1.
Army National Guard
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The Army National Guard, in conjunction with the Air National Guard, is a militia force and a federal military reserve force of the United States. They are simultaneously part of two different organizations, the National Guard of the states, territories and the District of Columbia. The Army National Guard is divided into units stationed in each of the 50 states. Members or units of the Army National Guard may be ordered, temporarily or indefinitely, if mobilized for federal service, the member or unit becomes part of the Army National Guard of the United States, which is a reserve component of the United States Army. Individuals volunteering for active service may do so subject to the consent of their governors. Governors generally cannot veto involuntary activations of individuals or units for federal service, the President may also call up members and units of the Army National Guard, in its status as the militia of the several states, to repel invasion, suppress rebellion, or enforce federal laws. The Army National Guard of the United States is one of two organizations administered by the National Guard Bureau, the other being the Air National Guard of the United States. The Director of the Army National Guard is the head of the organization, Militia members were required to equip themselves, take part in regular training, and report to their units when called. This war resulted in hundreds of deaths, hundreds of Native Americans sold into slavery or scattered throughout North America, the militias of the Southern New England colonies fought Native Americans again in King Philips War from 1675 to 1676. This conflict led to the defeat of the Narragansets, further straining relationships between Native Americans and white Europeans, but enabling continued white settlement of New England. In addition, the colonists had little interest in paying the taxes to maintain permanent garrisons of British troops, the militias were also an early experiment in democracy, with company grade officers often elected by their men, and the higher officers appointed by colonial governors or legislatures. The colonies did not exert centralized control over the militias or coordinate their efforts, Training typically took place during musters each summer, with militia members reporting for inspection and undergoing several days of training in drill and ceremony. Militia members served throughout the Revolution, often near their homes, Militia units served in combat, as well as carrying out guard duty for prisoners, garrisoning of forts, and local patrols. On some occasions, militia members performed ineffectively, as at the Battle of Camden in North Carolina, on other occasions they performed capably, including the Battles of Lexington and Concord, Battle of Bunker Hill, Battle of Bennington, Battles of Saratoga, and Battle of Cowpens. Perhaps the most important role played by the militia was off the battlefield, during the period of the Articles of Confederation, the weak federal government reduced the Continental Army to a handful of officers and soldiers. The Articles of Confederation required each state to maintain a militia, such consent was not forthcoming in an era when the population still harbored a distrust of a standing army, so Congress largely left the defense of the new nation to the state militias. During the Constitutional Convention in 1787, Federalist delegates argued for a federal government. Federalists anticipated using the military to defend the country if it were attacked, anti-Federalists advocated limited federal government, and wanted continued state control over the militias
2.
Reconnaissance
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In military operations, reconnaissance is the exploration outside an area occupied by friendly forces to gain information about natural features and enemy presence. Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops, ships or submarines, manned/unmanned reconnaissance aircraft, satellites, espionage normally is not reconnaissance, because reconnaissance is a militarys special forces operating ahead of its main forces, spies are non-combatants operating behind enemy lines. Often called recce or recon, the verb is reconnaître. Traditionally, reconnaissance was a role that was adopted by the cavalry, speed was key in these maneuvers, thus infantry was ill suited to the task. From horses to vehicles, for warriors throughout history, commanders procured their ability to have speed and mobility, to mount and dismount, skirmishing is a traditional skill of reconnaissance, as well as harassment of the enemy. Reconnaissance conducted by ground forces includes special reconnaissance, armored reconnaissance, amphibious reconnaissance, aerial reconnaissance is reconnaissance carried out by aircraft. The purpose is to weather conditions, map terrain, and may include military purposes such as observing tangible structures, particular areas. Naval forces use aerial and satellite reconnaissance to observe enemy forces, navies also undertake hydrographic surveys and intelligence gathering. Reconnaissance satellites provide military commanders with photographs of enemy forces and other intelligence, military forces also use geographical and meteorological information from Earth observation satellites. A tracker needs to pay attention to both the environment and the psychology of his enemy. Knowledge of human psychology, sociology, and cultural backgrounds is necessary to know the actions of the enemy and this is almost as necessary as to know the physical character of the country, its climate and products. Certain people will do certain things almost without fail, certain other things, perfectly feasible, they will not do. There is no danger of knowing too much of the habits of an enemy. One should neither underestimate the enemy nor credit him with superhuman powers, fear and courage are latent in every human being, though roused into activity by very diverse means. Types of reconnaissance, Terrain-oriented reconnaissance is a survey of the terrain, force-oriented reconnaissance focuses on the enemy forces and may include target acquisition. Civil-oriented reconnaissance focuses on the dimension of the battlespace. The techniques and objectives are not mutually exclusive, it is up to the commander whether they are carried out separately or by the same unit, some military elements tasked with reconnaissance are armed only for self-defense, and rely on stealth to gather information. Others are well-enough armed to also deny information to the enemy by destroying their reconnaissance elements, reconnaissance-in-force is a type of military operation or military tactics used specifically to probe an enemys disposition
3.
Surveillance
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Surveillance is the monitoring of the behavior, activities, or other changing information, usually of people for the purpose of influencing, managing, directing, or protecting them. The word surveillance comes from a French phrase for watching over, Surveillance is used by governments for intelligence gathering, the prevention of crime, the protection of a process, person, group or object, or the investigation of crime. It is also used by organizations to plan and commit crimes such as robbery and kidnapping, by businesses to gather intelligence. Surveillance is often a violation of privacy, and is opposed by civil liberties groups. Liberal democracies have laws which restrict domestic government and private use of surveillance, authoritarian government seldom have any domestic restrictions, and international espionage is common among all types of countries. The vast majority of computer surveillance involves the monitoring of data, there is far too much data on the Internet for human investigators to manually search through all of it. Computers can be a target because of the personal data stored on them. If someone is able to install software, such as the FBIs Magic Lantern and CIPAV, on a computer system, such software could be installed physically or remotely. The NSA runs a database known as Pinwale, which stores and indexes large numbers of emails of both American citizens and foreigners. Additionally, the NSA runs a program known as PRISM, which is a mining system that gives the United States government direct access to information from technology companies. Through accessing this information, the government is able to obtain search history, emails, stored information, live chats, file transfers and this program generated huge controversies in regards to surveillance and privacy, especially from U. S. citizens. The official and unofficial tapping of lines is widespread. Between 2003 and 2005, the FBI sent out more than 140,000 National Security Letters ordering phone companies to hand information about their customers calling. About half of these letters requested information on U. S. citizens, human agents are not required to monitor most calls. The StingRay tracker is an example of one of these used to monitor cell phone usage in the United States. Once the phone is connected to the device, there is no way for the user to know that they are being tracked. The operator of the stingray is able to extract information such as location, phone calls, and text messages, a lot of controversy surrounds the StingRay because of its powerful capabilities and the secrecy that surrounds it. Mobile phones are commonly used to collect location data
4.
Willys MB
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The Willys MB and the Ford GPW are four-wheel drive utility vehicles that were manufactured during World War II. Produced from 1941 to 1945, it evolved post-war into the civilian Jeep CJ, advances in early 20th-century technology resulted in widespread mechanisation of the military during World War I. The United States Army deployed four-wheel drive trucks in that war, supplied by Four Wheel Drive Auto, by the eve of World War II the United States Department of War had determined it needed a light, cross-country reconnaissance vehicle. Marmon-Herrington presented five 4×4 Fords in 1937, and American Bantam delivered three Austin roadsters in 1938, recognizing the need to create standard specifications, the Army formalized its requirements on July 11,1940, and submitted them to 135 U. S. automotive manufacturers. By now the war was under way in Europe, so the Armys need was urgent and demanding, Bids were to be received by July 22, manufacturers were given 49 days to submit their first prototype and 75 days for completion of 70 test vehicles. Though Willys-Overland was the low bidder, Bantam received the bid, being the company committing to deliver a pilot model in 49 days. This presented Army officials with the first of what evolved into the World War II U. S. Army Jeeps. The contract for the new car was to be determined by trials. Moreover, in order to expedite production, the War Department forwarded the Bantam blueprints to Ford and Willys, Bantam did not dispute this move due to its precarious financial situation. By November 1940, Ford and Willys each submitted prototypes to compete with the Bantam in the Armys trials. The pilot models, the Willys Quad and the Ford Pygmy, turned out similar to each other and were joined in testing by Bantams entry. By then the U. S. and its forces were already under such pressure that all three cars were declared acceptable and orders for 1,500 units per company were given for field testing. At this time it was acknowledged the weight limit was unrealistic. For these respective pre-production runs, each vehicle received revisions and a new name, production began on March 31,1941, with a total of 2,605 built up to December 6. As the company could not meet the Armys demand for 75 Jeeps a day, production contracts were awarded to Willys. After reducing the weight by 240 pounds, Willys changed the designation to MA for Military model A. The Fords went into production as GP, with G for a Government type contract, by July 1941, the War Department desired to standardize and decided to select a single manufacturer to supply them with the next order for 16,000 vehicles. Willys won the contract due to its more powerful engine, which soldiers raved about
5.
M8 Greyhound
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The M8 light armored car is a 6×6 armored car produced by the Ford Motor Company during World War II. It was used by the United States and British troops in Europe, the vehicle was widely exported and as of 2006 still remains in service with some Third World countries. In British service, the M8 was known as the Greyhound, the British Army found it too lightly armored, particularly the hull floor, which anti-tank mines could easily penetrate. Nevertheless, it was produced in large numbers, the M8 Greyhounds excellent on-road mobility made it a great supportive element in the advancing American and British armored columns. It was marginal off-road, especially in mud, the requirement was for a 6×4 wheeled vehicle armed with a 37 mm gun, a coaxial machine gun mounted in a turret, and a machine gun in the front hull. Its glacis armor was supposed to fire from a.50 in machine gun. Prototypes were submitted by Studebaker, Ford and Chrysler, all of them similar in design. In April 1942, the T22 was selected, despite complaints about deficiencies, due to the need for vehicles. By then, it was clear that the 37 mm gun would not be effective against the front armor of German tanks, so, contract issues and minor design improvements delayed serial production until March 1943. In May 1942, having viewed the prototype, the British Tank Mission turned down the offer to acquire the M8 through Lend-Lease. It was named Greyhound in keeping with other U. S. armored cars already ordered by the British, such as the T18 Boarhound, the T17 Deerhound, the T17E1 Staghound, the cavalry reconnaissance troops and squadrons used by the US Army served as advance eyes and ears. This mission demanded an emphasis on speed and agility, rather than firepower, when on the march, the cavalrys mission was to make contact with enemy forces at the earliest practical moment and maintain it thereafter. In this role, the recon troops identified hostile units and reported their strength, composition, disposition, during withdrawals, the cavalry often served as a screening force for the main units. The M8 performed this function with distinction, another short-range radio set served to communicate within a cavalry reconnaissance platoon, reconnaissance team, or with headquarters. The M8 weighed 17,400 lb fully loaded with equipment and crew, on normal roads, it was capable of a sustained speed of 55 mph, hence its nickname. The M8 was not designed for combat, and its firepower was adequate only against similar lightly armored enemy vehicles. The vehicles armor provided a degree of protection against small-arms fire. With a meager.25 in of armor, the M8 was particularly vulnerable to German mines
6.
M3 Stuart
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The M3 Stuart, formally Light Tank M3, is an American light tank of World War II. It was supplied to British and Commonwealth forces under lend-lease prior to the entry of the U. S. into the war, thereafter, it was used by U. S. and Allied forces until the end of the war. The name General Stuart or Stuart given by the British comes from the American Civil War Confederate General J. E. B, Stuart and was used for both the M3 and the derivative M5 Light Tank. In British service, it also had the nickname of Honey after a tank driver remarked Shes a honey. To the United States Army, the tanks were known only as Light Tank M3. Stuarts were the first American-crewed tanks in World War II to engage the enemy in tank versus tank combat, observing events in Europe, American tank designers realized that the Light Tank M2 was becoming obsolete and set about improving it. The upgraded design, with armor, modified suspension and new gun recoil system was called Light Tank M3. Production of the started in March 1941 and continued until October 1943. Later, the gun was replaced with the slightly longer M6, for a light tank, the Stuart was fairly heavily armored. Internally, the engine was at the rear and the transmission at the front. The prop shaft connecting the two ran through the middle of the fighting compartment, the radial engine, having its crankshaft high off the hull bottom, contributed to the tanks high silhouette. When a revolving turret floor was introduced in the M3 hybrid and M3A1, in contrast to the M2A4, all M3/M5 series tanks had a trailing rear idler wheel for increased ground contact). This variation was quieter, cooler and roomier, owing to its automatic transmission, it also simplified crew training. The new model featured a redesigned hull with sloped glacis plate. Although the main criticism from the using it was that the Stuarts lacked firepower. The M5 gradually replaced the M3 in production from 1942 and, the British Army was the first to use the Light Tank M3 as the General Stuart in combat. From mid-November 1941 to the end of the year, about 170 Stuarts took part in Operation Crusader during the North Africa Campaign and this is despite the fact that the M3 was superior or comparable in most regards to most of the tanks used by the Axis forces. The most numerous German tank, the Panzer III Ausf G, had nearly identical armor and speed to the M3, mentioned in the British complaints were the 37 mm M5 gun and poor internal layout
7.
M24 Chaffee
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In British service it was given the service name Chaffee after the United States Army General Adna R. Chaffee, Jr. who helped develop the use of tanks in the United States armed forces. While long removed from American and British service, it is found in service as a light tank in third-world countries. British combat experience in the North African campaign identified several shortcomings of the M3 Stuart light tank, the M3/M5 design was dated though, the 75 mm gun reduced storage space, and the armor was insufficient. The weight increase without increased power gave it unsatisfactory performance, the program was stopped in March 1943 to allow standardization on a medium tank - the M4 medium. The powerplant and transmission of the M5 were used together with some aspects of the T7, every effort was made to keep the weight of the vehicle under 20 tons. The armor was light, with the glacis plate only 25 mm thick. A new lightweight 75 mm gun was developed, a derivative of the gun used in the B-25H Mitchell bomber, the gun had the same ballistics as the 75 mm M3 in use by American tanks but used a thinly walled barrel and different recoil mechanism. The design featured -16 in - tracks and torsion bar suspension, the torsion bar system was to give a smoother ride than the vertical volute suspension used on most US armored vehicles. At the same time, the chassis was expected to be a used for other vehicles, such as self-propelled guns. It had a low silhouette and a three-man turret. On October 15,1943, the first pilot vehicle was delivered, the design was judged a success and a contract for 1,000 was immediately raised by the Ordnance Department. This was subsequently increased to 5,000, production began in 1944 under the designation Light Tank M24. It was produced at two sites, from April at Cadillac and from July at Massey-Harris, by the time production was stopped in August 1945,4,731 M24s had been produced. The M24 Chaffee was intended to replace the aging and obsolete Light Tank M5, the first thirty-four M24s reached Europe in November 1944 and were issued to the U. S. 2nd Cavalry Group in France. These were then issued to Troop F, 2nd Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron and Troop F, 42nd Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron, which each received seventeen M24s. During the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944, these units and their new tanks were rushed to the southern sector, the M24 started to enter widespread use in December 1944, but they were slow in reaching the front-line combat units. By the end of the war, many armored divisions were mainly equipped with the M3/M5 Stuart. Some armored divisions did not receive their first M24s until the war was over, reports from the armored divisions that received them prior to the end of hostilities were generally positive
8.
Invasion of Normandy
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The Western Allies of World War II launched the largest amphibious invasion in history when they assaulted Normandy, located on the northern coast of France, on 6 June 1944. The invaders were able to establish a beachhead as part of Operation Overlord after a successful D-Day, Allied land forces came from the United States, Britain, Canada, and Free French forces. The Normandy invasion began with overnight parachute and glider landings, massive air attacks, the invasion began and during the evening the remaining elements of the airborne divisions landed. Land forces used on D-Day sailed from bases along the south coast of England, Allied forces rehearsed their D-Day roles for months before the invasion. On 28 April 1944, in south Devon on the English coast,749 U. S. soldiers and sailors were killed when German torpedo boats surprised one of these landing exercises, Exercise Tiger. In the months leading up to the invasion, the Allied forces conducted an operation, Operation Fortitude, aimed at misleading the Germans with respect to the date. There were several leaks prior to or on D-Day, through the Cicero affair, the Germans obtained documents containing references to Overlord, but these documents lacked all detail. Double Cross agents, such as the Spaniard Juan Pujol, played an important role in convincing the German High Command that Normandy was at best a diversionary attack. After being told, Eisenhower reduced Miller to lieutenant colonel and sent him back to the U. S. where he retired, another such leak was General Charles de Gaulles radio message after D-Day. He, unlike all the leaders, stated that this invasion was the real invasion. This had the potential to ruin the Allied deceptions Fortitude North, in contrast, Gen. Eisenhower referred to the landings as the initial invasion. A full moon occurred on 6 June, Allied Expeditionary Force Supreme Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower had tentatively selected 5 June as the date for the assault. The weather was fine during most of May, but deteriorated in early June, the Allied troop convoys already at sea were forced to take shelter in bays and inlets on the south coast of Britain for the night. It seemed possible that everything would have to be cancelled and the returned to their embarkation camps. The next full moon period would be nearly a month away, at a vital meeting on 5 June, Eisenhowers chief meteorologist forecast a brief improvement for 6 June. Commander of all forces for the invasion General Bernard Montgomery. Commander of the Allied Air Forces Air Chief Marshal Leigh Mallory was doubtful, on the strength of Staggs forecast, Eisenhower ordered the invasion to proceed. As a result, prevailing overcast skies limited Allied air support, some troops stood down and many senior officers were away for the weekend
9.
Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine
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The Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine was a phase in the Western European Campaign of World War II. This roughly corresponds with the official United States military European Theater of Operations Rhineland, German forces had been routed during the Allied break-out from Normandy. The Allies advanced rapidly against an enemy that put up little resistance, but after the liberation of Paris in late August 1944, the Allies paused to re-group and organise before continuing their advance from Paris to the River Rhine. The pause allowed the Germans to solidify their lines—something they had been unable to do west of Paris, while Montgomery and Bradley each favored relatively direct thrusts into Germany, General Eisenhower disagreed. The rapid advance through France had caused considerable logistical strain, made worse by the lack of any major port other than the relatively distant Cherbourg in western France. Although Antwerp was seen as the key to solving the Allied logistics problems, as the campaign progressed, all the belligerents, Allied as well as German, felt the effects of the lack of suitable replacements for front-line troops. There were two major obstacles to the Allies. The first was the natural barriers made by the rivers of eastern France, the second was the Siegfried Line, which fell under the command, along with all Wehrmacht forces in the west, of Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt. Although the breakout from Normandy had taken longer than planned, the advances until September had far exceeded expectations, Bradley, for example, by September had four more divisions than planned and all of his forces were 150 miles ahead of their expected position. One effect was that insufficient supplies could be delivered to the fronts to maintain the advance. Much war material still had to be brought ashore across the invasion beaches, the availability of Cherbourg had been valuable until the breakout, but then the shortage of transport to carry supplies to the rapidly advancing armies became the limiting factor. Although fuel was pumped from Britain to Normandy via the Pluto pipeline, this still had to reach the fronts. The railways had been destroyed by Allied attacks and would take much effort to repair. In an attempt to address this shortage of transport, three newly arrived U. S. infantry divisions—the 26th, 95th, and 104th—were stripped of their trucks in order to haul supplies. Advancing divisions of the U. S. 12th Army Group left all their artillery and half their medium artillery west of the Seine. Four British truck companies were loaned to the Americans, unfortunately,1,500 other British trucks were found to have critical engine faults and were unusable, limiting assistance from that quarter. The Red Ball Express was an attempt to expedite deliveries by truck, the 6th Army Group advancing from southern France were supplied adequately from Toulon and Marseille because it had captured ports intact and the local railway system was less damaged. This source supplied about 25% of the Allied needs, the U. S. supply organization—Communications Zone —is perceived to have failed to expedite solutions and to have been far too bureaucratic, employing 11,000 staff
10.
Battle of the Bulge
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The Battle of the Bulge was the last major German offensive campaign of World War II. It was launched through the densely forested Ardennes region of Wallonia in Belgium, France, the surprise attack caught the Allied forces completely off guard. American forces bore the brunt of the attack and incurred their highest casualties of any operation during the war, the battle also severely depleted Germanys armoured forces on the Western Front, and they were largely unable to replace them. German personnel and later, Luftwaffe aircraft, also sustained heavy losses, the Germans officially referred to the offensive as Unternehmen Wacht am Rhein, while the Allies designated it the Ardennes Counteroffensive. The phrase Battle of the Bulge was coined by contemporary press to describe the bulge in German front lines on wartime news maps, once that was accomplished, the German dictator Adolf Hitler believed he could fully concentrate on the Soviets on the Eastern Front. The offensive was planned by the German forces with utmost secrecy, with minimal radio traffic and movements of troops, intercepted German communications indicating a substantial German offensive preparation were not acted upon by the Allies. The Germans achieved total surprise on the morning of 16 December 1944, due to a combination of Allied overconfidence, preoccupation with Allied offensive plans, and poor aerial reconnaissance. The Germans attacked a weakly defended section of the Allied line, columns of armor and infantry that were supposed to advance along parallel routes found themselves on the same roads. This, and terrain that favored the defenders, threw the German advance behind schedule, improved weather conditions permitted air attacks on German forces and supply lines, which sealed the failure of the offensive. In the wake of the defeat, many experienced German units were left severely depleted of men and equipment, the Germans initial attack involved 406,000 men,1,214 tanks, tank destroyers, and assault guns, and 4,224 artillery pieces. These were reinforced a couple of later, bringing the offensives total strength to around 450,000 troops. Between 67,200 and 125,000 of their men were killed, missing, for the Americans, out of 610,000 troops involved in the battle,89,000 were casualties. While some sources report that up to 19,000 were killed, British historian Antony Beevor reports the number killed as 8,407. It was the largest and bloodiest battle fought by the United States in World War II, after the breakout from Normandy at the end of July 1944 and the Allied landings in southern France on 15 August 1944, the Allies advanced toward Germany more quickly than anticipated. The Allies were faced with several military logistics issues, - troops were fatigued by weeks of continuous combat supply lines were stretched extremely thin supplies were dangerously depleted. General Dwight D. Eisenhower and his staff chose to hold the Ardennes region which was occupied by the U. S, the Allies chose to defend the Ardennes with as few troops as possible due to the favorable terrain and limited Allied operational objectives in the area. They also had intelligence that the Wehrmacht was using the area across the German border as an area for its troops. The speed of the Allied advance coupled with a lack of deep-water ports presented the Allies with enormous supply problems
11.
Western Allied invasion of Germany
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The Western Allied invasion of Germany was coordinated by the Western Allies during the final months of hostilities in the European theatre of World War II. This is known as the Central Europe Campaign in United States military histories, by early 1945, events favored the Allied forces in Europe. The failure of this offensive exhausted Germanys strategic reserve, leaving it ill-prepared to resist the final Allied campaigns in Europe, additional losses in the Rhineland further weakened the German Army, leaving shattered remnants of units to defend the east bank of the Rhine. On 7 March, the Allies seized the last remaining bridge across the Rhine at Remagen. During Operation Lumberjack and Operation Plunder in February–March 1945, German casualties are estimated at 400,000 men, on the Eastern Front, the Soviet Red Army had liberated most of Poland and were within striking distance of Berlin. The Soviets also pushed deep into Hungary and eastern Czechoslovakia, and these rapid advances on the Eastern Front destroyed additional veteran German combat units and severely limited German Fuhrer Adolf Hitlers ability to reinforce his Rhine defenses. As such, with the Western Allies making final preparations for their powerful offensive into the German heartland, forty-nine of these divisions were American,12 British, eight French, three Canadian and one Polish. Another seven American divisions arrived during February, along with the British 5th Infantry Division and I Canadian Corps, as the invasion of Germany commenced, General Eisenhower had a total of 90 full-strength divisions under his command, with the number of armored divisions now reaching 25. The Allied front along the Rhine stretched 450 miles from the mouth at the North Sea in the Netherlands to the Swiss border in the south. The Allied forces along this line were organized into three army groups, in the north, from the North Sea to a point about 10 miles north of Cologne, was the 21st Army Group commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery. Within 21st Army Group the Canadian 1st Army held the left flank of the Allied line, with the British 2nd Army in the center and the U. S. 9th Army to the south. Holding the middle of the Allied line from the 9th Armys right flank to a point about 15 miles south of Mainz was the 12th Army Group under the command of Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, Bradley had two American armies, the U. S. 1st Army on the left and the U. S. 3rd Army on the right, as these three army groups cleared out the Wehrmacht west of the Rhine, Eisenhower began to rethink his plans for the final drive across the Rhine and into the heart of Germany. Originally, General Eisenhower had planned to all his forces up to the west bank of the Rhine. The main thrust beyond the river was to be made in the north by Montgomerys 21 Army Group, 1st Army as it made a secondary advance northeast from below the Ruhr River. If successful, this movement would envelop the industrial Ruhr area. Facing the Allies was Oberbefehlshaber West commanded by Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring, although Kesselring brought an outstanding track record as a defensive strategist with him from the Italian Campaign, he did not have the resources to make a coherent defense. During the fighting west of the Rhine up to March 1945, busch—whose main unit was the German 1st Parachute Army —was to form the right wing of the German defenses
12.
Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
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The Distinguished Service Cross is equivalent to the Navy Cross, the Air Force Cross, and the Coast Guard Cross. The Distinguished Service Cross was first awarded during World War I, in addition, a number of awards were made for actions before World War I. Others were belated recognition of actions in the Philippines, on the Mexican Border, the Distinguished Service Cross is only awarded for actions in combat, while the Distinguished Service Medal has no such restriction. A cross of bronze,2 inches in height and 1 13⁄16 inches in width with an eagle on the center, on the reverse side, the center of the cross is circled by a wreath with a space for engraving the name of the recipient. The act or acts of heroism must have been so notable and have involved risk of life so extraordinary as to set the individual apart from his or her comrades, the following are authorized components of the Distinguished Service Cross, Decoration, MIL-D-3943/4. NSN 8455-00-246-3827 for individual replacement medal, additional awards of the Armys Distinguished Service Cross are denoted with oak leaf clusters. The Distinguished Service Cross was established by President Woodrow Wilson on January 2,1918, the request for establishment of the medal was forwarded from the Secretary of War to the President in a letter dated December 28,1917. The Act of Congress establishing this award, dated July 9,1918, is contained in 10 U. S. C, the establishment of the Distinguished Service Cross was promulgated in War Department General Order No. The Distinguished Service Cross was originally designed by J. Andre Smith, the Distinguished Service Cross was first cast and manufactured by the United States Mint at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The die was cast from the design prepared by Captain Aymar E. Embury II. Upon examination of the first medals struck at the Mint, it was considered advisable to make minor changes to add to the beauty. Due to the importance of the element involved in furnishing the decorations to General Pershing. These medals were furnished with the provision that these crosses be replaced when the supply of the design was accomplished. 10 U. S. C. §3991 provides for a 10% increase in retired pay for enlisted personnel who have retired more than 20 years of service if they have been awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. Order of precedence and wear of decorations is contained in Army Regulation 670-1, Policy for awards, approving authority, supply, and issue of decorations is contained in AR 600-8-22. During World War I,6,309 awards of the Distinguished Service Cross were made to 6,185 recipients, several dozen Army soldiers, as well as eight Marines and two French Army officers, received two Distinguished Service Crosses. A handful, mostly aviators, were decorated three or more times, fellow aviators Douglas Campbell, also of the 94th, and Frank ODriscoll Monk Hunter of the 103rd Aero Squadron each received five. Another 94th aviator, Reed McKinley Chambers, was awarded four Distinguished Service Crosses, Edward Peck Curtis, also of the 95th Aero Squadron received the Distinguished Service Cross as a First Lieutenant
13.
Legion of Merit
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The Legion of Merit is a military award of the United States Armed Forces that is given for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services and achievements. The decoration is issued to members of the seven uniformed services of the United States as well as to military and political figures of foreign governments. The Legion of Merit is one of only two United States military decorations to be issued as an order and the only United States military decoration which may be issued in award degrees. The Legion of Merit is sixth in the order of precedence of U. S. military awards and is worn after the Defense Superior Service Medal, in contemporary use in the U. S. S. However, this degree was awarded by President Roosevelt to some Allied World War II theater commanders, Commander, Equivalent of a U. S. military chief of staff or higher position, but not to a head of state. Legionnaire, All recipients not included above, when the Legion of Merit is awarded to members of the Uniformed Services of the United States, it is awarded without reference to degree. The performance must have such as to merit recognition of key individuals for service rendered in a clearly exceptional manner. Performance of duties normal to the grade, branch, specialty, or assignment, for service not related to actual war, the term key individual applies to a narrower range of positions than in time of war and requires evidence of significant achievement. In peacetime, service should be in the nature of a requirement or of an extremely difficult duty performed in an unprecedented. However, justification of the award may accrue by virtue of exceptionally meritorious service in a succession of important positions, the degrees and the design of the decoration were influenced by the French Legion of Honour. Although recommendations for creation of a Meritorious Service Medal were initiated as early as September 1937, no formal action was taken toward approval. Proposed designs prepared by Bailey, Banks and Biddle and the Office of the Quartermaster General were provided to Assistant Chief of Staff for Personnel Colonel Heard) by the QMG on January 5,1942. The Assistant Chief of Staff, in a response to the QMG on April 3,1942, the design of the Legion of Merit would be ready for issue immediately after legislation authorizing it was enacted into law. The medal was announced in War Department Bulletin No, executive Order 9260, dated October 29,1942, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, established the rules for the Legion of Merit and required the Presidents approval for the award. The Legion of Merit is similar to the French Legion of Honor in both its design, a five armed cross, and in that it is awarded in multiple degrees, unlike the Legion of Honor, however, the Legion of Merit is only awarded to military personnel. Additionally, it is the award in the world with multiple degrees of which the higher degrees cannot be awarded to citizens of the country of the awards origin. She received the award for her service during the defense of the Philippines, LTJG Bernatitus was also the first recipient of the Legion of Merit authorized to wear a Combat V with the medal. General Eisenhower was presented the Legion of Merit by President Roosevelt, while he was en route to the Tehran Conference, in Cairo, in 1943, at the request of Army Chief of Staff General George C
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Legion of Honour
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The Legion of Honour, full name National Order of the Legion of Honour, is the highest French order of merit for military and civil merits, established 1802 by Napoléon Bonaparte. The order is divided into five degrees of increasing distinction, Chevalier, Officier, Commandeur, Grand Officier and Grand-Croix. The orders motto is Honneur et Patrie and its seat is the Palais de la Légion dHonneur next to the Musée dOrsay, in the French Revolution, all French orders of chivalry were abolished, and replaced with Weapons of Honour. The Légion however did use the organization of old French orders of chivalry, the badges of the legion also bear a resemblance to the Ordre de Saint-Louis, which also used a red ribbon. Napoleon originally created this to ensure political loyalty, the organization would be used as a facade to give political favours, gifts, and concessions. The Légion was loosely patterned after a Roman legion, with legionaries, officers, commanders, regional cohorts, the highest rank was not a grand cross but a Grand Aigle, a rank that wore all the insignia common to grand crosses. The members were paid, the highest of them extremely generously,5,000 francs to an officier,2,000 francs to a commandeur,1,000 francs to an officier,250 francs to a légionnaire. Napoleon famously declared, You call these baubles, well, it is with baubles that men are led, do you think that you would be able to make men fight by reasoning. That is good only for the scholar in his study, the soldier needs glory, distinctions, rewards. This has been quoted as It is with such baubles that men are led. The order was the first modern order of merit, under the monarchy, such orders were often limited to Roman Catholics, and all knights had to be noblemen. The military decorations were the perks of the officers, the Légion, however, was open to men of all ranks and professions—only merit or bravery counted. The new legionnaire had to be sworn in the Légion and it is noteworthy that all previous orders were crosses or shared a clear Christian background, whereas the Légion is a secular institution. The jewel of the Légion has five arms, in a decree issued on the 10 Pluviôse XIII, a grand decoration was instituted. This decoration, a cross on a sash and a silver star with an eagle, symbol of the Napoleonic Empire, became known as the Grand Aigle. After Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804 and established the Napoleonic nobility in 1808, the title was made hereditary after three generations of grantees. Napoleon had dispensed 15 golden collars of the legion among his family and this collar was abolished in 1815. The Légion dhonneur was prominent and visible in the French Empire, the Emperor always wore it and the fashion of the time allowed for decorations to be worn most of the time
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Croix de Guerre
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The Croix de guerre is a military decoration of France. It was first created in 1915 and consists of a medal on two crossed swords, hanging from a ribbon with various degree pins. The decoration was awarded during World War I, again in World War II, the Croix de guerre was also commonly bestowed on foreign military forces allied to France. The Croix de guerre may either be awarded as an individual or unit award to soldiers who distinguish themselves by acts of heroism involving combat with the enemy. The medal is awarded to those who have mentioned in dispatches. The unit award of the Croix de guerre with palm was issued to military units whose members performed heroic deeds in combat and were recognized by headquarters. The Croix de guerre medal varies depending on which country is bestowing the award, separate French medals exist for the First and Second World War. For the unit decoration of the Croix de guerre, a fourragère is awarded, regulations also permitted the wearing of multiple Croix de guerre, meaning that such medals were differentiated in service records by specifying French Croix de guerre, French Croix de guerre, etc. There are three distinct Croix de guerre medals in the French system of honours, Furthermore, the French collaborationist government created two croix during World War II. These croix are now illegal under French law and wearing them is outlawed, The Croix was created by a law of April 2,1915, the Croix reinstated an older system of mentions in dispatches, which were only administrative honours with no medal. The sculptor Paul-André Bartholomé created the medal, a cross with swords. The French Croix represents a mention in dispatches awarded by a commanding officer, depending on the officer who issued the mention, the ribbon of the Croix is marked with extra pins. Mentioned in Despatches, a star for those who had been mentioned at the regiment or brigade level. A silver star, for those who had been mentioned at the division level, a silver gilt star for those who had been mentioned at the corps level. A bronze palm for those who had been mentioned at the army level, a silver palm stands for five bronze ones. A silver gilt palm for those who had been mentioned at the Free French Forces level, the French Croix de guerre des TOE was created in 1921 for wars fought in theatres of operation outside France. It was awarded during the Indochina War, Korean War, when World War II broke out in 1939, a new Croix de guerre was created by Édouard Daladier. It was abolished by Vichy Government in 1941, which created a new Croix de guerre, in 1943 General Giraud in Algiers created another Croix de guerre
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Silver Star
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The Silver Star, officially the Silver Star Medal, is the United States militarys third-highest decoration for valor in combat. The Silver Star is awarded primarily to members of the United States Armed Forces for gallantry in action against an enemy of the United States. The Silver Star is the award to the Citation Star which was established by an Act of Congress on July 9,1918 during World War I. On July 19,1932, the Secretary of War approved the conversion of the Citation Star to the Silver Star Medal with the original Citation Star incorporated into the center of the medal. Authorization for the Silver Star Medal was placed into law by an Act of Congress for the U. S. Navy on August 7,1942, the U. S. Army and Air Force award the medal as the Silver Star. The U. S. Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard continue to award the medal as the Silver Star Medal, however, during the Vietnam War, the last conflict to produce U. S. The pendant is suspended from a shaped metal loop with rounded corners. The reverse has the inscription FOR GALLANTRY IN ACTION, the Department of Defense does not keep extensive records the Silver Star. Independent groups estimate that between 100,000 and 150,000 Silver Stars have been awarded since the decoration was established. Colonel David Hackworth who was awarded ten Silver Stars while serving in the Army during the Korean War, three Army nurses who served in World War I were cited with Citation Stars for their service in July 1918. In 2007, it was discovered that they had never been awarded their Citation Stars, an unknown number of servicewomen received the award in World War II. Later that same year, Corporal Magdalena Leones, a Filipino American, notable recipients include, List of Australian Silver Star recipients Silver Star database at MilitaryTimes. com Awards and Decorations Air Force Personnel Center
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Bronze Star Medal
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Civilians serving with U. S. military forces in combat are also eligible for the award. For example, UPI reporter Joe Galloway was awarded the Bronze Star with V Device during the Vietnam War for rescuing a wounded soldier under fire in the Battle of la Drang. The Bronze Star Medal was established by Executive Order 9419,4 February 1944, the acts of heroism are of a lesser degree than required for the award of the Silver Star. The acts of merit or acts of valor must be less than required for the Legion of Merit but must nevertheless have been meritorious. The Bronze Star Medal is awarded only to members in combat zones who are receiving imminent danger pay. For this purpose, the US Armys Combat Infantryman Badge or Combat Medical Badge award is considered as a citation in orders, effective 11 September 2001, the Meritorious Service Medal may also be bestowed in lieu of the Bronze Star Medal for meritorious achievement in a designated combat theater. The Bronze Star Medal was designed by Rudolf Freund of the jewelry firm Bailey, the medal is a bronze star 1 1⁄2 inches in circumscribing diameter. In the center is a 3⁄16 inch diameter superimposed bronze star, the reverse bears the inscription HEROIC OR MERITORIOUS ACHIEVEMENT with a space for the name of the recipient to be engraved. The star hangs from its ribbon by a metal loop with rounded corners. The Bronze Star Medal with the V device to denote heroism is the fourth highest military decoration for valor, 5/16 Inch Star – In the Navy and Marine Corps and Coast Guard, the 5/16 inch star is worn to denote additional awards. V Device – In the Army, the V is worn solely to denote participation in acts of heroism involving conflict with an armed enemy, in the Air Force, the V is worn to denote heroism in combat. Red Reeder conceived the idea of the Bronze Star Medal in 1943, Reeder felt another medal was needed as a ground equivalent of the Air Medal, and suggested calling the proposed new award the Ground Medal. The idea eventually rose through the bureaucracy and gained supporters. Marshall, in a memorandum to President Franklin D, the Air Medal had been adopted two years earlier to raise airmens morale. President Roosevelt authorized the Bronze Star Medal by Executive Order 9419 dated 4 February 1944 and this authorization was announced in War Department Bulletin No. President John F. Kennedy amended Executive Order 9419 per Executive Order 11046 dated 24 August 1962 to expand the authorization to include serving with friendly forces. This allowed for awards where US service members become involved in a conflict where the United States was not a belligerent. At the time of the Executive Order, for example, the US was not a belligerent in Vietnam, since the award criteria state that the Bronze Star Medal may be awarded to any person
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Battle honour
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In European military tradition, military units may be acknowledged for their achievements in specific wars or operations of a military campaign. These honours usually take the form of a place and a date, theatre honours could be listed and displayed on regimental property but not emblazoned on the colours. Since battle honours are emblazoned on colours, artillery units. These honour titles were permitted to be used as part of their official nomenclature, similar honours in the same tenor include unit citations. Battle honours, theatre honours, honour titles and their ilk form a part of the variety of distinctions which serve to distinguish military units from each other. For the British Army, the need to adopt a system to recognise military units battlefield accomplishments was apparent since its formation as an army in the later part of the 17th century. Although the granting of battle honours had already been in place at the time, before then, a regiments colours were practical tools for rallying troops in the battlefield and not quite something for displaying the units past distinctions. The first battle honour to be awarded in the British Army was granted to the 15th Hussars for the Battle of Emsdorf in 1760, thereafter, other regiments received battle honours for some of their previous engagements. The battle honour is held by the successor regiment, the Princess of Waless Royal Regiment. During these early years of the British standing army, a regiment needed only to engage the enemy with musketry before it was eligible for a battle honour, thus in 1882, a committee was formed to adjudicate applications of battle honour claims. This committee, later called the Battles Nomenclature Committee, still maintains its function in the British Army today. A battle honour may be granted to infantry/cavalry regiments or battalions, as well as ships and squadrons, they are granted to sub-units such as companies. Battle honours are presented in the form of a name of a country, region, or city where the units distinguished act took place. Not every battle fought will automatically result in the granting of a battle honour, conversely, a regiment or a battalion might obtain more than one battle honour over the course of a larger operation. Similarly, while in Korea, Princess Patricias Canadian Light Infantry earned both Kapyong and Korea 1951–1953, supporting corps/branches such as medical, service, ordnance, or transport do not currently receive battle honours. However and uniquely the Royal Logistic Corps has five battle honours inherited from its previous transport elements, Commonwealth artillery does not maintain battle honours as they carry neither colours nor guidons—though their guns by tradition are afforded many of the same respects and courtesies. However, both the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers were in 1832 granted by King William IV the right to use the Latin Ubique, meaning everywhere and this is worn on the cap badge of both the Corps of Royal Engineers and the Royal Regiment of Artillery. The practice was extended to these same regiments and corps in the successor Commonwealth armed forces
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105th Cavalry Regiment
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The 105th Cavalry Regiment is a regiment in the United States Army National Guard. The Regiment has been formed three times, and due to the lineage system of the United States Army, all three formations are now considered as completely separate units. The first formation later became the 126th Field Artillery Regiment, the second was initially formed as the 132nd Tank Battalion. MOTTO, FOLLOW ME see 126th Field Artillery Regiment MOTTO, OUT IN FRONT Constituted 3 December 1941 in the army as the 632nd Tank Destroyer Battalion. Activated 15 December 1941 at Camp Livingston, La. with Wisconsin National guard personnel from the 32nd Infantry Division, inactivated 1 January 1946 at Camp Stoneman, Ca. Redisgnated 132nd Heavy Tank Battalion, and allotted to the Wisconsin National Guard, organized and Federally recognized 15 November 1949 with Headquarters at Merrill. Reorganized and redesignated 1 February 1953 as the 132nd Tank Battalion, relieved from the 32nd Infantry division, Reorganized and redesignated 15 February 1959 as the 105th Armor, a parent regiment under the Combat Arms Regimental system. Ordered into active Federal service 15 October 1961 at Sparta, released from active Federal service, Reorganized 30 December 1967 to consist of Troop E, an element of the 32nd Infantry Brigade Combat Team, at Baraboo. Withdrawn 1 June 1989 from the Combat Arms Regimental System and reorganized under the United States Army Regimental System, attached below a Blue scroll inscribed SEMPER PORRO in Gold. Symbolism Gold or yellow is the branch color for Cavalry signifying the four virtues of nobleness, goodwill, vigor. It represents the sun, fire, Sunday, honor, majesty, royalty, riches, the chevronels represent the three most recent overseas conflicts the unit served in. The horse’s head within the annulet is from the Light Horse Squadron, the fleur-de-lis signifies World War I combat operations in France. The Philippine sun represents World War II combat operations in the Pacific, the scimitar symbolizes participation in the Iraq War. The red arrow is taken from the insignia of the 32d Infantry Brigade Combat Team, the shield is taken from the shield of the Wisconsin State seal. The motto translates to Ever Forward or Always Forward, background The distinctive unit insignia was approved on 21 April 2011. Crest That for the regiments and separate battalions of the Wisconsin Army National Guard, From a wreath Or and Azure, shield Yellow is the primary branch color for Cavalry and blue is the primary branch color for Infantry. Yellow represents honor and wisdom while blue is representative of constancy, loyalty, the chevronels represent the three most recent overseas conflicts the unit served in. The horse’s head within the annulet is from the Light Horse Squadron, the fleur-de-lis signifies World War I combat operations in France
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107th Cavalry Regiment
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The 107th Cavalry Regiment, Ohio Army National Guard, is a parent regiment under the U. S. Army Regimental System, with headquarters at Cincinnati, Ohio. It currently consists of the 2nd Squadron, 107th Cavalry Regiment, part of the 2nd Brigade, 28th Infantry Division, elements of the regiment were involved in the Kent State shootings during the Vietnam War. The 1st Cleveland Troop organized on 28 April 1886 at Cleveland, the 1st Ohio Volunteer Cavalry mustered into federal service 9–11 May 1898 at Camp Bushnell, Ohio, mustered out of federal service 22–24 October 1898 at Cleveland. The former Troop A reorganized on 14 April 1899 in the Ohio National Guard at Cleveland, the unit reorganized on 25 July 1910 as the 1st Cavalry Squadron with headquarters at Cleveland. It was mustered into service on 6 July 1916 at Columbus and mustered out on 28 February 1917 at Fort Benjamin Harrison. It expanded on 16 April 1917 as the 1st Cavalry, the unit was then again converted, reorganized, and federally recognized between 20 October 1919 –18 November 1920 in the Ohio National Guard as the 1st Ohio Cavalry with headquarters at Cincinnati. It was later redesignated on 1 July 1921 as the 107th Cavalry, 2nd Squadron as the 107th Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron, Mechanized. 1st Squadron as the 22nd Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron, Mechanized, the Regiment was reorganized and federally recognized on 10 November 1947 as the 107th Mechanized Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron with headquarters at Cleveland. The regiment was reorganized and federally recognized on 10 November 1947 as the 107th Mechanized Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron with headquarters at Cleveland, the regiment reorganized on 1 May 1977 in the Ohio Army National Guard. The 107th ACR was reorganized and redesignated on 1 September 1993 as the 1st Battalion 107th Cavalry Regiment, headquarters in Stow, Ohio, the 2nd Squadron, 107th Cavalry, was assigned to the 37th Armor Brigade. On 1 September 1994 the 1st Battalion 107th Cavalry and the 2nd Squadron 107th Cavalry, were realigned and assigned to the 37th Armor Brigade, 38th Infantry Division. These elements of the 1st Battalion operated in Iraq from February to December 2004, serving in Kirkush, Tuz Khurmatu, Jalawla and they participated in the Transition of Iraq and Iraqi Governance campaigns and returned home in late December 2004. The battalion commander LTC Richard T, one element of HHC 1–107th Cavalry was then deployed to Fort Dix, New Jersey for mobilization training and left for Kuwait in January 2005. The companies operated in Baghdad, Iraq and performed detainee operations at Camps Cropper, the headquarters was deployed to Fort McCoy, Wisconsin and arrived in Kuwait in December 2004 and deployed to Mosul, Iraq in late December. This element included LTC Richard T, the HHC/A Convoy Security Company conducted operations throughout Iraq logging in thousands of miles with no fatalities and provided excellent security for convoy elements. Elements of the 1st Battalion, 107th Cavalry served within the 1st Cavalry Division, 4th Infantry Division, the final elements returned home from Iraq in January 2006 reuniting the battalion. Both HHC/A detachments received the U. S. Army Meritorious Unit Commendation for their service, the 2–107th Cavalry conducted peacekeeping operations in Kosovo under the Command of LTC John C. Harris in 2004–2005. The squadron was assigned as part of Task Force Falcon commanded by Brigadier General Tod J. Carmony and Deputy Commander COL Jack E. Lee, the 2–107th Cavalry mobilized all of its units and 350 soldiers to support the deployment
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United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
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Illinois National Guard
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The Illinois National Guard comprises both Army National Guard and Air National Guard components. As of 2013, the Illinois National Guard has approximately 13,200 members, the National Guard is the only United States military force empowered to function in a state status. The Constitution of the United States specifically charges the National Guard with dual federal and those functions range from limited actions during non-emergency situations to full scale law enforcement of martial law when local law enforcement officials can no longer maintain civil control. The National Guard may be called into service in response to a call by the President or Congress. The two components are the, Illinois Army National Guard and the Illinois Air National Guard When National Guard troops are called to federal service, the President serves as Commander-In-Chief. The federal mission assigned to the National Guard is, To provide properly trained and equipped units for prompt mobilization for war, National emergency or as otherwise needed. The Governor may call individuals or units of the Illinois National Guard into state service during emergencies or to assist in situations which lend themselves to use of the National Guard. The state mission assigned to the National Guard is, To provide trained and disciplined forces for domestic emergencies or as provided by state law. Unlike Army Reserve members, National Guard members cannot be mobilized individually, however, there has been a significant amount of individual activations to support military operations from 2001, the legality of this policy is a major issue within the National Guard
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1st Regiment Illinois Volunteer Cavalry
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The 1st Regiment Illinois Volunteer Cavalry was a cavalry regiment that served in the Union Army during the American Civil War and Spanish–American War. Companies A to G of the 1st Illinois Cavalry were mustered into service at Alton, Illinois, among their initial officers was future Washington philanthropist David P. Jenkins, who served as the regiments first major. Companies I, H and K were mustered at Alton at later dates, the original companies served as guards for supply trains and depots until mustered out on July 14,1862. The last company was mustered out on December 27,1862, Company H of the regiment was named Nolemans Cavalry after its captain, Robert D. Noleman. This company was organized at Centralia, Illinois, and mustered into service of the United States on June 14,1861 for a period of one year, the group was first rendezvoused at Cairo, Illinois, but soon were transferred to Birds Point, Missouri. They fought in the Battle of Belmont on November 7,1861, on March 2,1862, the group, joined by then-Colonel James D. Morgan, led the pursuit of Confederate Brigadier General M. Jeff Thompson in southeastern Missouri. They were unsuccessful in capturing Thompson but did capture artillery, col. Morgan praised the groups perseverance and Gen. Thompson later recalled, The cavalry are a perfect set of daredevils, all officers wearing feathers on their hats. From February to April 1862 the company joined Brigadier General John Pope in the Union effort to take New Madrid, or Kentucky Bend and their engagements included the Battle of Island Number Ten and the Confederate surrender after that battle at Tiptonville, Tennessee. After the fall of New Madrid the group proceeded down the Mississippi River, in July 1862 they were ordered to St. Louis to be mustered out of service. During their year of service Company H captured 167 prisoners,209 horses and mules, the regiment suffered 17 enlisted men who were killed in action or who died of their wounds and 26 enlisted men who died of disease, for a total of 43 fatalities. Colonel Thomas A. Marshall – mustered out July 14,1862, constituted 1 July 1897 in the Illinois National Guard as a squadron of cavalry and organized from existing troops. Expanded and mustered into Federal service 21 May 1898 at Springfield as the 1st Illinois Volunteer Cavalry, mustered out of Federal service 11 October 1898 at Fort Sheridan, Illinois. Reorganized in 1899 in the Illinois National Guard as a squadron of cavalry, mustered into Federal service 27 June 1916, mustered out of Federal service 17 November 1916 at Fort Sheridan, Illinois. Non-Chicago elements of the regiment converted and re-designated 24 June 1917 as the 3d Field Artillery (Chicago elements converted and re-designated 9 June 1917 as the 2nd Field Artillery, drafted into Federal service 5 August 1917. Reorganized and re-designated on 21 September 1917 as the 124th Field Artillery, demobilized 8 June 1919 at Camp Grant, Illinois. Reorganized 20 October 1922 in the Illinois National Guard as the 2nd Squadron, 106th Cavalry, inducted into Federal service 25 November 1940 at home stations. Regiment broken up 15 March 1944 and its elements reorganized and re-designated, list of Illinois Civil War Units Illinois in the American Civil War 106th Cavalry Regiment Dyer, Frederick H. A Compendium of the War of the Rebellion, a Compendium of the War of the Rebellion
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Camp Livingston
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Camp Livingston was open from 1940 to 1945 and was first known as Camp Tioga. It was home to many divisions and others during the war, in 1941 there was an aviation squadron of 250 African American men in the Army Air Corps performing service function. Camp Livingston was designated as a replacement training center, as well as a garrison for these infantry divisions. The 38th Division was known as the Avengers of Bataan and the 86th Division was the first American unit to cross the Danube River into Germany, over 500,000 troops trained on the 47, 000-acre base during the war. On some old walls in the site, beautiful artwork. In 1941, prior to the United States declaring war, the camp was part of the Louisiana Maneuvers, the two armies faced each other across the Red River, over 3,400 square miles of land, including part of East Texas. During World War II, thousands of Japanese, German and Italian prisoners of war were kept in internment camps at Camp Livingston, in 1942, the wars first Japanese POW Kazuo Sakamaki arrived at Camp Livingston. Sakamaki was the only surviving crewman of a used in the attack on Pearl Harbor, he was captured by Corporal David Akui after abandoning his sub. The internees at the camps were used to supply logging and farm labor in the area, the camp also held between 800 and 1,100 US civilians of Japanese ancestry who were interned as potential fifth columnists after Pearl Harbor. Most of these men remained in confinement throughout the war, despite a lack of evidence to prove they posed a threat to homefront security, Camp Livingston was deactivated in late 1945 and is now part of the Kisatchie National Forest. The footings from many of the buildings are still in place as well as most of the parking lots. At least two of the pools can be located and one of those up until recent years was used as an unauthorized civilian shooting range. The US Forest Service also maintains the Little Creek and Hickman Trails, the original water treatment plant that was built to serve the camp is still in operation today, and now is operated by Water Works District No.3 in Rapides Parish. Kisatchie National Forest at US Forest Service
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Attack on Pearl Harbor
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The attack, also known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor, led to the United States entry into World War II. The Japanese military leadership referred to the attack as the Hawaii Operation and Operation AI, Japan intended the attack as a preventive action to keep the U. S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions they planned in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. Over the next seven hours there were coordinated Japanese attacks on the U. S. -held Philippines, Guam and Wake Island and on the British Empire in Malaya, Singapore, the attack commenced at 7,48 a. m. The base was attacked by 353 Imperial Japanese fighter planes, bombers, all eight U. S. Navy battleships were damaged, with four sunk. All but the USS Arizona were later raised, and six were returned to service, the Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship, and one minelayer. 188 U. S. aircraft were destroyed,2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded. Important base installations such as the station, shipyard, maintenance. Japanese losses were light,29 aircraft and five midget submarines lost, one Japanese sailor, Kazuo Sakamaki, was captured. The surprise attack came as a shock to the American people. The following day, December 8, the United States declared war on Japan, the U. S. responded with a declaration of war against Germany and Italy. Domestic support for non-interventionism, which had been fading since the Fall of France in 1940, Roosevelt to proclaim December 7,1941, a date which will live in infamy. Because the attack happened without a declaration of war and without explicit warning, over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all-out war between those countries in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and achieve sufficient resource independence to attain victory on the mainland, from December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay, the Allison incident, and the Nanking Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan. Fearing Japanese expansion, the United States, the United Kingdom, in 1940, Japan invaded French Indochina in an effort to control supplies reaching China. The United States halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline to Japan, an invasion of the Philippines was also considered necessary by Japanese war planners. War Plan Orange had envisioned defending the Philippines with a 40 and this was opposed by Douglas MacArthur, who felt that he would need a force ten times that size, and was never implemented. By 1941, U. S. planners anticipated abandonment of the Philippines at the outbreak of war and orders to that effect were given in late 1941 to Admiral Thomas Hart, commander of the Asiatic Fleet
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Fort Hood
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Fort Hood is a U. S. military post located in Killeen, Texas. The post is named after Confederate General John Bell Hood and it is located halfway between Austin and Waco, about 60 miles from each, within the U. S. state of Texas. Fort Hood is an installation of the United States Army and is the largest military base in the world more than 215,000 acres. Its origin was the need for space to test and train with World War II tank destroyers. The War Department announced the location in January 1942, and the completion was set for that August. As originally constructed, Fort Hood had an area of 158,706 acres, the main cantonment of Fort Hood had a total population of 53,416 as of the 2010 U. S. Census. Fort Hood is the most populous U. S. military installation in the world, the main business area is in Bell County, with the training countryside area of the post in Coryell County. In April 2014, the Fort Hood website lists 45,414 assigned soldiers and 8,900 civilian employees with Fort Hood covering 214,000 acres, during World War II, tank destroyers were developed to counter German mobile armored units. These were mobile anti-tank guns on armored halftracks or specially developed tanks, wide-open space was needed for the tank destroyer testing and training, which Texas had in abundance. Andrew Davis Bruce was assigned to organize a new Tank Destroyer Tactical and Firing Center, the War Department announced the selection on 15 January 1942. An initial acquisition of 108,000 acres was made, and it was estimated that the camp would cost $22,800,000 for the land, facilities, the date of completion was set for 15 August 1942. About 300 families had to move from their homes to make room for the area and the communities of Clear Creek, Elijah. The old Sugar Loaf community, historically called the Cradle of Killeen, all that remains of the community is the mountain from which it took its name, located in the Fort Hood area. To lessen the burden of moving, the Army agreed to land to be used for grazing for a nominal grazing fee. This grazing arrangement still continues today, in mid-August the camp was occupied and the official opening took place on 18 September 1942. Camp Hood was named for the Confederate General John Bell Hood, the original facilities provided housing and training sites for nearly 38,000 troops. In January 1943, an additional 16,000 acres in Bell County and 34,943 acres in Coryell County near Gatesville, the site near Gatesville was known as the sub-camp and later as North Camp Hood. During the war years, North Camp Hood housed nearly 40,000 troops and 4,000 prisoners of war, and was the site for the southern branch of the United States Disciplinary Barracks
27.
Charles de Gaulle
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Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was a French general and statesman. He was the leader of Free France and the head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic, in 1958, he founded the Fifth Republic and was elected as the 18th President of France, a position he held until his resignation in 1969. He was the dominant figure of France during the Cold War era, born in Lille, he graduated from Saint-Cyr in 1912. He was an officer of the First World War, wounded several times. During the interwar period, he advocated mobile armoured divisions, during the German invasion of May 1940, he led an armoured division which counterattacked the invaders, he was then appointed Under-Secretary for War. Refusing to accept his governments armistice with Nazi Germany, de Gaulle exhorted the French population to resist occupation and he led a government in exile and the Free French Forces against the Axis. Despite frosty relations with Britain and especially the United States, he emerged as the leader of the French resistance. He became Head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic in June 1944, frustrated by the return of petty partisanship in the new Fourth Republic, he resigned in early 1946 but continued to be politically active as founder of the RPF party. He retired in the early 1950s and wrote his War Memoirs, when the Algerian War was ripping apart the unstable Fourth Republic, the National Assembly brought him back to power during the May 1958 crisis. De Gaulle founded the Fifth Republic with a presidency. He granted independence to Algeria and progressively to other French colonies and he restored cordial Franco-German relations to create a European counterweight between the Anglo-American and Soviet spheres of influence. However, he opposed any development of a supranational Europe, favouring a Europe of sovereign nations, De Gaulle openly criticised the US intervention in Vietnam and the exorbitant privilege of the US dollar. In his later years, his support for an independent Quebec, De Gaulle resigned in 1969 after losing a referendum in which he proposed more decentralization. He died a year later at his residence in Colombey-les-Deux-Églises, leaving his Presidential memoirs unfinished, many French political parties and figures claim the Gaullist legacy. De Gaulle was ranked as Le Plus Grand Français de tous les temps, De Gaulle was born in the industrial region of Lille in the Nord departement, the third of five children. He was raised in a devoutly Catholic and traditional family and his father, Henri de Gaulle, was a professor of history and literature at a Jesuit college who eventually founded his own school. Henri de Gaulle came from a line of parliamentary gentry from Normandy and Burgundy. De Gaulles mother, Jeanne, descended from a family of entrepreneurs from Lille
28.
Provisional Government of the French Republic
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Its establishment marked the official restoration and re-establishment of a provisional French Republic assuring continuity with the defunct French Third Republic. As the wartime government of France in 1944-1945, its purposes were to handle the aftermath of the occupation of France. Its principal mission beside the war was to prepare the ground for a new order that resulted in the Fourth Republic. It was officially created by the CFLN on 3 June 1944, the day before Charles de Gaulle arrived in London from Algiers on Winston Churchills invitation, the CFLN itself had been created exactly one year earlier through the uniting of de Gaulles and Henri Girauds organisations. Among its foreign policy goals was to secure a French occupation zone in Germany and this was assured through a large military contribution on the western front. The unit under his command, barely above company size when it had captured the Italian fort, had grown into an armoured division. The spearhead of the Free French First Army that had landed in Provence was the I Corps and its leading unit, the French 1st Armoured Division, was the first Western Allied unit to reach the Rhône, the Rhine and the Danube. Along with the acceptance of the Marshall Plan, refused by countries who had fallen under the influence of the USSR, this marked the official beginning of the Cold War in these countries. It started decolonisation by recognising the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, the Front National was the political front of the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans resistance movement. It also appointed commissioners to fulfill its aims, Vichy loyalists were put on trial by the GPRF in legal purges, and a number were executed for treason, among them Pierre Laval, Vichys prime minister in 1942-44. The Marshal Philippe Pétain, Chief of the French State and Verdun hero, was condemned to death. Thousands of collaborators were executed by local Resistance forces in so-called savage purges. The provisional government considered that the Vichy government had been unconstitutional, all statutes, laws, regulations and decisions by the Vichy government were thus made null and void. Collaborationist paramilitary and political organizations, such as the Milice and the Legionary Order Service, were also disbanded, the right to vote had been granted to women by the CFLN on 21 April 1944, and was confirmed by the GPRF with the 5 October 1944 decree. They went to the polls for the first time in the elections of 29 April 1945. It passed decisions about Social Security, and child benefits, laying the foundations of the state in France. In the dirigist spirit, it created large state-owned companies, for instance by nationalising Renault and founding electricity company EDF, another main objective of the GPRF under de Gaulle leadership was to give a voice to the people by organizing elections which took place on 21 October 1945. Becoming a constituent assembly, the elected parliament was charged with drafting a constitution for a new fourth republic
29.
Rhine
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The largest city on the river Rhine is Cologne, Germany, with a population of more than 1,050,000 people. It is the second-longest river in Central and Western Europe, at about 1,230 km, with an average discharge of about 2,900 m3/s. The Rhine and the Danube formed most of the inland frontier of the Roman Empire and, since those days. The many castles and fortifications along the Rhine testify to its importance as a waterway in the Holy Roman Empire, in the modern era, it has become a symbol of German nationalism. The variant of the name of the Rhine in modern languages are all derived from the Gaulish name Rēnos, spanish is with French in adopting the Germanic vocalism Rin-, while Italian, Occitan and Portuguese retain the Latin Ren-. The Gaulish name Rēnos belongs to a class of river names built from the PIE root *rei- to move, flow, run, the grammatical gender of the Celtic name is masculine, and the name remains masculine in German, Dutch and French. The Old English river name was variously inflected as masculine or feminine, the length of the Rhine is conventionally measured in Rhine-kilometers, a scale introduced in 1939 which runs from the Old Rhine Bridge at Constance to Hoek van Holland. The river length is shortened from the rivers natural course due to a number of canalisation projects completed in the 19th and 20th century. The total length of the Rhine, to the inclusion of Lake Constance and its course is conventionally divided as follows, The Rhine carries its name without distinctive accessories only from the confluence of the Vorderrhein and Hinterrhein near Tamins-Reichenau. Above this point is the catchment of the headwaters of the Rhine. It belongs almost exclusively to the Swiss Canton of Graubünden, ranging from Gotthard Massif in the west via one valley lying in Ticino, traditionally, Lake Toma near the Oberalp Pass in the Gotthard region is seen as the source of the Vorderrhein and the Rhine as a whole. The Hinterrhein rises in the Rheinwald valley below Mount Rheinwaldhorn, the Vorderrhein, or Anterior Rhine, springs from Lai da Tuma, near the Oberalp Pass and passes the impressive Ruinaulta formed by the largest visible rock slide in the alps, the Flims Rockslide. A multiday trekking route is signposted along the young Rhine called Senda Sursilvana, the Hinterrhein/Rein Posteriur, or Posterior Rhine, starts from the Paradies Glacier, near the Rheinwaldhorn. One of its tributaries, the Reno di Lei, drains the Valle di Lei on politically Italian territory, after three main valleys separated by the two gorges, Roflaschlucht and Viamala, it reaches Reichenau. The Vorderrhein arises from numerous source streams in the upper Surselva, one source is Lai da Tuma with the Rein da Tuma, which is usually indicated as source of the Rhine, flowing through it. Into it flow tributaries from the south, some longer, some equal in length, such as the Reno di Medel, the Rein da Maighels, and the Rein da Curnera. The Cadlimo Valley in the Canton of Ticino is drained by the Reno di Medel, all streams in the source area are partially, sometimes completely, captured and sent to storage reservoirs for the local hydro-electric power plants. In its lower course the Vorderrhein flows through a gorge named Ruinaulta through the Flims Rockslide, the whole stretch of the Vorderrhein to the Rhine confluence near Reichenau-Tamins is accompanied by a long-distance hiking trail called Senda Sursilvana
30.
Siegfried Line
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The original Siegfried Line was a First World War line of defensive forts and tank defences built by Germany in northern France during 1916–17 as a section of the Hindenburg Line. This line stretched more than 630 km and featured more than 18,000 bunkers, tunnels and it was planned in 1936 and built between 1938 and 1940. From September 1944 to March 1945, the Siegfried Line was subject to a large scale Allied offensive, the overall cost of this Campaign in American personnel was close to 140,000. The German losses were not well documented and this standardisation was the most effective use of scarce raw materials, transport and workers. Dragons teeth tank traps were known as Höcker in German because of their shape. These blocks of reinforced concrete stand in rows on a single foundation. There are two sorts of barrier, Type 1938 with four teeth getting higher toward the back. Many other irregular lines of teeth were also built, another design of tank obstacle, known as the Czech hedgehog, was made by welding together several bars of steel in such a way that any tank rolling over it would get stuck. If the contour of the land allowed it, water-filled ditches were dug instead of tank traps, examples of this kind of defence are those north of Aachen near Geilenkirchen. Small bunkers with 50 cm thick walls were set up with three embrasures towards the front, in exposed positions, similar small bunkers were erected with small round armoured lookout sections on the roofs. The Limes Programme began in 1938 following an order by Hitler to strengthen fortifications on the western German border, Limes refers to the former borders of the Roman Empire, the cover story for the programme was that it was an archaeological study. Its Type 10 bunkers were more strongly constructed than the border fortifications. These had 1.5 m thick ceilings and walls, a total of 3,471 were built along the entire length of the Siegfried Line. They featured a room or shelter for 10-12 men with a stepped embrasure facing backwards. This elevated section had embrasures at the front and sides for machine guns, more embrasures were provided for riflemen, and the entire structure was constructed so as to be safe against poison gas. Heating was from a safety oven, the chimney of which was covered with a thick grating, space was tight, with about 1 m2 per soldier, who was given a sleeping-place and a stool, the commanding officer had a chair. Surviving examples still retain signs warning Walls have ears and Lights out when embrasures are open, the Aachen-Saar programme bunkers were similar to those of the Limes programme, Type 107 double MG casemates with concrete walls up to 3.5 m thick. One difference was there were no embrasures at the front
31.
33rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team (United States)
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The 33rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team is a unit of the Illinois Army National Guard, which perpetuates the history of the 33rd Infantry Division. Known as the 66th Infantry Brigade until 2005, it is one of the brigades of the 35th Infantry Division, the brigade was re-activated under the Transformation of the United States Army and subordinated to the Illinois Army National Guard. The 33rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team deployed to Afghanistan in December 2008 in support of Operation Enduring Freedom, the post-World War II reorganization of the Army National Guard included the 33rd and 44th Infantry Divisions as Illinois-based units. The 44th Infantry Division was inactivated in 1954, following its return from deployment for the Korean War, the 33rd Infantry Division continued until 1968, when it was inactivated as part of a National Guard force reduction. The 33rd Infantry Brigade was then created as a non-divisional organization, the 66th Infantry Brigade, which had been part of the 44th Division and then the 33rd, continued in service as an Illinois organization assigned to the 47th Infantry Division. The 47th Division was inactivated in 1991, and the 66th Brigade was assigned to the 34th Infantry Division, in 1997, the 66th Brigade was reassigned to the 35th Infantry Division. As part of the Army’s conversion to modular divisions and brigades in 2005, the 66th Brigade was re-flagged as the 33rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team, which continued to be aligned with the 35th Division. Soldiers of the 66th Brigade were activated for homeland security duty following the September 11th,2001 terrorist attacks, in 2008 and 2009, soldiers of the 33rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team served in the War in Afghanistan. Illinois Army National Guard, An Interactive Service Record, Operation Enduring Freedom, OCLC899594178 33rd Infantry Brigade Combat team at Illinois National Guard 33rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team at Facebook
32.
Illinois Army National Guard
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The Illinois Army National Guard is a component of the United States Army and the United States National Guard. With the Illinois Air National Guard it is part of the Illinois National Guard, National coordination of various state National Guard units are maintained through the National Guard Bureau. The Illinois Army National Guard is composed of approximately 10,000 soldiers, Illinois Army National Guard units are trained and equipped as part of the United States Army. The same ranks and insignia are used, National Guardsmen are eligible to receive all United States military awards. The Illinois Guard also bestows a number of awards for local services rendered in or to the state of Illinois. The Illinois Army National Guard was originally formed in 1712 as a colonial French militia, a small force of Illinois militia later, captured Prairie du Chien. Following the American Civil War, the forces were reorganized under the command of Arthur C. Ducat, who became the first major general of the statewide Illinois militia, the Militia Act of 1903 organized the various state militias into the present National Guard system. The 44th Infantry Division was part of the IL ARNG from 1945/46 and it was inducted into Federal Service during the Korean War but on its release the Governor of Illinois declined to support it, citing budgetary considerations. It was thus deactivated on its release from Federal Service in December 1954, from that time, Illinois ARNG units have formed part of the 33rd, and then the 47th until November 1991. In November 1991 the 66th Infantry Brigade was reassigned to the 34th Infantry Division, later it was reassigned again to the 35th Infantry Division. For much of the decades of the twentieth century, National Guard personnel typically served One weekend a month. Around 2006, the forces formation plans of the US Army call for the typical National Guard unit to one year of active duty for every three years of service. More specifically, United States Department of Defense policy was that no Guardsman will be activated for a total of more than 24 months in one six year enlistment period. This policy was due to change on August 1,2007, however, individual states have differing policies. The 33rd Inf Bde Combat Team served in Afghanistan in 2008-09, campaigns, Afghanistan Presidential Unit Citation,1. org Illinois Army National Guard, accessed November 20,2006
33.
V Corps (United States)
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V Corps was a regular corps of the United States Army during World War I, World War II, Cold War, Kosovo, and War on Terrorism. It was officially inactivated on September 15,2013 at Lucius D. Clay Kaserne, V Corps was organized July 7–12,1918 in the Regular Army in France, as part of the American Expeditionary Forces. By the end of World War I, the Corps had fought in three named campaigns, the triangles thus outlined in white are flag blue. The pentagon represents the number of the Corps, while blue, after Nazi Germany declared war on the United States on December 11,1941, the corps deployed the first American soldiers to the European Theater of Operations, United States Army. That initial deployment was known as the U. S. Army Northern Ireland Force or MAGNET, on June 6,1944, V Corps assaulted Omaha Beach, Normandy. Corps soldiers then broke out from the beachhead, liberated Paris and Sedan, Ardennes, and raced to the German border. After liberating Luxembourg, V Corps fought in the Battle of the Bulge, captured Leipzig, made first contact with the Red Army at Torgau, and, south in Czechoslovakia, liberated Plzeň by May 1945. On December 1,1950 due to concern of a Soviet threat to Western Europe during the Korean War, Seventh Army absorbed the two main Occupation Duty forces then in Germany, namely the 1st Infantry Division and the United States Constabulary. In December,1950 President Truman’s declared National Emergency due to the Korean War included a 4 division augmentation of U. S, Forces in Europe, including the NG 28th and 43rd infantry divisions. In May 1951 the 4th Infantry Division arrived in United States Army Europe in Germany, in July the 2d Armored Division arrived in Germany, and on August 25,1951 the 4th Infantry Division and 2d Armored Division were assigned as V Corps divisions. In November 1951 VII Corps was assigned to the Seventh Army, Zone of Occupation division, the 1st Infantry Division, plus the newly arrived 28th Infantry Division and 43d Infantry Division, were assigned as its divisions. The Constabulary was inactivated upon the arrival of the four U. S. division augmentation forces to Germany, V Corps was assigned to the northern area of the U. S. Occupation Zone of Germany, and the VII Corps was assigned to the area of the U. S. Zone. Note, Several years later the newly forming West German Army displaced the GDP positions of some of the U. S. units stationed in the far southern area of West Germany. As a consequence, the U. S. units GDP positions were moved further north and this shifting action likely coincided with the same time frame as the Summer and Fall conversion of all Seventh Army units to the ROAD format. As of June 1954, the main unit assignments to V Corps were 1st Infantry Division, 4th Infantry Division, 2d Armored Division, and 19th Armor Group. The first U. S. armored division to be stationed east of the Rhine River in the Cold War, namely V Corps 3d Armored Division, arrived in May/June 1956. The 19th Armor Group was replaced by the 4th Armor Group on 1 July 1955, in 1958 the 1st Infantry Division gyroscoped to CONUS, and was replaced in V Corps by the 3rd Infantry Division from CONUS
34.
Samuel Insull
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Samuel Insull was a British-born American business magnate, an innovator and investor based in Chicago who greatly contributed to creating an integrated electrical infrastructure in the United States. Insull was notable for purchasing utilities and railroads using holding companies and he was also responsible for the building of the Chicago Civic Opera House in 1929. Insull was born on 11 November 1859 in London, the son of Samuel Insull, a tradesman and lay preacher who was active in the Temperance movement and he had a brother, Martin Insull. His career began as a clerk for various local businesses at age 14. He went on to become a stenographer at Vanity Fair, through a newspaper ad, the 19-year-old became the switchboard operator for the London office of Edisons telephone companies. When he learned of a job with Edison in the US, Insull indicated he would be glad to have it, in 1881, at the age of 21, Insull emigrated to the US, complete with side whiskers to make him appear older than his years. In the decade that followed, Insull took on increasing responsibilities in Edisons business endeavors, with several other Edison Pioneers, he founded Edison General Electric, which later became the publicly held company now known as General Electric. Insull rose to become vice-president of General Electric in 1889, but was unhappy at not being named its president, when the presidency went to someone else, Insull moved to Chicago as head of the Chicago Edison Company. Another consideration is that he was caught between opposing factions when J. P. Morgan combined the Thomson-Houston Electric Company and Edison General Electric to form the new company in April 1892. Those loyal to Edison accused Insull of selling out, and in fact he did welcome the infusion of capital from Vanderbilt, J. P. Morgan, Edison quickly forgave him, but others did not, and it seemed a good idea to get out of town. The Western Edison Light Co. was founded in Chicago in 1882, in 1887, Western Edison became the Chicago Edison Co. Insull left General Electric and moved to Chicago in 1892, where he became president of Chicago Edison that year, Chicago Edison was struggling, losing money, until Insull discovered a way to make it profitable during a Christmas visit to Brighton, England in 1894. To his surprise, he saw that the shops were closed, by 1897, Insull had worked out his formulas enough to offer Chicago electric customers two-tiered electric rates. With the new system, many found their bills lowered by 32 percent within a year. In 1897, he incorporated another electric utility, the Commonwealth Electric Light & Power Co, in 1907, Insulls two companies formally merged to create the Commonwealth Edison Co. As more people connected to the electric grid, Insulls company. By 1920, when it used more than two tons of coal annually, the companys 6,000 employees served about 500,000 customers. During the 1920s, its largest generating stations included one on Fisk Street and West 22nd and one on Crawford Avenue, Insull began purchasing portions of the utility infrastructure of the city
35.
Shell jacket
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The shell jacket is a garment used as part of a military uniform. It is a jacket that reaches down to hip level. It was very common in the mid and late 19th century, the jacket was first created in Austria. The shell jacket was first introduced to European armies toward the end of the 18th Century, up to then, soldiers, infantry, cavalry and artillery had worn open dress uniform coats with turn-back lapels over either coloured or white sleeved-waistcoats and breeches. However, in order to damage or staining to dress coatees while on fatigue duties. A new, relatively plain coloured waist-length jacket was introduced, the term “shell” jacket is of British origin, appearing during the 1790s, when Light Dragoons adopted a dark blue short jacket with a decorative sleeveless over- jacket, or “shell” on top. Though short-lived, the name stuck and was later to be applied to short, through the British Army adopted coloured shell jackets, Foot-Guards and Highland regiments adopted a white shell-jacket, referred to as a sleeved-waistcoat. During the first half of the 19th Century, the British Army wore dress coatees in battle against European or American enemies, however, the shell jacket was discontinued by the British in the 1870s in favour of a second, plainer skirted tunic. Guards and Highland regiments continued to wear shell jackets for “walking out” until 1914. The shell jacket became regulation for the US army in 1833, infantry jackets were sky blue with white piping and silver buttons. Cavalry uniforms were blue with orange piping and artillery uniforms were identical but with red piping. The infantry uniform was worn during the Mexican War until 1851 when it was replaced with the dark blue coat with sky blue piping. Trousers with a fly front replaced the older-style flap-front design and kepis, cavalry and artillery shell jackets remained in use until after the American Civil War as they were more practical for mounted troops than the long frock. The Confederate States of America adopted the jacket in 1861, the most famous are the Richmond Depots, RDI, RDII, columbus Depot, Department of Alabama, and Atlanta Depot also were common famous suppliers. See uniforms of the Confederate States military forces for more information, during World War II, Dwight D. Eisenhower popularised a waist-length jacket based on British Battle Dress. This was known as an Ike Jacket and after the war was adopted as a uniform by many US police forces, blue denim versions became popular among urban workers, cowboys, truck drivers and teenagers. Today these jackets are popular among bikers, greasers, metalheads, in addition it plays a minor role in mainstream European fashion. Uniform of the Union Army Uniforms of the Confederate States military forces Eisenhower jacket
36.
United States Army Central
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The United States Army Central is a military formation of the United States Army, which saw service in World War I and World War II, in the 1991 Gulf War, and in the coalition occupation of Iraq. It is best known for its campaigns in World War II under the command of General George S. Patton, Third Army is currently denoted USARCENT, headquartered at Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina with a forward element at Camp Arifjan, Kuwait. On the 15th, Major General Joseph T. Dickman assumed command, the third Army consisted of three corps and seven divisions. On 15 November 1918, Major General Dickman was given the mission to move quickly and he was to disarm and disband German forces as ordered by General John J. Pershing, commander of the American Expeditionary Forces. The march into Germany for occupation duty was begun on 17 November 1918, by 15 December the Third Army Headquarters at Mayen opened at Coblenz. Two days later, on 17 December 1918, the Coblenz bridgehead, consisting of a pontoon bridge, Third Army troops had encountered no hostile act of any sort. In the occupied area, both food and coal supplies were sufficient, the crossing of the Rhine by the front line divisions was effected in good time and without confusion. Troops, upon crossing the Rhine and reaching their assigned areas, were billeted preparatory to occupying selected positions for defense. The strength of the Third Army as of 19 December, the date the bridgehead occupation was completed, was 9,638 officers and 221,070 enlisted men, the southern boundary was as has been previously mentioned. Before the advance, the 1st Division passed to the command of the III Corps, the four bridges available for crossing the river within the Coblenz bridgehead were the pontoon bridge and railroad bridge at Coblenz, the railroad bridges at Engers and Remagen. On 13 December the advance began with the American khaki crossing the Rhine into advanced positions. On the same day the 42d Division passes to the command of the IV Corps, which, in support of the III Corps, continued its march to occupy the Kreise of Mayen, Ahrweiler, Adenau, and Cochem. The VII Corps occupied under the order that portion of the Regierungsbezirk of Trier within army limits. On 15 December, Third Army Headquarters at Mayen opened at Coblenz, III Corps Headquarters at Polch opened at Neuwied and IV Corps Headquarters remained at Cochem, with the VII Corps at Grevenmacher. In crossing the Rhine on the shortened front—from Rolandseck to Rhens on the west bank—the Third Army encountered no hostile act of any sort, in the occupied area both food and coal supplies were sufficient. By the night of 14 December, Third Army troops had occupied their positions on the perimeter of the Coblenz bridgehead, during January 1919, the Third Army was engaged in training and preparing the troops under its command for any contingency. A letter of instruction was circulated to lower commanders prescribing a plan of action in case hostilities were resumed, installations were set up throughout the Army area to facilitate command. On 4 February, the control of the Stadtkreis of Trier was transferred from GHQ to the Third Army
37.
IV Corps (United States)
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IV Corps was a corps-sized formation of the United States Army that saw service in both World War I and World War II. The corps was first organized on 20 June 1918, during World War I as part of the American Expeditionary Forces serving on the Western Front and it participated in the offensives of St. Mihiel and Lorraine, being demobilized in Weimar Republic,11 May 1919. Formerly reactivated without interruptions since October 1939, during World War II, initially the corps had two divisions--the U. S. The corps was inactivated on 13 October 1945, at Camp Kilmer, New Jersey, it was reactivated again at Birmingham, Alabama, in 1958, New York, Enigma Books,1950, republished 2007. ISBN 978-1-929631-59-9 Moraes, Mascarenhas de, The Brazilian Expeditionary Force, the final campaign across Italy, ISBN 85-7011-219-X Wilson, John B. Armies, Corps, Divisions, and Separate Brigades | Army Lineage Series U. S. Government Printing Office,1999
38.
XV Corps (United States)
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The XV Corps of the US Army was initially constituted on 1 October 1933 as part of the Organized Reserves, and was activated on 15 February 1943 at Camp Beauregard, Louisiana. During the Second World War, XV Corps fought for 307 days in the European Theater of Operations, fighting from Normandy through France and southern Germany into Austria. The corps was commanded in combat by Major General Wade H. Haislip, initially as a unit to the Third U. S. Army. After the end of the war the corps was inactivated and reactivated several times, XV Corps took part in the July,1944 breakout from Normandy, Operation Cobra. The corps liberated Le Mans on 8 August 1944, seizing a bridgehead over the Seine River on 20 August 1944, the corps then mopped up German resistance along its west bank. Subsequently, the corps had no divisions assigned to it and used its corps troops to screen the southern flank of the U. S. XII Corps, on 11 September, XV Corps drove toward the Moselle River and crossed it at Charmes the following day. On 13 September, the French 2nd Armored Division, assigned to the corps, after several days of battle, XV Corps liberated Lunéville on 22 September 1944. From 28 September until 10 October 1944, the cleared the Forêt de Parroy in Lorraine against determined German resistance. For another 12 days, XV Corps fought to capture the hill mass east of the Forêt de Parroy On 1 November 1944 and this breakthrough unbalanced German defenses in the northern Vosges and opened the way for Seventh Army troops to advance into Alsace and reach the Rhine River. On 5 December 1944, the corps moved north against German defenses in the Maginot Line around Bitche, the fighting for the old French forts continued until 20 December 1944. Thereafter, the corps assumed a defensive stance, the corps withstood a fierce German counter-offensive into Alsace during January,1945. During this period, XV Corps defended well, restored most of its position by 7 January 1945. From 15 to 23 February 1945, the corps made limited attacks, seizing Forbach, Gros Recherding, subsequently, the corps rested and prepared for offensive action designed to breach the Siegfried Line and invade Germany. On 15 March 1945, XV Corps launched a major offensive, on 20 March 1945, the corps broke through the Siegfried Line, captured Homburg and Zweibrücken and then assaulted across the Rhine River in the region of Worms and Mannheim on 26 March 1945. Taking Bamberg on 13 April 1945, the corps moved south, on 3 May 1945, the corps took Munich, and by the next day the corps had advanced to Salzburg, Austria, where combat operations for the corps ceased. XV Corps is credited with service in the Normandy, Northern France, Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace, XV Corps Headquarters was inactivated in Germany on 31 March 1946. Subsequent to the Second World War, the corps was activated and inactivated several times, with the last inactivation occurring on 31 March 1968 at the Presidio of San Francisco, lieutenant General Wade H. Haislip Major General Walter M. Robertson Weigley, Russell F. Eisenhowers Lieutenants. U. S. Army in World War II, Chronology 1941–1945, armies, Corps, Divisions, and Separate Brigades
39.
Tank destroyer
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The tank destroyer on the other hand is specifically designed to take on enemy armour. Many are based on a tank chassis, while others are wheeled. Since World War II, gun-armed tank destroyers have fallen out of favor as armies have favored multirole main battle tanks, however, lightly armored anti-tank guided missile carriers are commonly used for supplementary long-range anti-tank work. Dedicated anti-tank vehicles made their first major appearance in the Second World War as combatants developed effective armored vehicles, some were little more than stopgap solutions, mounting an anti-tank gun on a tracked vehicle to give mobility, while others were more sophisticated designs. Except for most American designs, tank destroyers were all turretless and had fixed or casemate superstructures, the turretless design allowed accommodation of a more powerful gun, typically a dedicated anti-tank gun that had a longer barrel than could be mounted in a turreted tank on the same chassis. The lack of an increased the vehicles internal volume, allowing for increased ammunition stowage. Eliminating the turret allowed the vehicle to carry thicker armor than would otherwise be the case, sometimes there was no armored roof to keep the overall weight down to the limit that the chassis could bear. Variants of the Polish TKS and TK-3 tankettes up-armed with 20 mm gun were operationally deployed in the invasion of Poland and they were used as an anti-tank component of the reconnaissance units. Due to the defeat of France, few French vehicles were built. The Laffly W15 TCC was an attempt to build a light tank destroyer by mounting a 47 mm SA37 anti-tank gun onto a lightly armored Laffly W15T artillery tractor. Other French tank destroyers were being developed, including the SOMUA SAu-40, ARL V39, for instance,202 obsolete Panzer I light tanks were modified by removing the turret and were rebuilt as the Panzerjäger I self-propelled 4.7 cm PaK. Similarly, Panzer II tanks were used on the eastern front, captured Soviet 76.2 mm anti-tank guns were mounted on modified Panzer II chassis, producing the Marder II self-propelled anti-tank gun. The most common mounting was a German 75 mm anti-tank gun on the Czech Panzer 38 chassis to produce the Marder III, the Panzer 38 chassis was also used to make the Jagdpanzer 38 casemate style tank destroyer. The Panzerjäger series continued up to the 88 mm equipped Nashorn, German tank destroyers based on the Panzer III and later German tanks were unique in that they had more armor than their tank counterparts. One of the more successful German tank destroyers was actually designed as an artillery gun. Based on the Panzer III tank chassis, the Sturmgeschütz III was originally fitted with a low-velocity gun, later, after encountering Soviet tanks, it was refitted with a comparatively short-barreled high-velocity anti-tank gun, usually with a muzzle brake, enabling it to function as a tank destroyer. The Sturmgeschütz III from its 1938 origin used a new superstructure with an integrated design similar to the later Jagdpanzer to completely enclose the crew. It was employed in support and offensive armored operations as well as in the defensive anti-tank role
40.
Camp Shanks
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Camp Shanks was a United States Army installation in the Town of Orangetown in Rockland County, New York. Named after Major General David Carey Shanks, it was situated near the juncture of the Erie Railroad, the camp was the largest U. S. Army embarkation camp used during World War II. Camp Shanks served as a point of embarkation for troops departing overseas during World War II, in 1945 Camp Shanks housed German and Italian prisoners of war. A small museum opened near the site in June 1994, USCGC Eagle Gottlock, Wesley, and Barbara H. Gottlock. Lost Towns of the Hudson Valley
41.
New York Port of Embarkation
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The New York Port of Embarkation was a United States Army command responsible for the movement of troops and supplies from the United States to overseas commands. The command had facilities in New York, New Jersey, roughly covering the extent of todays Port of New York and New Jersey, the sub-ports were at Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia and the Canadian ports of Halifax, Montreal and St. Johns. The World War I port of embarkation was disestablished, seized and requisitioned facilities returned or sold, between the wars reduced operations continued the core concepts of a port of embarkation and as the home port of Atlantic army ships. With war in Europe the army revived the formal New York Port of Embarkation command with the New York port, originally it had the army facilities in Charleston, South Carolina as a sub-port until it was elevated to the Charleston Port of Embarkation as a separate command. The cargo sub-port at Philadelphia remained under the command of NYPOE throughout the war, as the first and by far the largest POE in World War I NYPOE served as the model for general POE concepts and continued its role as the largest of the ports throughout World War II. When war broke out in Europe in 1939 only New York was operating as a port of embarkation on the Atlantic seaboard, an Army Port of Embarkation is not simply some Army shipping terminal. An Army POE was a structure and interconnected land transportation, supply. The scope of the World War II POE is summarized in Army Regulations, AR 55-75 and he will be responsible for the furnishing of necessary instructions to individuals and organizations embarked or debarked at the port. He will be responsible for taking the necessary measures to insure the smooth and orderly flow of troops, any primary POE could have sub-ports and cargo ports even in other cities or temporarily assigned for movements between the United States to one of the overseas commands it normally served. In World War I port facilities in Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, troops embarked aboard all vessels except U. S. Naval transports remained under overall command of the port commander until disembarked overseas. That command was exercised by the Transport Commander whose responsibilities extended to all passengers and cargo, on large troop ships the transport command included a permanent staff of administration, commissary, medical and chaplain personnel. The cargo security officers were representatives of the port commander aboard ships only transporting Army cargo. The Hoboken Port of Embarkation, with New York Port of Embarkation also in use by the close of the war, was established on 27 July 1917 with a port commander having been assigned on 7 July. Previous War Department planning had envisaged ports of embarkation under single commanders, the first headquarters was established at Hoboken, New Jersey using facilities and piers seized from the German owned North German Lloyd and Hamburg-American steamship lines on the Hudson River. The first commander was Brigadier General William M. Wright serving from 1 July to 1 August 1917, on 1 August 1917 Major General David C. Shanks assumed command as the ports of embarkation came under the Embarkation Service until 27 September 1918 when ports were made coordinate agencies directly under the General Staff. The port was briefly under command of two Brigadier Generals, William V. Judson and George H. McManus from 9 September 1918 until General Shanks resumed command on 5 December 1918, by wars end the NYPOE, again under Major General David C. The command included four embarkation hospitals and five hospitals, one general hospital
42.
Missing in action
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Missing in action is a casualty classification assigned to combatants, military chaplains, combat medics, and prisoners of war who are reported missing during wartime or ceasefire. They may have killed, wounded, captured, or deserted. If deceased, neither their remains nor grave has been positively identified, becoming MIA has been an occupational risk for as long as there has been warfare or ceasefire. Until around 1912, service personnel in most countries were not routinely issued with ID tags, as a result, if someone was killed in action and his body was not recovered until much later, there was little or no chance of identifying the remains. Starting around the time of the First World War, nations began to issue their service personnel with purpose-made ID tags and these were usually made of some form of lightweight metal such as aluminium. However, in the case of the British Army the material chosen was compressed fiber, alternatively, there could be administrative errors e. g. g. The forgotten mass grave at Fromelles, as a result, the remains of missing combatants might not be found for many years, if ever. When missing combatants are recovered and cannot be identified after a thorough forensic examination the remains are interred with a tombstone which indicates their unknown status. Although it is possible to take samples from a close relative of the missing person. It is a fact of warfare that some combatants are likely to go missing in action, however, by wearing ID tags and using modern technology the numbers involved can be considerably reduced. In addition to the military advantages, conclusively identifying the remains of missing service personnel is highly beneficial to the surviving relatives. Having positive identification makes it easier to come to terms with their loss. Otherwise, some relatives may suspect that the person is still alive somewhere. However, many of these procedures are not typically used for combatants who are members of militias, mercenary armies, insurrections. It is possible some of the combatants who took part of the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC went missing in action. Certainly, the wars which followed over successive centuries created many MIAs. The list is long and includes most battles which have ever fought by any nation. This made the difficult task of identification even harder
43.
VIII Corps (United States)
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The U. S. VIII Corps was a corps of the United States Army that saw service during various times over a fifty-year period during the 20th century. The VIII Corps was organized 26–29 November 1918 in the Regular Army in France, the VIII Corps was soon reactivated, being constituted in the Organized Reserves in 1921. It was allotted to the Regular Army in 1933 and activated on 14 October 1940 at Fort Sam Houston, the VIII Corps fought across Europe from Normandy to Czechoslovakia in World War II. After World War II, the corps was inactivated and reactivated several times, attacking in early July, the corps pushed through bocage country, taking La Haye-du-Puits and the Mont Castre forest. After closing on the Ay and Sèves Rivers, VIII Corps joined the allied breakout from Normandy on 26 July 1944, on 28 July, the corps took the key road junction of Coutances and liberated Avranches two days later. This decision was deemed a poor use of the two armored divisions in the corps, which could have been used far more profitably in the rapid allied advance eastward across France. On 7 August 1944, the corps took the port of Saint-Malo, after an involved battle lasting almost six weeks and characterized by urban combat and reduction of fortifications, VIII Corps liberated Brest on 19 September 1944. Ironically, after so much effort, German demolition proved so effective that the liberated Breton ports were unusable for the remainder of the war, see Battle for Brest for more details. Reorganizing after the operations in Brittany, VIII Corps moved east to join the rest of the forces along the border of Germany. Still part of Ninth Army, the took over the front in the Ardennes along the Our River. This mission continued until 16 December 1944, when the Germans attacked VIII Corps with over 20 divisions in what came to be known as the Ardennes Offensive. Faced with overwhelming odds, the units of the corps, the U. S. 14th Cavalry Group. On the Schnee Eifel, some 6,700 inexperienced soldiers of VIII Corps were taken prisoner by the Germans, further south, however, other units of the corps conducted a fighting withdrawal that successfully delayed the Germans long enough for the allies to rush reinforcements to the Ardennes. Units of the corps, in particular the U. S, 101st Airborne Division, famously held the key road junction of Bastogne against a five-day German siege that was broken on 26 December 1944, by armored units of the U. S. Third Army advancing from the south, four days later, VIII Corps counter-attacked toward the town of Houffalize. On 16 January 1945, the corps made contact with the U. S, first Army near Houffalize, effectively pinching off the western end of the bulge made in allied lines by the German attacks. The corps reentered Luxembourg on 22 January 1945, and six days later reached the Our River again, in the first week of February 1945, the corps again occupied the Schnee Eifel and pushed through the Siegfried Line. VIII Corps took Pruem on 12 February 1945 and then cleared Siegfried Line fortifications in the area for the remainder of the month
44.
XII Corps (United States)
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The XII Corps fought from northern France to Austria in World War II. Constituted in the Organized Reserves in 1933, it was activated on 29 August 1942 at Columbia, XII Corps became operational in France as part of Lieutenant General George S. Pattons Third Army on 1 August 1944. Initially commanded by Major General Gilbert R. Cook, bad health forced MG Cook to relinquish command to Major General Manton S. Eddy within three weeks. MG Eddy commanded the corps until late April 1945, when his own health problems forced him to turn over command to MG Stafford LeRoy Irwin. Assembling south of Le Mans on 13 August 1944, XII Corps began driving eastward and liberated the cities of Orléans, moving rapidly against disorganized German resistance, the corps rapidly took Sens, Montargis, Troyes, Châlons-sur-Marne, and Vitry-le-François. By 31 August 1944, XII Corps had seized a bridgehead over the Meuse River at Commercy in Lorraine, at the beginning of September 1944, serious gasoline shortages forced an abrupt halt to General Pattons pursuit across northern France. Resuming its advance on 4 September, but facing shortages of gasoline and ammunition because of the allied logistical crisis, a combination of German reinforcements and regained cohesion in the German forces confronting the U. S. Third Army resulted in dramatically increased German resistance in the region of Metz, from the German point of view, Lorraine was seen as part of Germany and would be defended with bitter determination. XII Corps assaulted across the Moselle River at Dieulouard on 13 September 1944, during 15–16 September, the corps liberated Nancy and Lunéville. The advance of XII Corps was met by a counterattack of the Fifth Panzer Army. At Arracourt during 19–20 September 1944, the corps U. S. 4th Armored Division destroyed two German Panzer brigades, desperate fighting continued until 1 October 1944 for the area around Arracourt, Moyenvic, and Grémeceys forest. Resuming its advance, the corps pushed to the river Seille by 9 October 1944, after resting and reorganizing for a month, XII Corps opened an offensive to reach the Saar River on 8 November 1944. Château-Salins was taken on 9 November, and the corps battled through firm German resistance to liberate Faulquemont on 20 November 1944, on 24 November, the corps crossed the Sarre River and then liberated Saint-Avold on 27 November 1944. From 1 to 11 December 1944, XII Corps fought for, on 12 December, the corps entered Germany and began operations against the Siegfried Line fortifications. Germanys surprise offensive into the Ardennes on 16 December 1944, resulted in the U. S, Third Army being moved northward to attack the southern flank of the German army in Belgium and Luxembourg. Turning over its part of the front to the U. S. XV Corps, subsequently, the corps cleared the west bank of the Moselle River in Luxembourg until 11 January 1945. During 18–23 January, XII Corps assaulted across the Sauer River and cleared the twin confluences of the Our River and the Sauer, on 18 February 1945, XII Corps drove on the Prüm River, which it assaulted across on the night of 24–25 February. Bitburg fell to XII Corps on 28 February 1945, the corps assaulted across the Kyll River on the night of 2–3 March 1945, and reached the Rhine River in the area of Andernach on 7 March
45.
Salzburg
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Salzburg is the fourth-largest city in Austria and the capital of the federal state of Salzburg. Salzburgs Old Town is internationally renowned for its architecture and is one of the best-preserved city centers north of the Alps. It was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997, the city has three universities and a large population of students. Tourists also visit Salzburg to tour the historic center and the scenic Alpine surroundings, Salzburg was the birthplace of 18th-century composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. In the mid‑20th century, the city was the setting for the musical play, traces of human settlements have been found in the area, dating to the Neolithic Age. The first settlements in Salzburg continuous with the present were apparently by the Celts around the 5th century BC, around 15 BC the Roman Empire merged the settlements into one city. At this time, the city was called Juvavum and was awarded the status of a Roman municipium in 45 AD, Juvavum developed into an important town of the Roman province of Noricum. After the Norican frontiers collapse, Juvavum declined so sharply that by the late 7th century it became a ruin. The Life of Saint Rupert credits the 8th-century saint with the citys rebirth, when Theodo of Bavaria asked Rupert to become bishop c. 700, Rupert reconnoitered the river for the site of his basilica, Rupert chose Juvavum, ordained priests, and annexed the manor Piding. He traveled to evangelise among pagans, the name Salzburg means Salt Castle. The name derives from the barges carrying salt on the Salzach River, the Festung Hohensalzburg, the citys fortress, was built in 1077 by Archbishop Gebhard, who made it his residence. It was greatly expanded during the following centuries, independence from Bavaria was secured in the late 14th century. Salzburg was the seat of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, a prince-bishopric of the Holy Roman Empire, as the reformation movement gained steam, riots broke out among peasants in the areas in and around Salzburg. The city was occupied during the German Peasants War, and the archbishop had to flee to the safety of the fortress It was besieged for three months in 1525. It was in the 17th century that Italian architects rebuilt the city center as it is today along with many palaces,21,475 citizens refused to recant their beliefs and were expelled from Salzburg. Most of them accepted an offer by King Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia, the rest settled in other Protestant states in Europe and the British colonies in America. In 1772–1803, under archbishop Hieronymus Graf von Colloredo, Salzburg was a centre of late Illuminism, in 1803, the archbishopric was secularised by Emperor Napoleon, he transferred the territory to Ferdinando III of Tuscany, former Grand Duke of Tuscany, as the Electorate of Salzburg
46.
Leopold III of Belgium
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Leopold III reigned as King of the Belgians from 1934 until 1951, when he abdicated in favour of the heir apparent, his son Baudouin. From 1944 until 1950, Leopolds brother, Charles, served as regent while Leopold was declared unable to rule. In 1950, the debate about whether Leopold could resume his royal functions provoked a crisis known as the Royal Question. Leopold was born in Brussels and succeeded to the throne of Belgium on 23 February 1934 following the death of his father, King Albert I. He was invested as Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain in 1923, Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword in 1927, Prince Leopold, Duke of Brabant, was sent by his father to Eton College in the United Kingdom in 1915. After the war, in 1919, the Duke visited the Old Mission and Saint Anthony Seminary in Santa Barbara and he married Princess Astrid of Sweden in a civil ceremony in Stockholm on 4 November 1926, followed by a religious ceremony in Brussels on 10 November. The marriage produced three children, Joséphine-Charlotte, Princess of Belgium, born at the Royal Palace of Brussels on 11 October 1927 and she was married on 9 April 1953 to Prince Jean, later Grand-Duke of Luxembourg. She died at Fischbach Castle on 10 January 2005, Albert, Prince of Liège, Prince of Belgium, who became the sixth King of the Belgians as Albert II, born at Stuyvenberg on 6 June 1934. Leopold married Lilian Baels on 11 September 1941 in a secret, religious ceremony, with no validity under Belgian law. They originally intended to wait until the end of the war for the marriage, but as the new Princesse de Réthy was soon expecting their first child. They had three children in total, Alexandre, Prince of Belgium, born in Brussels on 18 July 1942, in 1991, he married Lea Inga Dora Wohlman, a marriage revealed only seven years later. He died on 29 November 2009, marie-Christine, Princess of Belgium, born in Brussels on 6 February 1951. Her first marriage, to Paul Drucker in 1981, lasted 40 days, marie-Esméralda, Princess of Belgium, born in Brussels on 30 September 1956, a journalist, her professional name is Esmeralda de Réthy. She married Salvador Moncada, a noted pharmacologist, in 1998 and they have a son and a daughter. When World War II broke out in September 1939, the French, Leopold and his government refused, maintaining Belgiums neutrality. On 10 May 1940, the Wehrmacht invaded Belgium, after a short running battle that eventually involved the armies of all four belligerents, Belgium was overwhelmed by the numerically superior and better-prepared Germans. Nevertheless, the Belgian perseverance prevented the British Expeditionary Force from being outflanked and cut off from the coast, after his military surrender, Leopold remained in Brussels to surrender to the victorious invaders, while his entire civil government fled to Paris and later to London. On 24 May 1940, Leopold, having assumed command of the Belgian Army, the ministers urged the king to leave the country with the government
47.
Strobl
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Strobl is a municipality of the Salzburg-Umgebung District, in the northeastern portion of the Austrian state of Salzburg, right on the border with Upper Austria. It comprises the Katastralgemeinden of Aigen, Gschwendt, Strobl, and it lies on the eastern side of lake Wolfgangsee in the Salzkammergut resort region, close to Sankt Gilgen and the Upper Austrian municipalities of St. Wolfgang and Bad Ischl. The town has a population of 3,453 and an area of 93.89 km². Both the main road, from Salzburg and St. Gilgen to Bad Ischl, and the road to St. Wolfgang pass on the edge of Strobl so there is no through traffic. There are several villages around the lake - the main ones being St. Wolfgang im Salzkammergut, a small steamer operates on the lake. Also in Strobl, the University of Vienna operates the Bundesinstitut für Erwachsenenbildung, an institution. There is a promenade on the lakeshore, where one can see sculpture by Toni Schneider-Manzell, de, Toni Schneider-Manzell, Ilse Sprohar, the Laimer Family folk musicians are a local attraction. The area is popular for hiking and watersports in the summer, for skiing in the winter, the former Salzkammergut-Lokalbahn narrow gauge railway to Salzburg went out of service in 1957. Later, Joseph Sigmund Berchtold und Sonnenburg married into the Strobl family, nonetheless, the name Strobl was firmly attached to the area around the Am Schober inn. The first lane as one enters the town from the east is called the Schoberweg. Around 1800, with the expansion of post and stagecoach lines, due to its picturesque setting the village prospered from 1877 to 1890 with tourist trade spilling over from Bad Ischl. During this period as well Strobl regularly hosted events for the aristocracy, after the Second World War, a portion of the estate was converted into the Kurhotel Schloss Strobl. After World War I Strobl became a summer resort for film stars like Emil Jannings. Princess Marie Vassiltchikov, in her memoir Berlin Diaries, mentions stopping in Strobl during her flight after the July 20 Plot against Adolf Hitler. In the last days of World War II, King Leopold III of Belgium and Princess Lilian were interned at Strobl, the town was in the US zone of Allied-occupied Austria after the war, where the villa of the Viennese banking family Deutsch served as an officers club. Strobl was the site of a Displaced Persons camp, in 2008, the Cultural Center which now occupies the villa presented a historical exhibition on local resistance to the Nazis. Strobl has a church, where Prince Tassilo von Fürstenberg is buried. In 1758 the archbishop Sigismund III commissioned Kassian Singer, master builder from Kitzbühel, Singer died before the completion of the project, which was given to Palier Andrä Huber of St. Gilgen
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Army Center of Military History document "106th Cavalry Regiment – Lineage and Honors".