd Division adopted a shoulder patch and unit crests acknowledging the nickname, the original version of the patch symbolized a half arc rainbow and contained thin bands in multiple colors. They also reduced the number of colors to just red, gold and blue bordered in green, in order to standardize the design and make the patch easier to reproduce. Description, The 4th quadrant of a rainbow with three bands of color, red, gold and blue, each 3/8 inch in width, outer radius 2 inches, background, The shoulder sleeve insignia was originally authorized by telegram on 29 Oct 1918. It was officially authorized for wear on 27 May 1922 and it was reauthorized for wear when the division was reactivated for World War II. On 8 September 1947 it was authorized for the post-World War II 42nd Infantry Division when it was reactivated as a National Guard unit. The 42nd Division was activated in August 1917, four months after the American entry into World War I, drawing men from 26 states and the District of Columbia. It was composed of the 83rd Infantry Brigade and the 84th Infantry Brigade, together with supporting units such as artillery, engineers, signals and so on. The 42nd went overseas to the Western Front of Belgium and France in November 1917, the AEF was commanded by General John Joseph Pershing. The following year, the took part in four major operations, the Champagne-Marne, the Aisne-Marne, the Battle of Saint-Mihiel. In total, it saw 264 days of combat, while in France, the division was placed under French control for a time, commanded by various French commanders, including Henri Gouraud and Georges de Bazelaire, of the French VII Army Corps. Commanders, Maj. Gen. W. A. Mann, Brig. Gen. Charles T. Menoher, Maj. Gen. Charles D. Rhodes, Brig. Gen. Douglas MacArthur, Maj. Gen. C. A. F. Flagler, Maj. Gen. George Windle Read
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10th Mountain Division
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The 10th Mountain Division is a light infantry division in the United States Army based at Fort Drum, New York. Originally constituted as a mountain warfare unit, the division was the one of its size to receive intense specialized training for fighting in mountainous. Today, the 10th honors that legacy by retaining the Mountain designation, on 5 May 1945 the Division reached Nauders, Austria, beyond the Resia Pass, where it made contact with German forces being pushed south by the U. S. A status quo was maintained until the enemy headquarters involved had completed their surrender to the Seventh, on the 6th, 10th Mountain troops met the 44th Infantry Division of Seventh Army. Following the war, the division was inactivated, only to be reactivated and redesignated as the 10th Infantry Division in 1948. The division first acted as a division and, in 1954, was converted to a full combat division. Reactivated again in 1985, the division was designated the 10th Mountain Division to historically tie it to the World War II division, since its reactivation, the division or elements of the division have deployed numerous times. Since 2001, the division and its four combat brigades have seen over 20 deployments to both Iraq and Afghanistan in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom, respectively. The 10th Division was originally organized in 1918 as a Regular Army, however, it did not go overseas and demobilized in February 1919 at Camp Funston, Kansas. It was redesignated the Panama Canal Division after the war and shares no connection with the 10th Mountain Division activated during World War II. In November 1939, during the Soviet Unions invasion of Finland, the U. S. Army authorized the formation of the platoon sized Army Ski Patrol in November 1940. The first Patrol was formed at Camp Murray as part of the 41st Infantry Division under Lt. Ralph S. Phelps and this required an overhaul of U. S. military doctrine, as the concept of winter warfare had not been tested in the army since 1914. At first, planners envisioned ten mountain divisions, but personnel shortages revised the goal to three, eventually, the 10th Mountain Division would be the only one brought to active duty. The Italian military had lost a disastrous 25,000 men in the campaign because of their lack of preparedness to fight in the mountains, on 22 October 1941, General Marshall decided to form the first battalion of mountain warfare troops for a new mountain division. The Ski Patrol would assist in its training, on 8 December 1941, the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the army activated its first mountain unit, the 87th Mountain Infantry Battalion at Fort Lewis, Washington, south of Tacoma. It was the first mountain warfare unit in U. S. military history, the National Ski Patrol took on the unique role of recruiting for the 87th Infantry Regiment and later the division, becoming the only civilian recruiting agency in military history. The 87th trained in harsh conditions, including Mount Rainiers 14, 411-foot peak, initial training was conducted by Olympian Rolf Monsen. A new garrison was built for the division in central Colorado at Camp Hale, the U. S. Army Mountain Warfare School was eventually established at nearby Camp Carson in late 1942, and began to oversee mountain warfare training
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Connecticut Colony
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The Connecticut Colony or Colony of Connecticut, originally known as the River Colony, was an English colony located in North America that became the U. S. state of Connecticut. It was organized on March 3,1636 as a settlement for a Puritan congregation, after early struggles with the Dutch, the English permanently gained control of the region in 1637. The colony was later the scene of a war between the English and Pequot Indians known as the Pequot War. Two other English settlements in the state of Connecticut were merged into the Colony of Connecticut, Saybrook Colony in 1644. Governor John Haynes of the Massachusetts Bay Colony led 100 people to present-day Hartford in 1636 and he and Thomas Hooker, a prominent Puritan minister, are often considered the founders of the Connecticut colony. Hooker delivered a sermon to his congregation on May 31,1638, on the principles of government, the Rev. John Davenport and merchant Theophilus Eaton led the founders of the New Haven Colony, which was absorbed into Connecticut Colony in the 1660s. In the colonys early years, the governor could not serve consecutive terms, thus, for twenty years, the governorship often rotated between John Haynes and Edward Hopkins, both of whom were from Hartford. George Wyllys, Thomas Welles, and John Webster, also Hartford men, Winthrop was also instrumental in obtaining the colonys 1662 charter, which incorporated New Haven into Connecticut. His son Fitz-John Winthrop also governed the colony for ten years, major John Mason was the military leader of the early colony, the commander in the Pequot War, a magistrate, founder of Windsor, Saybrook, and Norwich, and Deputy Governor under Winthrop. Roger Ludlow was an Oxford-educated lawyer and former Deputy Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony who petitioned the General Court for rights to settle the area, Ludlow led the March Commission in settling disputes over land rights. He is credited as drafting the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut in collaboration with Hooker, Winthrop, Ludlow was the first Deputy Governor of Connecticut. William Leete of Guilford served as governor of New Haven Colony before the merger into Connecticut. He is the man to serve as governor of both New Haven and Connecticut. Robert Treat of Milford served as governor of the colony, both prior to and after its inclusion in Sir Edmund Andross Dominion of New England and his father Richard Treat was one of the original patentees of the colony. The original colonies along the Connecticut River and in New Haven were established by separatist Puritans who were connected with the Massachusetts and they held Calvinist religious beliefs similar to the English Puritans, but they maintained that their congregations needed to be separated from the English state church. They had emigrated to New England during the Great Migration, the American Revolution cut off imports from Britain, and stimulated a manufacturing sector that made heavy use of the entrepreneurship and mechanical skills of the people. In the second half of the 18th century, difficulties arose from the shortage of farmland, periodic money problems. In agriculture there was a shift from grain to animal products, Connecticuts domestic architecture included a wide variety of house forms
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