1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
Army National Guard
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The Army National Guard, in conjunction with the Air National Guard, is a militia force and a federal military reserve force of the United States. They are simultaneously part of two different organizations, the National Guard of the states, territories and the District of Columbia. The Army National Guard is divided into units stationed in each of the 50 states. Members or units of the Army National Guard may be ordered, temporarily or indefinitely, if mobilized for federal service, the member or unit becomes part of the Army National Guard of the United States, which is a reserve component of the United States Army. Individuals volunteering for active service may do so subject to the consent of their governors. Governors generally cannot veto involuntary activations of individuals or units for federal service, the President may also call up members and units of the Army National Guard, in its status as the militia of the several states, to repel invasion, suppress rebellion, or enforce federal laws. The Army National Guard of the United States is one of two organizations administered by the National Guard Bureau, the other being the Air National Guard of the United States. The Director of the Army National Guard is the head of the organization, Militia members were required to equip themselves, take part in regular training, and report to their units when called. This war resulted in hundreds of deaths, hundreds of Native Americans sold into slavery or scattered throughout North America, the militias of the Southern New England colonies fought Native Americans again in King Philips War from 1675 to 1676. This conflict led to the defeat of the Narragansets, further straining relationships between Native Americans and white Europeans, but enabling continued white settlement of New England. In addition, the colonists had little interest in paying the taxes to maintain permanent garrisons of British troops, the militias were also an early experiment in democracy, with company grade officers often elected by their men, and the higher officers appointed by colonial governors or legislatures. The colonies did not exert centralized control over the militias or coordinate their efforts, Training typically took place during musters each summer, with militia members reporting for inspection and undergoing several days of training in drill and ceremony. Militia members served throughout the Revolution, often near their homes, Militia units served in combat, as well as carrying out guard duty for prisoners, garrisoning of forts, and local patrols. On some occasions, militia members performed ineffectively, as at the Battle of Camden in North Carolina, on other occasions they performed capably, including the Battles of Lexington and Concord, Battle of Bunker Hill, Battle of Bennington, Battles of Saratoga, and Battle of Cowpens. Perhaps the most important role played by the militia was off the battlefield, during the period of the Articles of Confederation, the weak federal government reduced the Continental Army to a handful of officers and soldiers. The Articles of Confederation required each state to maintain a militia, such consent was not forthcoming in an era when the population still harbored a distrust of a standing army, so Congress largely left the defense of the new nation to the state militias. During the Constitutional Convention in 1787, Federalist delegates argued for a federal government. Federalists anticipated using the military to defend the country if it were attacked, anti-Federalists advocated limited federal government, and wanted continued state control over the militias
3.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
4.
Battle of Eniwetok
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The Battle of Eniwetok was a battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought between 17 February 1944 and 23 February 1944, on Eniwetok Atoll in the Marshall Islands. The invasion of Eniwetok followed the American success in the Battle of Kwajalein to the southeast, capture of Eniwetok would provide an airfield and harbor to support attacks on the Mariana Islands to the northwest. In 1943 the Japanese established light defenses at Eniwetok, they believed that the Americans would strike at the southwestern Marshalls first, the 1st Amphibious Brigade reinforced the defenders in January 1944. Its commander was Major General Yoshimi Nishida, there was also a company of nine Type 95 light tanks, led by First Lieutenant Ichikawa. The 1st Amphibious began to construct defenses, but repeated air attacks made this difficult, vice Admiral Raymond Spruance preceded the invasion with Operation Hailstone, a carrier strike against the Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands. This raid destroyed 39 warships and more than 200 planes, Naval bombardment of Eniwetok began on 17 February, and the 22nd Marine Regiment, commanded by Col John T. Walker, landed on Engebi Island, on 18 February at 08,43 the next day. Resistance was light, and the island was declared secure by 14,50, US losses included 85 dead and missing plus 166 wounded. The island was not secured until 21 February,37 Americans were killed or missing and 94 wounded. The mistake was not repeated at Parry Island, the battleships USS Tennessee and USS Pennsylvania and other ships delivered more than 900 tons of explosive onto the island. The 104th Field Artillery on Eniwetok and the 2nd Separate Pack Howitzer Battalions on Japtan provided additional fire support. The 1/22 and 2/22 Marines landed at 09,00 on 22 February At 19,30, US casualties included 73 dead and missing plus 261 wounded. The vast majority of Japanese soldiers were killed, though 105 survivors were captured, Eniwetok Atoll provided a forward base for the United States Navy for its later operations. Aleutians, Gilberts and Marshalls, June 1942-April 1944, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, the Marshall Islands 1944, Operation Flintlock, the capture of Kwajalein and Eniwetok. US Marine Corps Pacific Theater of Operations 1943-44, US Army Campaigns in World War II. United States Army Center of Military History, breaking the Outer Ring, Marine Landings in the Marshall Islands Heinl, Robert D. and John A. Crown. Historical Division, Division of Public Information, Headquarters U. S. Marine Corps, archived from the original on 16 November 2006. The Amphibians Came to Conquer, The Story of Admiral Richmond Kelly Turner, archived from the original on 21 May 2011. Animated History of The Battle for Eniwetok Soldiers of the 184th Infantry, 7th ID in the Pacific, 1943-1945
5.
Battle of Saipan
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The Battle of Saipan was a battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought on the island of Saipan in the Mariana Islands from 15 June to 9 July 1944. The Allied invasion fleet embarking the expeditionary forces left Pearl Harbor on 5 June 1944, in the campaigns of 1943 and the first half of 1944, the Allies had captured the Solomon Islands, the Gilbert Islands, the Marshall Islands and the Papuan Peninsula of New Guinea. This left the Japanese holding the Philippines, the Caroline Islands, Palau Islands and it had always been the intention of the American planners to bypass the Carolines and Palauan islands and to seize the Marianas and Taiwan. From these latter bases, communications between the Japanese archipelago and Japanese forces to the south and west could be cut. From the Marianas, Japan would be well within the range of an air offensive relying on the new Boeing B-29 Superfortress long-range bomber with its radius of 1,500 mi. The Japanese, expecting an attack somewhere on their perimeter, thought an attack on the Caroline Islands most likely, to reinforce and supply their garrisons, they needed naval and air superiority, so Operation A-Go, a major carrier attack, was prepared for June 1944. Smith XXIV Corps Artillery — Brigadier General Arthur M. Harper 1st Provisional Gun Group 225th Field Artillery Howitzer Group 2nd Marine Division — Major General Thomas E, fifteen battleships were involved, and 165,000 shells were fired. Seven modern fast battleships delivered 2,40016 in shells, but to avoid potential minefields, fire was from a distance of 10,000 yd or more, the following day the eight older battleships and 11 cruisers under Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf replaced the fast battleships but were lacking in time and ammunition, the landings began at 07,00 on 15 June 1944. More than 300 LVTs landed 8,000 Marines on the west coast of Saipan by about 09,00, eleven fire support ships covered the Marine landings. However, by nightfall, the 2nd and 4th Marine Divisions had a beachhead about 6 mi wide and 0.5 mi deep, the Japanese counter-attacked at night but were repulsed with heavy losses. On 16 June, units of the U. S. Armys 27th Infantry Division landed and advanced on the airfield at Ås Lito, again the Japanese counter-attacked at night. On 18 June, Saito abandoned the airfield, the invasion surprised the Japanese high command, which had been expecting an attack further south. Admiral Soemu Toyoda, Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Navy, saw an opportunity to use the A-Go force to attack the U. S. Navy forces around Saipan, on 15 June, he gave the order to attack. But the resulting battle of the Philippine Sea was a disaster for the Imperial Japanese Navy, the garrisons of the Marianas would have no hope of resupply or reinforcement. Without resupply, the battle on Saipan was hopeless for the defenders, Saito organized his troops into a line anchored on Mount Tapotchau in the defensible mountainous terrain of central Saipan. The nicknames given by the Americans to the features of the battle — Hells Pocket, Purple Heart Ridge, the Japanese used the many caves in the volcanic landscape to delay the attackers, by hiding during the day and making sorties at night. The Americans gradually developed tactics for clearing the caves by using flamethrower teams supported by artillery, however, General Holland Smith had not inspected the terrain over which the 27th was to advance
6.
Battle of Okinawa
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The 82-day-long battle lasted from 1 April until 22 June 1945. The Tenth was unique in that it had its own air force. The battle has been referred to as the typhoon of steel in English, the nicknames refer to the ferocity of the fighting, the intensity of Japanese kamikaze attacks, and the sheer numbers of Allied ships and armored vehicles that assaulted the island. The battle was one of the bloodiest in the Pacific, with an total of over 82,000 direct casualties on both sides,14,009 Allied deaths and 77,417 Japanese soldiers. Allied grave registration forces counted 110,071 dead bodies of Japanese soldiers,149,425 Okinawans were killed, committed suicide or went missing, a significant proportion of the estimated pre-war 300,000 local population. As part of the operations surrounding the battle, the Japanese battleship Yamato was sunk. After the battle, Okinawa provided an anchorage, troop staging areas. Expeditionary Troops under Lieutenant General Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr. with Tenth Army, TF56 was the largest force within TF50 and was built around the 10th Army. The army had two corps under its command, III Amphibious Corps, consisting of 1st and 6th Marine Divisions, the 2nd Marine Division was an afloat reserve, and Tenth Army also controlled the 27th Infantry Division, earmarked as a garrison, and 77th Infantry Divisions. In all, the Army had over 102,000 soldiers, at the start of Battle of Okinawa 10th Army had 182,821 men under its command. It was planned that General Buckner would report to Turner until the phase was completed. Although Allied land forces were composed of U. S. units. Although all the carriers were provided by Britain, the carrier group was a combined British Commonwealth fleet with British, Canadian, New Zealand and Australian ships. Their mission was to neutralize Japanese airfields in the Sakishima Islands, most of the air-to-air fighters and the small dive bombers and strike aircraft were U. S. Navy carrier-based airplanes. The Japanese land campaign was conducted by the 67, 000-strong regular 32nd Army and some 9,000 Imperial Japanese Navy troops at Oroku naval base, supported by 39,000 drafted local Ryukyuan people. The Japanese had used kamikaze tactics since the Battle of Leyte Gulf, between the American landing on 1 April and 25 May, seven major kamikaze attacks were attempted, involving more than 1,500 planes. The 32nd Army initially consisted of the 9th, 24th, and 62nd Divisions, the 9th Division was moved to Taiwan prior to the invasion, resulting in shuffling of Japanese defensive plans. Primary resistance was to be led in the south by Lt. General Mitsuru Ushijima, his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Isamu Chō and his chief of operations, Yahara advocated a defensive strategy, whilst Chō advocated an offensive one
7.
107th Infantry Regiment (United States)
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The 107th Infantry Regiment was a regiment of the New York Army National Guard. The regiment was formed in 1917 and disestablished in 1993, the 107th traces its history to the Seventh Regiment of New York. Source,1806, Established in New York in response to the blockade of New York Bay by British ships, four companies were formed and assigned to the First Brigade of the Battalion of Artillery. 1807–1808, Reorganized as the 2nd Battalion, 3rd Regiment of Artillery,1812, Redesignated 2nd Battalion, 11th Regiment of Artillery, New York State Militia. 1812–1814, Deployed in the forts of New York. 1824, Renamed the National Guards in tribute to the Marquis de Lafayette, gray uniforms were adopted and the intention to become a regiment was declared. 1826, Redesignated as the 27th Regiment of Artillery, New York State Militia,1838, A company of cavalry, Company I, is formed and designated the First Troop, National Guard 1847, Redesignated the 7th Regiment of Infantry, New York State Militia. 1849, 7th Regiment suppresses the Astor Place riot,1852, The 7th Regiment Band is organized. 1855, The Engineers Corps is organized, later called Company K.1857,1862, Mustered into federal service in Baltimore. 1862, New York State Militia redesignated the New York National Guard,1863, Mustered into federal service in Maryland. Deployed in New York to quell the Draft Riots,1869, The 7th Regiment is deployed during the Orange Riots. 1880, The 7th Regiment Armory opens in New York City,1895, The 7th Regiment is called up during the Brooklyn Street-Car Strike. 1900, The 7th Regiment is called for duty during the Croton Reservoir labor dispute. 1916, The 7th Regiment is mustered into service to guard the Mexican Border. 1917, The 7th Regiment is drafted into federal service,1917, Redesignated the 107th Infantry and assigned to the 27th Division. 1917–1919, The 7th Infantry, New York Guard serves as the Depot Battalion, 1921–1922, Consolidates with 7th Infantry, New York Guard, and reorganized and federalized as the 107th Infantry. 1940, The 107th Infantry is redesignated the 207th Coast Artillery Anti-Aircraft on 1 August,1940, 7th Regiment, New York State Guard is formed. 1957, Relieved from 107th Regimental Combat Team, assigned to 42d Infantry Division,1959, Relieved from 42d Infantry Division, reorganized as 107th Infantry, parent regiment under the Combat Arms Regimental System
8.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
9.
Regiment
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A regiment is a military unit. Their role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, in Medieval Europe, the term regiment denoted any large body of front-line soldiers, recruited or conscripted in one geographical area, by a leader who was often also the feudal lord of the soldiers. By the 17th century, a regiment was usually about a thousand personnel. In many armies, the first role has been assumed by independent battalions, battlegroups, task forces, brigades and other, similarly-sized operational units. By the beginning of the 18th century, regiments in most European continental armies had evolved into permanent units with distinctive titles and uniforms, when at full strength, an infantry regiment normally comprised two field battalions of about 800 men each or 8–10 companies. In some armies, an independent regiment with fewer companies was labelled a demi-regiment, a cavalry regiment numbered 600 to 900 troopers, making up a single entity. With the widespread adoption of conscription in European armies during the nineteenth century, the regimental system underwent modification. Prior to World War I, a regiment in the French, German, Russian. As far as possible, the battalions would be garrisoned in the same military district, so that the regiment could be mobilized. A cavalry regiment by contrast made up an entity of up to 1,000 troopers. Usually, the regiment is responsible for recruiting and administering all of a military career. Depending upon the country, regiments can be either combat units or administrative units or both and this is often contrasted to the continental system adopted by many armies. Generally, divisions are garrisoned together and share the same installations, thus, in divisional administration, soldiers and officers are transferred in and out of divisions as required. Some regiments recruited from specific areas, and usually incorporated the place name into the regimental name. In other cases, regiments would recruit from an age group within a nation. In other cases, new regiments were raised for new functions within an army, e. g. the Fusiliers, the Parachute Regiment, a key aspect of the regimental system is that the regiment or battalion is the fundamental tactical building block. This flows historically from the period, when battalions were widely dispersed and virtually autonomous. For example, a regiment might include different types of battalions of different origins, within the regimental system, soldiers, and usually officers, are always posted to a tactical unit of their own regiment whenever posted to field duty
10.
New York Army National Guard
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The New York Army National Guard is a component of the New York National Guard and the Army National Guard. Nationwide, the Army National Guard comprises approximately one half of the US Armys available combat forces, National coordination of various state National Guard units are maintained through the National Guard Bureau. The New York Army National Guard maintains 57 armories,21 Field and Combined Support Maintenance facilities, New York Army National Guard units are trained and equipped as part of the United States Army. The same ranks and insignia are used and National Guardsmen are eligible to receive all United States military awards, the New York Guard also bestows a number of state awards for local services rendered in or to the state of New York. During the American Revolution, New York City was occupied by the British 1775-1783, many of the Military companies existing prior to the war were broken up, in 1786 the Militia was reestablished, the regiments in New York City were, Isaac Stoundenbergs 1st Regiment. Richard Varicks 4th Regiment Sebastian Baumans New York City Regiment of Artilley, the militia regiments that New York mobilized included, 2nd Regiment New York State State Militia Infantry mustered into volunteer service as the 82nd New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment. 4th Regiment National Guard Infantry was raised on June 18,1863 and it served in Pennsylvania and was mustered out of service on July 24,1863. 5th Regiment National Guard Infantry was raised on June 18,1863 and it served in Pennsylvania and was mustered out of service on July 22,1863. 6th Regiment National Guard Infantry was raised on June 18,1863 and it served in Baltimore, Maryland, as part of the garrison of that city, and was mustered out of service on July 22,1863. 25th Regiment National Guard Infantry was raised on May 31,1862 for three months service and it served in the garrison of Suffolk, Virginia, and was mustered out of service on September 8,1862. 28th Regiment National Guard Infantry was raised on June 20,1863 and it saw no action during the campaign, and then returned to New York City to help suppress the draft riots there. It was mustered out on July 23,1863 and it served in the Middle Department and was mustered out on September 2,1862. It was mustered a second time for 30 days service during the Gettysburg Campaign on June 18,1863, the 37th was mustered a third time for 30 days on May 6,1864, for guard duty at New Yorks harbor. It mustered out June 6,1864, the New York State Militia was active by the mid-1880s. In 1889 a group of wealthy equestrian enthusiasts were incorporated into the State Militia as Squadron A and their heritage is carried on today by the 101st Cavalry Regiment. The New York Army National Guard was formally created in 1906, the Militia Act of 1903 organized the various state militias into the present National Guard system. The New York Army National Guard despatched elements of the 27th Infantry Division, douglas MacArthur served as an officer and brigade commander in the 42nd Infantry Division during the First World War. For much of the decades of the twentieth century, National Guard personnel typically served One weekend a month
11.
Pacific War
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The Pacific War, sometimes called the Asia-Pacific War, was the theater of World War II that was fought in the Pacific and East Asia. It was fought over a vast area that included the Pacific Ocean and islands, the South West Pacific, South-East Asia, and in China. The Pacific War saw the Allied powers pitted against the Empire of Japan, the formal and official surrender of Japan took place aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945. In Allied countries during the war, The Pacific War was not usually distinguished from World War II in general, or was known simply as the War against Japan. Japan used the name Greater East Asia War, as chosen by a decision on 10 December 1941. Japanese officials integrated what they called the Japan–China Incident into the Greater East Asia War, in Japan, the Fifteen Years War is also used, referring to the period from the Mukden Incident of 1931 through 1945. The Phayap Army sent troops to invade and occupy northeastern Burma, also involved were the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo and Mengjiang, and the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime. The official policy of the U. S. Government is that Thailand was not an ally of the Axis, Japan conscripted many soldiers from its colonies of Korea and Formosa. To a small extent, some Vichy French, Indian National Army, Germany and Italy both had limited involvement in the Pacific War. The German and the Italian navies operated submarines and raiding ships in the Indian, the Italians had access to concession territory naval bases in China, while the Germans did not. After Japans attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declarations of war, mexico, Free France and many other countries also took part, especially forces from other British colonies. Between 1942 and 1945, there were four main areas of conflict in the Pacific War, China, the Central Pacific, South East Asia, U. S. sources refer to two theaters within the Pacific War, the Pacific theater and the China Burma India Theater. However these were not operational commands, in the Pacific, the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands, known as Pacific Ocean Areas and Southwest Pacific Area. In 1945, for a period just before the Japanese surrender. By 1937, Japan controlled Manchuria and was ready to move deeper into China, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident on 7 July 1937 provoked full-scale war between China and Japan. In August 1937, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to fight about 300,000 Japanese troops in Shanghai, the Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 and committed which was known as Nanking Massacre. In March 1938, Nationalist forces won their first victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May. In June 1938, Japan deployed about 350,000 troops to invade Wuhan, the Japanese achieved major military victories, but world opinion—in particular in the United States—condemned Japan, especially after the Panay incident
12.
Brigade
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A brigade is a major tactical military formation that is typically composed of three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment, two or more brigades may constitute a division. Brigades formed into divisions are usually infantry or armored, in addition to combat units, they may include combat support units or sub-units, such as artillery and engineers, and logistic units or sub-units. Historically, such brigades have sometimes been called brigade-groups, on operations, a brigade may comprise both organic elements and attached elements, including some temporarily attached for a specific task. Brigades may also be specialized and comprise battalions of a branch, for example cavalry, mechanized, armored, artillery, air defence, aviation, engineers. Some brigades are classified as independent or separate and operate independently from the division structure. The typical NATO standard brigade consists of approximately 3,200 to 5,500 troops, however, in Switzerland and Austria, the numbers could go as high as 11,000 troops. The Soviet Union, its forerunners and successors, mostly use regiment instead of brigade, a brigades commander is commonly a major general, brigadier general, brigadier or colonel. In some armies, the commander is rated as a General Officer, the brigade commander has a self-contained headquarters and staff. Some brigades may also have a deputy commander, the headquarters has a nucleus of staff officers and support that can vary in size depending on the type of brigade. On operations, additional specialist elements may be attached, the headquarters will usually have its own communications unit. In some gendarmerie forces, brigades are the organizational unit. The brigade as a military unit came about starting in the 15th century when the British army, as such a field army became larger, the number of subordinate commanders became unmanageable for the officer in general command of said army, usually a major general, to effectively command. In order to streamline command relationships, as well as effect some modicum of control, especially in regard to combined arms operations. The terms origin is found in two French roots, which together, meant roughly those who fight, the so-called brigada was a well-mixed unit, comprising infantry, cavalry and normally also artillery, designated for a special task. The size of such brigada ranged from a company of up to two regiments. The brigada was the forerunner of the battalion task force, battle group. The brigade was improved as a unit by the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus
13.
Artillery
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Artillery is a class of large military weapons built to fire munitions far beyond the range and power of infantrys small arms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach fortifications, and led to heavy, as technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery developed for battlefield use. This development continues today, modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility providing the largest share of an armys total firepower, in its earliest sense, the word artillery referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. In common speech, the artillery is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings. However, there is no generally recognised generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth, the United States uses artillery piece, the projectiles fired are typically either shot or shell. Shell is a widely used term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions. By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines, in the 20th Century technology based target acquisition devices, such as radar, and systems, such as sound ranging and flash spotting, emerged to acquire targets, primarily for artillery. These are usually operated by one or more of the artillery arms, Artillery originated for use against ground targets—against infantry, cavalry and other artillery. An early specialist development was coastal artillery for use against enemy ships, the early 20th Century saw the development of a new class of artillery for use against aircraft, anti-aircraft guns. Artillery is arguably the most lethal form of land-based armament currently employed, the majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery. In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was the God of War, although not called as such, machines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity. The first references in the historical tradition begin at Syracuse in 399 BC. From the Middle Ages through most of the era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, the artillery and crew rely on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation, Artillery used by naval forces has changed significantly also, with missiles replacing guns in surface warfare. The engineering designs of the means of delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, in some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery, the actions involved in operating the piece are collectively called serving the gun by the detachment or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The term gunner is used in armed forces for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery. The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either crews or detachments, several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company
14.
Machine gun
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A machine gun is a fully automatic mounted or portable firearm designed to fire bullets in quick succession from an ammunition belt or magazine, typically at a rate of 300 to 1800 rounds per minute. Note that not all fully automatic firearms are machine guns, submachine guns, rifles, assault rifles, shotguns, pistols or cannons may be capable of fully automatic fire, but are not designed for sustained fire. Many machine guns also use belt feeding and open bolt operation, unlike semi-automatic firearms, which require one trigger pull per round fired, a machine gun is designed to fire for as long as the trigger is held down. Nowadays the term is restricted to heavy weapons, able to provide continuous or frequent bursts of automatic fire for as long as ammunition lasts. Machine guns are used against personnel, aircraft and light vehicles, or to provide suppressive fire. Some machine guns have in practice sustained fire almost continuously for hours, because they become very hot, practically all machine guns fire from an open bolt, to permit air cooling from the breech between bursts. They also usually have either a barrel cooling system, slow-heating heavyweight barrel, although subdivided into light, medium, heavy or general-purpose, even the lightest machine guns tend to be substantially larger and heavier than standard infantry arms. Medium and heavy guns are either mounted on a tripod or on a vehicle, when carried on foot. Medium machine guns use full-sized rifle rounds and are designed to be used from fixed positions mounted on a tripod. 50in, the M249 automatic rifle is operated by an automatic rifleman, but its ammunition may be carried by other Soldiers within the squad or unit. The M249 machine gun is a crew-served weapon, Machine guns usually have simple iron sights, though the use of optics is becoming more common. Many heavy machine guns, such as the Browning M2.50 caliber machine gun, are enough to engage targets at great distances. During the Vietnam War, Carlos Hathcock set the record for a shot at 7382 ft with a.50 caliber heavy machine gun he had equipped with a telescopic sight. This led to the introduction of.50 caliber anti-materiel sniper rifles, selective fire rifles firing a full-power rifle cartridge from a closed bolt are called automatic rifles or battle rifles, while rifles that fire an intermediate cartridge are called assault rifles. Unlocking and removing the spent case from the chamber and ejecting it out of the weapon as bolt is moving rearward Loading the next round into the firing chamber. Usually the recoil spring tension pushes bolt back into battery and a cam strips the new round from a feeding device, cycle is repeated as long as the trigger is activated by operator. Releasing the trigger resets the trigger mechanism by engaging a sear so the weapon stops firing with bolt carrier fully at the rear, the operation is basically the same for all autoloading firearms, regardless of the means of activating these mechanisms. Most modern machine guns use gas-operated reloading, a recoil actuated machine gun uses the recoil to first unlock and then operate the action. Machine guns such as the M2 Browning and MG42, are of this type, a cam, lever or actuator demultiplicates the energy of the recoil to operate the bolt
15.
53rd Troop Command
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The 53d Troop Command is an administrative headquarters of the New York Army National Guard that provides direction for units not under another brigade or other formation headquarters. It also provides support to units from other formations in the New York area that are stationed a long way from their higher HQ. The 53d Troop Command descends from a New York Army National Guard administrative grouping established after the American Civil War, following the Civil War, efforts were made to link the varied military units in New York under overall headquarters. As a result of this the 3rd Brigade, New York State Militia, the Brigade consisted of the 4th Battery at Troy, the 6th Battery in Binghamton, the 10th Battalion in Albany, and a number of separate companies. For World War I the Headquarters Detachment was organized on 12 July 1917 and it arrived in Camp Wadsworth, Spartanburg, South Carolina in early fall and was redesignated the 53rd Brigade of the U. S. 27th Division. It was now composed of the 105th Infantry Regiment, the 106th Infantry Regiment, during May 1918, the 53rd Brigade sailed to France and assembled with the Division in the Rue area. The 53d Brigade returned to the US early in 1919 and was demobilized at Camp Upton Long Island on 30 March 1919 and it resumed the designation of the 3rd Brigade, National Guard of New York. In 1921, the 3rd Brigade, consisting of the 2nd, 10th, the Headquarters Company of the 53rd was organized on 13 July 1921 and was again assigned to the US 27th Division. In September 1940, the 106th Infantry was taken out of the Brigade, in December 1940 the 10th was redesignated the 106th Infantry Regiment. On 15 October 1940 the 27th Division was activated for World War II, during December 1941 the Division deployed to its training areas at Fort McClellan, Alabama, to California. From 27 February to 15 March the Division moved to Hilo, the 27th Division was the first National Guard unit to go overseas, this began the longest wartime overseas service of any National Guard Division in the US Army. The Division garrisoned the Hawaiian Islands, the 53d Brigade was responsible for the big island of Hawaii, on 31 August 1942 the Division was triangulized into three main Regimental Combat Teams. The Headquarters 53rd Brigade was redesignated the 27th Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop, specific parts of RCTs of the 27th participated in other campaigns but they did not include the 27th Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop. The Division left Yokohama on 12 December 1945 and arrived in Seattle, the Division was deactivated 31 December 1945 at Ft Lawton, Washington. Creation of State Area Command, Headquarters Troop Command at Washington Avenue Armory, Albany, with the completion of the new headquarters and armory in Latham the HTC was relocated to Latham in November 1986. The closure of the 14th Street Armory compelled the HTC to relocate to Camp Smith, in 1998 space became available at the Valhalla Armory and the headquarters was again relocated to this facility. The National Guard Bureau advised on 26 March 1994 that troop commands had been authorized to be redesignated with a numerical designation, effective 1 July 1994, the STARC-HTC was redesignated with its old 53d designation as the 53rd Troop Command. New York State Division of Military and Naval Affairs, 53rd Troop Command
16.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
17.
6th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)
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The modern division was reformed on 1 February 2008, as a deployable two star Headquarters for service in Afghanistan during Operation Herrick. The division was reformed with a parade and flag presentation at York on Tuesday 5 August 2008. Commanding General Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton 1st Brigade, Major General Hulse 1/11th Foot 2/53rd Foot 1/61st Foot 1 coy, 5/60th Foot 1st Brigade, Major General Pack 1/42nd Foot 1/79th Foot 1/91st Foot 1 coy. 5/60th Foot 2nd Brigade, Colonel Hinde 2nd Foot 2/32nd Foot 1/36th Foot 2nd Brigade and it served on the Western Front for the duration of the First World War, first seeing action in the First Battle of Ypres as part of III Corps. In 1915 the division moved into the Ypres Salient to relieve troops that had fought in the Second Battle of Ypres, the Salient was relatively quiet for the rest of the year, except for an attack on the chateau at Hooge on 9 August. It captured this area on 18 September and they then participated in the attacks on Morval and Le Transloy before being withdrawn on 20 October and moved into Corps Reserve. Total casualties on the Somme were 277 officers and 6,640 other ranks, in November the division moved to the relatively quiet La Bassée sector, and in March 1917 it went to the Loos sector where it conducted operations and trench raids around Hill 70. It was withdrawn on 25 July, shortly before the assault on the hill. From reserve, it went to take part in the Battle of Cambrai as part of III Corps. Four days after the battle ended, the division was withdrawn to rest at Basseux, on 25 March the division was withdrawn to the Ypres Salient again as part of the Second Army. The divisions last two major assaults of the war were in October, on the 8th they captured Bohain and on the 18th they took the high ground overlooking the Sambre–Oise Canal that prepared the way for the Battle of the Sambre. The 6th Division embarked for France on 8 and 9 September and it was commanded by Major-General J. L. Keir, with Colonel W. T. Furse as GSO1. Brigadier-General W. L. H. Paget commanded the Royal Artillery, on 3 November 1939 it was formed in Egypt by the redesignation of the British 7th Infantry Division, under the command of Major-General R. N. OConnor. On 17 June 1940 Divisional H. Q. became H. Q, the Division effectively ceased to exist. The Division reformed in Egypt on 17 February 1941, under the command of Major-General John Evetts, from 7 to 19 April it was temporarily under command of Brigadier C. E. N. Two days later the division was joined from Egypt by 16th Infantry Brigade, gentforce force captured Damascus on 21 June. Despite intense efforts Vichy forces maintained control of the position and the allied effort was switched to the advance on the coast. On 29 September 1941 Major-General Evetts left and Brigadier G. N. C, eleven days later on 10 October that year it was redesignated the 70th Infantry Division, and Major-General Ronald Scobie assumed command
18.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
19.
Battle of the Lys (1918)
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In planning, execution and effects, Georgette was similar to Operation Michael, earlier in the Spring Offensive. The German attack zone was in Flanders, from about 10 kilometres east of Ypres in Belgium to 10 kilometres east of Béthune in France, the front line ran from north-north-east to south-south-west. The Lys River, running from south-west to north-east, crossed the front near Armentières in the middle of this zone. The front was held by the Belgian Army in the far north, by the British Second Army in the north and centre, the German attacking forces were the Sixth Army in the south, and the Fourth Army in the north. Both armies included substantial numbers of the new stosstruppen, trained to lead attacks with the new stormtroop tactics, the British First Army was a relatively weak force, it included several worn-out formations that had been posted to a quiet sector. The German bombardment opened on the evening of 7 April, against the part of the Allied line between Armentières and Festubert. The barrage continued until dawn on 9 April, the Sixth Army then attacked with eight divisions. The German assault struck the Portuguese Second Division, which held a front of about 11 kilometres, the Portuguese division was overrun and withdrew towards Estaires. The British 40th Division collapsed under the German attack and fell back to the north, horne committed his reserves to stem the German breakthrough but they too were defeated. The Germans broke through 15 kilometres of front and advanced up to 8 kilometres, there they were finally halted by British reserve divisions. On 10 April, the Sixth Army tried to push west from Estaires but was contained for a day, pushing north against the flank of the Second Army, also on 10 April, German Fourth Army attacked north of Armentières with four divisions, against the British 19th Division. The Second Army had sent its reserves south to the First Army and the Germans broke through, advancing up to 3 kilometres on a 6 kilometres front, the 25th Division to the south, flanked on both sides, withdrew about 4 kilometres. By 11 April, the British situation was desperate, it was on this day that Haig issued his famous backs to the wall order. On 12 April, the Sixth Army renewed its attack in the south, towards the important supply centre of Hazebrouck, the Germans advanced some 2–4 kilometres and captured Merville. On 13 April they were stopped by the First Australian Division, the British Fourth Division defended Hinges Ridge, the Fifth Division held Nieppe Forest and the 33rd Division was also involved. From 13–15 April, the Germans drove forward in the centre, taking Bailleul,12 kilometres west of Armentières, the Kemmelberg is a height commanding the area between Armentières and Ypres. On 17–19 April, the Fourth Army attacked and was repulsed by the British, on 18 April, the Sixth Army attacked south from the breakthrough area toward Béthune but was repulsed. French marshal, Foch, had assumed supreme command of the Allied forces
20.
German Empire
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The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. The Empire collapsed in the November 1918 Revolution as the Emperor and all the ruling monarchs abdicated, and a republic took over. The German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism, to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarcks pragmatic Realpolitik. He envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany, the war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, comprising the 22 states north of the Main. The new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871, during the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same. The empire had a parliament called the Reichstag, which was elected by universal male suffrage, however, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas
21.
Second Battle of the Somme (1918)
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The Second Battle of the Somme of 1918 was fought during the First World War on the Western Front from late August to early September, in the basin of the River Somme. It was part of a series of successful counter-offensives in response to the German Spring Offensive, after a pause for redeployment, instead, Haig began to plan for an offensive at Albert, which opened on 21 August. The main attack was launched by the British Third Army, with the United States II Corps attached, the second battle began on 21 August with the opening of the Second Battle of Bapaume to the north of the river itself. That developed into an advance which pushed the German Second Army back over a 55 kilometre front, from south of Douai to La Fère, south of Saint-Quentin, Albert was captured on 22 August. On 26 August, the British First Army widened the attack by another twelve kilometres, sometimes called the Second Battle of Arras. The Australian Corps crossed the Somme River on the night of 31 August, and broke the German lines at the Battle of Mont St. Quentin and the Battle of Péronne. The British Fourth Armys commander, General Henry Rawlinson, described the Australian advances of 31 August –4 September as the greatest military achievement of the war, on the morning of 2 September, after a heavy battle, the Canadian Corps seized control of the Drocourt-Quéant line. The battle was fought by the Canadian 1st Division, 4th Division, heavy German casualties were inflicted, and the Canadians also captured more than 6,000 unwounded prisoners. By noon that day the German commander, Erich Ludendorff, had decided to withdraw behind the Canal du Nord, by 2 September, the Germans had been forced back to the Hindenburg Line, from which they had launched their offensive in the spring. In late September/early October, one of the battles of the whole war was the breach of the Hindenburg Line by British. Soon after, the Canadians breached the Hindenburg Line at the Battle of Cambrai, a key part of the German supply line ran parallel with the front. This policy worked but it some very determined work at the St. Quentin Canal, among the prepared defences. List of Canadian battles during World War I Hundred Days Offensive Bomford, beaten Down by Blood, The Battle of Mont St Quentin-Péronne 1918. 1918, Gamble for Victory, The Greatest Attack of World War I, Spring Offensive, New Zealand and the Second Battle of the Somme. The Third Armys Advance to Victory, Western Front 1918, retreat and Rearguard – Somme 1918. Media related to Second Battle of the Somme at Wikimedia Commons
22.
Hindenburg Line
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The Hindenburg Line was a German defensive position of World War I, built during the winter of 1916–1917 on the Western Front, from Arras to Laffaux, near Soissons on the Aisne. In 1916, the German offensive at the Battle of Verdun had been a costly failure, the Anglo-French offensive at the Battle of the Somme had forced a defensive battle on the Germans, leaving the western armies exhausted. On the Eastern Front, the Brusilov Offensive had inflicted huge losses on the Austro-Hungarian armies in Russia, the declaration of war by Romania had placed additional strain on the German army and war economy. The shorter defensive position behind the Noyon Salient was built to economise on manpower, contain an Allied breakthrough, the British and French armies would need about eight weeks to rebuild roads, bridges and railways in the abandoned area before they could attack. By the beginning of 1917, the outlook for the Germans made a retirement inevitable. German divisions on the Western Front numbered 133 on 25 January 1917, reducing the German manpower shortage, greater output of explosives, ammunition and weapons by German industry to provide the means to counter the Allied Materialschlacht was attempted in the Hindenburg Programme of August 1916. Production did not sufficiently increase over the winter, with only 60 percent of the expected to be fulfilled by the summer of 1917. News of the demolitions and the state of French civilians left behind, were serious blows to German prestige in neutral countries. Divisions released by Operation Alberich and other reinforcements, increased the number of divisions on the Aisne front to 38 by early April. The Hindenburg Line was attacked several times in 1917, notably at St. Quentin, Bullecourt, in August 1916 the German armies on the Somme had been subjected to great strain, the IX Reserve Corps had been shattered in the defence of Pozières. Ten fresh divisions had been brought into the Somme front and a division had been put into the line opposite the British. Destruction, capture, damage, wear and defective ammunition had caused 1,068 of 1,208 field guns and 371 of 820 heavy guns to be out of action by the end of August. The 2nd Army had been starved of reinforcements in mid-August, to replace exhausted divisions in the 1st Army, the emergency in Russia caused by the Brusilov Offensive, the entry of Romania into the war and the French counter offensive at Verdun had already overstretched the German army. The new supreme command ordered an end to attacks at Verdun and the dispatch of troops there to Romania. The western front commanders were told that no reserves were available for offensive operations, on 21 September, after the battle of Flers–Courcelette, Hindenburg ordered that the Somme front was to have priority in the west for troops and supplies. By the end of the Battle of Morval Rupprecht had no reserves left on the Somme front, during September, the Germans sent another thirteen fresh divisions to the British sector and scraped up troops wherever they could be found. Defeats inflicted by the French Tenth Army led to the sacking of the 2nd Army Chief of Staff, Hindenburg and Ludendorff demanded domestic changes to complement their strategy changes. German workers were to be subjected to an Auxiliary Service Law that subjected all Germans from 16–50 years old to compulsory service, the new programme was intended to create a trebling of artillery and machine-gun output and a doubling of munitions and trench mortar production
23.
Lewis gun
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The Lewis gun is a First World War-era light machine gun of US design that was perfected and mass-produced in the United Kingdom, and widely used by British and British Empire troops during the war. With its distinctive barrel cooling shroud and top-mounted pan magazine, the Lewis served to the end of the Korean War and it was also widely used as an aircraft machine gun, almost always with the cooling shroud removed, during both world wars. The Lewis gun was invented by U. S. Army colonel Isaac Newton Lewis in 1911, Lewis became frustrated with trying to persuade the U. S. Army to adopt his design, so, retired from the army. He left the United States in 1913 and went to Belgium, Lewis had been working closely with British arms manufacturer the Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited in an effort to overcome some of the production difficulties of the weapon. Lewis and his moved to England before 1914, away from possible seizure in the event of a German invasion. The Belgian army acquired only a handful of his guns and they were not on general issue in the Belgian Army, and were used only in a few forays by motor vehicles, south of Antwerp, against the flank of the invading German Army. The onset of the First World War increased demand for the Lewis gun, the design was officially approved for service on 15 October 1915 under the designation Gun, Lewis. 303-cal. No Lewis guns were produced in Belgium during the war, all manufacture was carried out by BSA in England, Savage did make Lewis guns in.303 British calibre, though. The Model 1916 and Model 1917 were exported to Canada and the United Kingdom, the Savage Model 1917 was generally produced in. 30-06 caliber. A number of guns were supplied to the UK under lend-lease during the Second World War. The Lewis gun was gas operated, a portion of the expanding propellant gas was tapped off from the barrel, driving a piston to the rear against a spring. The piston was fitted with a vertical post at its rear which rode in a helical cam track in the bolt and this allowed the three locking lugs at the rear of the bolt to engage in recesses in the guns body to lock it into place. The post also carried a fixed firing pin, which protruded through an aperture in the front of the bolt, only the Royal Navy retained the tube on their deck-mounted AA-configuration Lewis guns. The Lewis gun used a pan magazine holding 47 or 97 rounds, pan magazines hold the rounds, bullet-noses inwards toward the center, in a radial fan. Unlike the more common drum magazines, which hold the rounds parallel to the axis and are fed by spring tension, the Lewis magazine was driven by a cam on top of the bolt which operated a pawl mechanism via a lever. The operating rod had a toothed underside, which engaged with a cog which wound the spring, when the gun fired, the bolt recoiled and the cog was turned, tightening the spring until the resistance of the spring had reached the recoil force of the bolt assembly. At that moment, as the gas pressure in the fell, the spring unwound, turning the cog. As with a spring, the Lewis gun recoil spring had an adjustment device to alter the recoil resistance for variations in temperature
24.
Distinguished Service Order
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Instituted on 6 September 1886 by Queen Victoria in a Royal Warrant published in the The London Gazette on 9 November, the first DSOs awarded were dated 25 November 1886. It is typically awarded to officers ranked major or higher, during the First World War,8,981 DSOs were awarded, each award being announced in The London Gazette. The order was established for rewarding individual instances of meritorious or distinguished service in war, after 1 January 1917, commanders in the field were instructed to recommend this award only for those serving under fire. Prior to 1943, the order could be only to someone mentioned in despatches. The order is given to officers in command, above the rank of captain. A number of junior officers were awarded the DSO. In 1942, the award of the DSO was extended to officers of the Merchant Navy who had performed acts of gallantry while under enemy attack. Since 1993, its award has been restricted solely to distinguished service and it has, however, despite some very fierce campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan, remained an officers-only award and it has yet to be awarded to a non-commissioned rank. Recipients of the order are known as Companions of the Distinguished Service Order. They are entitled to use the post-nominal letters DSO, one or more gold medal bars ornamented by the Crown may be issued to DSO holders performing further acts of such leadership which would have merited award of the DSO. The bars are worn as clasps on the ribbon of the original award. The medal signifying its award is a cross, enamelled white. In the centre, within a wreath of laurel, enamelled green, is the crown in gold upon a red enamelled background. On the reverse is the royal cypher in gold upon a red enamelled ground, within a wreath of laurel, a ring at the top of the medal attaches to a ring at the bottom of a gold suspension bar, ornamented with laurel. At the top of the ribbon is a gold bar ornamented with laurel. The red ribbon is 1.125 in wide with blue edges. The medals are issued unnamed but some recipients have had their names engraved on the reverse of the suspension bar, the bar for an additional award is plain gold with an Imperial Crown in the centre. The back of the bar is engraved with the year of the award, a rosette is worn on the ribbon in undress uniform to signify the award of a bar
25.
Upstate New York
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Upstate New York is the portion of the American state of New York lying north of New York City. The region includes most of the state of New York, excluding New York City and its environs, as well as Long Island, Upstate New York includes the major cities of Buffalo, Rochester, Albany, and Syracuse. Before the American Revolutionary War, Upstate was populated by Native Americans, the region saw many battles between the Continental Army and the Iroquois, and several treaties drawn up after the war ceded much of the land to settlers of European descent. As a result, Upstate became a hotbed for manufacturing, giving birth to such firms as General Electric, IBM, Kodak, and Xerox, and it welcomed a large influx of immigrants. Since the mid 20th century, American de-industrialization has contributed to economic and population decline Upstate, unlike the New York metropolitan area, Upstate New York contains vast areas of rural land. As a result, Upstate also supports a strong industry, and is notable for its milk and dairy products, its fruit production. New York City is dependent on the resources of Upstate for a variety of services, including the citys water supply. The region is home to popular tourist and recreational destinations, including Niagara Falls, the Adirondack and Catskill Mountains. There is no official boundary between Upstate New York and Downstate New York. The broadest usage of the term Upstate New York excludes only New York City and Long Island, which are always considered to be part of Downstate New York. Another usage locates the Upstate/Downstate boundary further north, at the point where New York Citys suburbs segue into its exurbs, yet another definition uses the prior Census definition of the New York metropolitan area, which until 2010 included Westchester, Rockland, and Putnam Counties. This was the used by the plaintiffs in the federal redistricting case of Rodriguez v. Pataki. Residents of Upstate New York sometimes prefer to identify with a more specific subregion, a number of businesses and institutions in the area have Upstate as part of their name. The other regions of New York State are culturally and economically distinct from the New York City area, the states major metropolitan areas outside of New York City are Buffalo, Rochester, Albany-Schenectady-Troy, and Syracuse, each of whose population exceeds 500,000. The different regions of New York State are influenced by and have affinities with other adjacent regions, Western New York has cultural and economic ties to the other Great Lakes states as well as Southern Ontario. The Capital District, the Hudson Valley, the Mohawk Valley, the North Country, the extreme northern portion of the state, also has strong cultural, economic, linguistic and familial ties to Quebec and Eastern Ontario. Thus, Plattsburgh has close ties to its neighbors in the Montreal area as well as Vermont, much of New York State receives television and radio broadcasts from Canada and there are often other cross-border ties, both historical and familial. A similar relationship can be seen in Northern New England, the Hudson and lower Mohawk Valley has more in common dialectologically with western New England and New York City
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Albany, New York
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Albany is the capital of the U. S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County. Roughly 150 miles north of New York City, Albany developed on the west bank of the Hudson River, the population of the City of Albany was 97,856 according to the 2010 census. With a Census-estimated population of 98,4242013, the Capital District is the third-most populous metropolitan region in the state and 38th in the United States. Fortune 500 companies that have offices in Albany include American Express, J. P. Morgan and Chase, Merrill Lynch, General Electric, Verizon, Goldman Sachs, International Paper, and Key Bank. In the 21st century, the Capital District has emerged as an anchor of Tech Valley. This was the first European settlement in the state, settled by Dutch colonists who built Fort Nassau for fur trading in 1614 and they formed successful relations with both the Mahican and the Mohawk peoples, two major Native American nations in the region. The fur trade attracted settlers who founded a village called Beverwijck near Fort Orange, in 1664 the English took over the Dutch settlements, renaming the city as Albany, in honor of the then Duke of Albany, the future James II of England and James VII of Scotland. The city was chartered in 1686 under English rule. It became the capital of New York State in 1797, following the United States gaining independence in the American Revolutionary War, Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies, and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. Its charter is possibly the longest-running instrument of government in the Western Hemisphere. During the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th, Albany was a center of trade, Albanys main exports at the time were beer, lumber, published works, and ironworks. Beginning in 1810, Albany was one of the ten most populous cities in the United States, in the 20th century, the city opened one of the first commercial airports in the world, the precursor of todays Albany International Airport. During the 1920s a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in the state capital and it marshalled the power of immigrants and their descendants in both cities. In the early 21st century, Albany has experienced growth in the high-technology industry, Albany has been a center of higher education for over a century, with much of the remainder of its economy dependent on state government and health care services. The city has rebounded from the decline of the 1970s and 1980s. Albany is known for its history, commerce, culture, architecture. Albany won the All-America City Award in both 1991 and 2009, Albany is one of the oldest surviving European settlements from the original thirteen colonies and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. The Hudson River area was inhabited by Algonquian-speaking Mohican, who called it Pempotowwuthut-Muhhcanneuw
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Binghamton, New York
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Binghamton /ˈbɪŋəmtən/ is a city in, and the county seat of, Broome County, New York, United States. It lies in the states Southern Tier region near the Pennsylvania border, in a valley at the confluence of the Susquehanna. Binghamton is the city and cultural center of the Binghamton metropolitan area. The population of the city itself, according to the 2010 census, is 47,376. From the days of the railroad, Binghamton was a crossroads and a manufacturing center, and has been known at different times for the production of cigars, shoes. IBM was founded nearby, and the simulator was invented in the city, leading to a notable concentration of electronics-. This sustained economic prosperity earned Binghamton the moniker of the Valley of Opportunity, however, following cuts made by defense firms after the end of the Cold War, the region has lost a significant portion of its manufacturing industry. The city was named after William Bingham, a wealthy Philadelphian who bought the 10,000 acre patent for the land in 1786, then consisting of portions of the towns of Union, significant agricultural growth led to the incorporation of the village of Binghamton in 1834. The Chenango Canal, completed in 1837, connected Binghamton to the Erie Canal and this growth accelerated with the completion of the Erie Railroad between Binghamton and New York City in 1849. With the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad arriving soon after, several buildings of importance were built at this time, including the New York State Inebriate Asylum, opened in 1858 as the first center in the United States to treat alcoholism as a disease. Binghamton incorporated as a city in 1867, and due to the presence of several homes, was nicknamed the Parlor City. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, many moved to the area. During the 1880s, Binghamton grew to become the second-largest manufacturer of cigars in the United States, however, by the early 1920s, the major employer of the region became Endicott Johnson, a shoe manufacturer whose development of welfare capitalism resulted in many amenities for local residents. An even larger influx of Europeans immigrated to Binghamton, and the working class prosperity resulted in the area being called the Valley of Opportunity, in 1913,31 people perished in the Binghamton Clothing Company fire, which resulted in numerous reforms to the New York fire code. Major floods in 1935 and 1936 resulted in a number of deaths, the floods were devastating, and resulted in the construction of flood walls along the length of the Susquehanna and Chenango Rivers. During the Second World War, growth and corporate generosity continued as IBM, along with Edwin Links invention of the flight simulator in Binghamton, IBM transitioned the region to a high-tech economy. Other major manufacturers included Ansco and General Electric, until the Cold War ended, the area never experienced an economic downfall, due in part to its defense-oriented industries. The population of the city of Binghamton peaked at around 85,000 in the mid-1950s, post-war suburban development led to a decline in the city population, as the towns of Vestal and Union experienced rapid growth
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Walton (town), New York
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Walton is a town in Delaware County, New York, United States. The population was 5,576 at the 2010 census, the town is in the west-central part of the county and contains the village of Walton. The town claims to be the Scarecrow capital of the World, Walton was formed in 1797 from the town of Franklin. The original settlement, near the site of the village of Walton, Walton is located in the west-central part of Delaware County, on both sides of the West Branch Delaware River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 97.6 square miles, of which 96.8 square miles is land and 0.77 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 5,607 people,2,391 households, the population density was 57.7 people per square mile. There were 2,958 housing units at a density of 30.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 97. 81% White,0. 34% Black or African American,0. 25% Native American,0. 50% Asian,0. 20% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 03% of the population. 29. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.85. In the town, the population was out with 23. 5% under the age of 18,6. 4% from 18 to 24,25. 7% from 25 to 44,26. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 42 years, for every 100 females there were 92.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.8 males, the median income for a household in the town was $30,550, and the median income for a family was $41,464. Males had an income of $27,463 versus $20,000 for females. The per capita income for the town was $16,779, about 9. 0% of families and 12. 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14. 7% of those under age 18 and 8. 6% of those age 65 or over. Jeri Laber, one of the founders of Human Rights Watch, elected officials for the town of Walton, Supervisor John W. Town of Walton official website Town/Village of Walton
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Oneonta, New York
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Oneonta is a city in southern Otsego County, New York, United States. According to the 2010 U. S. Census, it had a population of 13,901 and its nickname is City of the Hills. While the word oneonta is of undetermined origin, it is believed to mean place of open rocks in the Mohawk language. This refers to a prominent geological formation known as Tablerocks at the end of the city. The city is surrounded by the town of Oneonta, a municipal and political jurisdiction. Oneonta Municipal Airport is north of the city, indigenous ancestors of Algonquin and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans inhabited the land in the territory of Oneonta for thousands of years before European colonists pillaged the area. The Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy are believed to have emerged and gained dominance prior to the 15th century, the areas early European-American settlers did not arrive until around 1775 and consisted mainly of ethnic Palatine German and Dutch settlers moving out of the Hudson and eastern Mohawk valleys. The first such settler in the now known as the Town of Oneonta was Henry Scramling. He had secured a grant of 1,000 acres in the Susquehanna Valley, moved from German Flatts and he left during the Revolution and returned after the conflict with his brothers, George and David Scramling, and his brothers-in-law, John and David Young. Their farms were not far from the mouth of the Otego Creek, the army led by General James Clinton passed through the area in order to join the Sullivan Expedition in 1779 against Iroquois settlements. The first hamlet developed around 1800 and was known as Milfordville. In 1830, the Town of Oneonta was formed parts of two other Towns in the county. Milfordville changed its name to Oneonta in 1832, in 1848, it was incorporated as a village within the Town. In the mid-19th century, the Delaware and Hudson Railroad reached Oneonta, stimulating development as a railroad center, Oneonta was once home to the largest locomotive roundhouse in the world. The village incorporated as a city in 1908, Oneonta is located at 42°27′21″N 75°3′44″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 4.4 square miles. None of the area is covered with water, the city is in the northern foothills of the Catskill Mountains, lying between Binghamton and Albany. The Susquehanna River flows westward past the south part of the city, interstate 88 follows the course of the Susquehanna River past Oneonta
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Mohawk, Montgomery County, New York
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Mohawk is a town in Montgomery County, New York, United States. The population was 3,844 at the 2010 census, the Town of Mohawk is on the north border of the county, west of the City of Amsterdam. The county seat, Fonda, is located in Mohawk, jesuit missionaries entered this region from Quebec around 1642 to work among the Mohawk. The principal village of the Mohawk was Caughnawaga, which was developed as the site of Fonda. The Town was settled around 1725 by colonists from the English/Dutch region to the east around Albany, the Mohawk District, which became the original Town of Mohawk, was created in March 1772 by Sir William Johnson when Tryon County was split off from Albany County. The districts western limit was an arbitrary north-south line drawn through the noses, during the American Revolution, the town was invaded in 1780 by an army of Indians and Tories in 1780. The original District or Town of Mohawk was eliminated in 1793 by its division into the Towns of Florida, the present town was created from part of the Town of Johnstown in 1837. In 1865, the population of Mohawk was 2,948. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 35.4 sq mi. The north town line is the border of Fulton County, New York, New York State Route 5 parallels the Mohawk River. New York State Route 30A and New York State Route 334 intersect NY-5 at Fonda, as of the census of 2000, there were 3,902 people,1,492 households, and 1,074 families residing in the town. The population density was 112.4 people per square mile, there were 1,607 housing units at an average density of 46.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 97. 41% White,0. 41% African-American,0. 31% Native American,0. 69% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 23% from other races, and 0. 92% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 51% of the population,23. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.60 and the family size was 3.05. In the town, the population was out with 26. 0% under the age of 18,6. 8% from 18 to 24,28. 2% from 25 to 44,24. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 94.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.4 males, the median income for a household in the town was $38,125, and the median income for a family was $43,700
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Oneida, New York
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Oneida is a city in Madison County located west of Oneida Castle and east of Canastota, New York, United States. The population was 11,390 at the 2010 census, the city, like both Oneida County and the nearby silver and china maker, was named for the Oneida tribe, which had a large territory here around Oneida Lake during the colonial period. This area was part of the territory of the Oneida tribe during the colonial era, the Oneida were one of the original Five Nations of the Iroquois League and many of its members were allies of the rebels during the American Revolutionary War. Afterward they were forced to cede most of their territory, some in ways to the state of New York. Today the federally recognized Oneida Nation owns land in this vicinity and it operates the Turning Stone Casino and Resort in Verona, New York. It is one of four recognized tribes of Oneida people, the one in the state. In the post-Revolutionary period, central and western New York were settled by migrants from New England. With development of the Erie Canal in the early 19th century, in turn, this town was later chartered as the City of Oneida on March 28,1901. Because of its history, the part of the city has a compact design and is a pedestrian friendly. Oneida is located at 43°5′6″N 75°39′12″W, the city is located between Syracuse and Utica. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 22.1 square miles. Oneida is centrally located among Montreal, Toronto, Buffalo, Boston and it is one hour west of the Adirondack Mountains. It is located just southeast of Oneida Lake, the largest lake entirely within New York The city of Oneida is an example of pre-World War II city design. It was designed at a scale, making it compact. Public buildings, parks, and private residences are located in proximity, the city is gaining popularity with telecommuters who can choose where they live without the constraints of job location. Most residents of the city core are within walking distance to elementary schools, since the late 20th century, there has been renewed interest for increased bicycle infrastructure. Recreational waterways such as the Erie Canal and Oneida Creek are located on the perimeter of the city limits, City parks are distributed throughout the city, with the exception of the rural Mount Hope Reservoir park. Oneida has 10 public tennis courts, seven of them lit, also available are fishing, hiking, mountain biking, cross country skiing, and a winter ice skating rink
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Utica, New York
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Utica is a city in the Mohawk Valley and the county seat of Oneida County, New York, United States. The tenth-most-populous city in New York, its population was 62,235 in the 2010 U. S. census, located on the Mohawk River at the foot of the Adirondack Mountains, Utica is approximately 90 miles northwest of Albany and 45 miles east of Syracuse. Formerly a river settlement inhabited by the Mohawk tribe of the Iroquois Confederacy, Utica attracted European-American settlers from New England during and after the American Revolution. In the 19th century, immigrants strengthened its position as a city between Albany and Syracuse on the Erie and Chenango Canals and the New York Central Railroad. During the 19th and 20th centuries, the citys infrastructure contributed to its success as a manufacturing center, Uticas 20th-century political corruption and organized crime gave it the nicknames Sin City, and later, the city that God forgot. Like other Rust Belt cities, Utica had a downturn beginning in the mid-20th century. Several theories exist about the history of the name Utica, prior to construction of the fort, the Mohawk, Onondaga and Oneida tribes had occupied this area south of the Great Lakes region as early as 4000 BC. The Mohawk were the largest and most powerful tribe in the part of the Mohawk Valley. Colonists had a fur trade with them, in exchange for firearms. The land housing Old Fort Schuyler was part of a 20, since the fort was located near several trails, its position—on a bend at a shallow portion of the Mohawk River—made it an important fording point. The Mohawk called the bend Unundadages, and the Mohawk word appears on the citys seal, during the American Revolution, border raids from British-allied Iroquois tribes harried the settlers on the frontier. George Washington ordered Sullivans Expedition, Rangers, to enter Central New York, more than 40 Iroquois villages were destroyed and their winter stores, causing starvation. In the aftermath of the war, numerous European-American settlers migrated into the state, in 1794 a state road, Genesee Road, was built from Utica west to the Genesee River. That year a contract was awarded to the Mohawk Turnpike and Bridge Company to extend the road northeast to Albany, the Seneca Turnpike was key to Uticas development, replacing a worn footpath with a paved road. The village became a rest and supply area along the Mohawk River for goods, the boundaries of the village of Utica were defined in an act passed by the New York State Legislature on April 3,1798. Utica expanded its borders in subsequent 1805 and 1817 charters, on April 5,1805, the villages eastern and western boundaries were expanded, and on April 7,1817, Utica separated from Whitestown on its west. After completion of the Erie Canal in 1825, the growth was stimulated again. The municipal charter was passed by the legislature on February 13,1832
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Catskill (town), New York
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Catskill is a town in the southeast part of Greene County, New York, United States. The population was 11,775 at the 2010 census, the western part of the town is in the Catskill Park. The town contains a village, also called Catskill, the village of Catskill has a well-defined Main Street that has adjusted to the recent construction of a WalMart, Lowes and Home Depot. There is a boat launch on the Hudson River called Dutchmans Landing. The area of the town was purchased from the natives for some trinkets in 1678, the town was established in 1788 while still part of Albany County. The town was increased by an addition from the town of Woodstock in 1800, but was later decreased upon the formation of the towns of Cairo and Athens. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 64.2 square miles. The east town line is defined by the Hudson River, forming the border of Columbia County, the south town line is the border of Ulster County. The New York State Thruway and U. S. Route 9W pass through the town, on July 23,2003, an F2 tornado ripped across the town. The worst of the damage occurred at the Kiskatom flats, the tornado crossed over New York Route 32 and went past the Friar Tuck Inn, causing two mobile homes to flip over. As of the census of 2000, there were 11,849 people,4,780 households, the population density was 195.8 people per square mile. There were 5,700 housing units at a density of 94.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 89. 84% White,6. 03% Black or African American,0. 32% Native American,0. 61% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 86% from other races, and 2. 32% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 03% of the population,29. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the family size was 2.94. In the town, the population was out with 23. 5% under the age of 18,7. 1% from 18 to 24,27. 3% from 25 to 44,24. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 40 years, for every 100 females there were 90.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.6 males, the median income for a household in the town was $33,531, and the median income for a family was $42,807
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Hudson, New York
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Hudson is a city located along the west border of Columbia County, New York, United States. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 6,713, the city is named after the adjacent Hudson River and ultimately after the explorer Henry Hudson. Hudson is the county seat of Columbia County, Hudson is sister city with Pallisa, Uganda. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 2.3 square miles. 2.2 square miles of it is land and 0.15 square miles, Hudson is located on what began as a spit of land jutting into the Hudson River between the South Bay and North Bay, now both largely filled in. Across the Hudson River lies the town of Athens in Greene County, New York, the town of Greenport borders the other three sides of the city. As of the census of 2010, there were 6,713 people,2,766 households, the population was estimated at 6,648 in 2013. These numbers include the approximately 360 residents of the local Hudson Correctional Facility, the population density was 3,110.8 inhabitants per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 59. 0% White,25. 0% African American,0. 4% Native American,7. 1% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander, hispanic or Latino of any race were 8. 2% of the population. 40. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 3.09. In the city, the population was out with 22. 5% under the age of 18,9. 8% from 18 to 24,27. 3% from 25 to 44,27. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37.5 years, for every 100 females there were 106.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.6 males, the median income for a household in the city was $35,117, and the median income for a family was $37,400. Males had an income of $26,274 versus $22,598 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,353, about 23. 0% of families and 23. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 31. 8% of those under age 18 and 19. 1% of those age 65 or over. The land was purchased from native Mahicans by Dutch settlers in 1662 and was part of the town of Claverack. Settled by New England whalers and merchants hailing primarily from Nantucket, Marthas Vineyard, the self-described Proprietors laid out a city grid, and Hudson grew rapidly as an active port, coming within one vote of being named the capital of New York state. The city grew rapidly and by 1790 was the 24th largest city in the United States, as late as 1820, it was the fourth largest city in New York
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Rome, New York
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Rome is a city in New York State. It is located in Oneida County, which is in north-central or Upstate New York, the population was 33,725 at the 2010 census. Rome is in New Yorks 22nd congressional district, the city developed at an ancient portage site of Native Americans, including the historic Iroquois. The original European settlements developed around fortifications erected in the 1750s to defend the waterway, following the war, the city began to develop with the construction of the Rome Canal in 1796, to connect Wood Creek and the Mohawk River. In the same year the Town of Rome was formally created as a section of Oneida County, for a time, the small community next to the canal was informally known as Lynchville, after the original owner of the property. The Town of Rome was converted into a city by the New York State Legislature on February 23,1870, the residents have called Rome the City of American History. These names refer to a road or path between the Mohawk River to the east, which leads to the Hudson River, and Wood Creek to the west. This ancient trade route joined the Great Lakes and Canada via the Mohawk River to the Hudson River, during the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, this region had much fighting. The British colonists had erected several small forts to guard the Oneida Carrying Place, but, a combined French regular army, Canadian and allied Native American force overwhelmed and massacred a British force here in the Battle of Fort Bull. Later in 1758, after abortive attempts to fortify the area, the British sent a very large force to secure the Oneida Carry and build a stronger rampart complex. Following defeat by the English during the war, the French ceded their territory in North America east of the Mississippi River to England. The English signed the Treaty of Fort Stanwix with the Iroquois, by which they promised to preserve areas west of the Appalachian Mountains as an Indian reserve and it has been described as one of the worst treaties in the History of Anglo-Indian relationships. The treaty has also described as the last desperate effort of the British to create order west of the Appalachians. The British abandoned the fort after that war, it deteriorated and was torn down. At the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, American Continental forces took control of the Fort Stanwix site, the installation survived a siege by the British in the Saratoga Campaign of 1777, becoming renowned as the fort that never surrendered. Patriot militia, regulars, and their Oneida Nation allies under the command of Col. Barry St. Leger. The failed siege, combined with the battle at nearby Oriskany as well as the battles of Bennington, following this success, the Americans were able to gain alliances with France and the Netherlands, now more confident that the rebels had a chance to win. After the repulse of the British at Fort Stanwix, bloody fighting erupted along the American northern frontier, there were terrible losses for both American settlers and the people of the Six Nations, as retaliatory raids were made against each side
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Alabama
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Alabama is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Alabama is the 30th-most extensive and the 24th-most populous of the U. S. states. At nearly 1,500 miles, Alabama has one of the nations longest navigable inland waterways, Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the state bird. Alabama is also known as the Heart of Dixie and the Cotton State, the state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia. The largest city by population is Birmingham, which has long been the most industrialized city, the oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana. From the American Civil War until World War II, Alabama, like many states in the southern U. S. suffered economic hardship, like other southern states, Alabama legislators disenfranchised African Americans and many poor whites at the turn of the century. Following World War II, Alabama grew as the economy changed from one primarily based on agriculture to one with diversified interests. The state economy in the 21st century is based on management, automotive, finance, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, in the Alabama language, the word for a person of Alabama lineage is Albaamo. The word Alabama is believed to have come from the Alabama language, the words spelling varies significantly among historical sources. As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the Alibamon, other spellings of the name have included Alibamu, Alabamo, Albama, Alebamon, Alibama, Alibamou, Alabamu, Allibamou. Sources disagree on the words meaning, some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw alba and amo. The meaning may have been clearers of the thicket or herb gatherers, the state has numerous place names of Native American origin. However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language, an 1842 article in the Jacksonville Republican proposed it meant Here We Rest. This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek, experts in the Muskogean languages have not found any evidence to support such a translation. Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization, trade with the northeastern tribes by the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period and continued until European contact. The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama. This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no links to Mesoamerican culture
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United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
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Square division
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A square division is a designation given to the way military divisions are organized. In a square organization, the main body is composed of four regimental elements. Since a regiment could be split into separate battalions for tactical purposes, on an organizational chart and if the entire division were formed up in the field, the two brigades of two regiments would typically form a square, hence the name. Most European divisions were organized as square divisions prior to World War I and they were generally reorganized as triangular divisions during that war. A triangular division generally had its infantry organized into three regiments, either controlled by the division headquarters or under a single brigade command. See, for example, the changes of the Imperial German Armys 1st Division. Triangular divisions were smaller, allowing for more divisions to be formed, in positional warfare, the regiments were formed in line to cover as much of a sector as possible, and typically formed their own reserves, with one or two battalions forward and the rest in reserve. During World War I, the United States Army formed its divisions as square divisions, U. S. Army divisions remained organized as square divisions after the war and up to World War II. In World War II, the U. S. Army reorganized its divisions as triangular divisions, since the war, combined arms doctrine has all but eliminated the purpose of the all-arms regiment, and brigades are generally organized as combined arms units. The brigades are themselves typically triangular, with three subordinate battalions, Imperial Japanese Army divisions were organized as square divisions prior to 1938 when they began to form triangular divisions during the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Chinese National Revolutionary Army divisions were organized as square divisions prior to mid-1938 during the Second Sino-Japanese War, triangular division House, Jonathan M. Toward combined arms warfare, a survey of 20th century tactics, doctrine and organization. Fort Leavenworth, KS, Combat Studies Institute, US Army Command and General Staff College
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Triangular division
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A triangular division is a designation given to the way military divisions are organized. In a triangular organization, the main body is composed of three regimental maneuver elements. These regiments may be controlled by a headquarters or directly subordinated to the division commander. By contrast, in a division, there were typically two brigades of two regiments. United States Army divisions were square divisions until the beginning of World War II, during that war, infantry divisions were typically triangular, with the division controlling three infantry regiments. Armored divisions were also triangular, but typically organized into combined arms combat commands, after World War II, this structure was retained until the Pentomic Era described above. In the 1960s, United States Army divisions were reorganized as triangular divisions, Combined arms doctrine has all but eliminated regimental purpose, and regiments generally exist only as traditional designations. Most European armies reorganized their divisions as triangular divisions during World War I, many European armies now place greater emphasis on the brigade and in some cases, such as the Portuguese and the Belgian armies, have eliminated the division entirely as a tactical unit. Soviet Army divisions during World War II were generally triangular, with three subordinate regiments, post-war reforms led to a four-regiment division, with three regiments of one arm and the fourth of the other arm. In combat operations, however, the regiment could be divided among the other three to create three combined arms formations essentially the same as a brigade. This structure has for the most part retained in the Russian Army. See, for example, the organization of the 2nd Guards Tamanskaya Motor Rifle Division, imperial Japanese Army and National Revolutionary Army Divisions were organized as square divisions prior to 1938 when they began to form triangular divisions during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Square division Toward Combined Arms Warfare, A Survey of 20th-Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization
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108th Infantry Regiment (United States)
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The 108th Infantry Regiment is a regiment of the New York Army National Guard. It was first formed in 1898 and has been in existence since 1907. As National Guardsmen, Soldiers of the 108th Infantry can be called upon to serve the state, the 108th has served in the Spanish–American War, the Mexican Border War, World War I, World War II, Iraq, and Afghanistan. The 108th Infantry Regiment was originally called the 3rd New York Volunteer Infantry, when the Spanish–American War broke out in April 1898, a new regiment was organized from twelve separate National Guard companies from the 4th Brigade. The 3rd New York, headquartered in Rochester, mustered into service on 17 May 1898 and they were involved in drilling, provost, and camp duty in Virginia and Pennsylvania. The brief war with Spain ended before the regiment could be sent into action, thirty-three members of the 3rd New York died of disease during its short service, with several more dying afterward of typhoid fever contracted while on active duty. As of 2 May 1898 Headquarters – Rochester 1st Battalion Co, E, Niagara Falls After the war the 3rd New York was dissolved and the companies returned to the peacetime National Guard duties of drilling and supporting the state and local authorities. The regiment was reformed on 30 March 1907, in April 1913 the 3rd served in Buffalo during rioting caused by a streetcar workers’ strike. It was also deployed for duty at Pharr, Texas on the Mexican border in 1916 during the U. S. Armys expedition against the guerrilla commander Pancho Villa. In November 1917 the regiment was organized into the 54th Infantry Brigade as part of the 27th Division, by 31 May 1918 the whole regiment had arrived in France. The 27th Division was attached to British forces for training and issued British rifles, the Division ended up fighting alongside the British and Australians for its entire combat service. This included living on the British Tommys relatively scanty rations, the 27th Division initially served in the trenches around Ypres alongside the British from July to September 1918. In September, the New Yorkers joined the British Fourth Army in the infamous Somme region, ordered to advance on 27 September, the 27th Division was unable to hold its gains. Several members of the 108th Infantry Regiment were awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for their actions in the area of Ronssoy on 28–29 September, Private Daniel Moskowitz, G, Private Edward P. Pierce, Co. D, Corporal James Paul Clark, Co, the 54th Brigade attacked as part of the Hundred Days Offensive on 29 September. German artillery, poison gas, and machine guns took a toll as the Americans struggled through barbed wire. The 108th penetrated the German defenses at Quennemont Farm, although they were stalled by severe casualties and an enemy counterattack, many leaderless Americans joined in the Australian attack without orders. This engagement is called the Battle of St. Quentin Canal
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40th Infantry Division (United States)
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The 40th Infantry Division is a modular division of the United States Army. Following the armys modularization the division has become a four brigade combat team division with National Guardsmen from throughout the Pacific/Western United States and its division headquarters is located at Los Alamitos Joint Forces Training Base in Los Alamitos, California. Later, the served in Korea and some of its units were designated for Vietnam. The division was later reorganized redesigned as a National Guard unit completely within California, later reorganizations included units from other states. The 40th Infantry Division was organized at Camp Kearny, near San Diego, California, on 16 September 1917 and it was composed of National Guard units from the states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah. The division was activated on 18 July 1917, as a National Guard division from the California, Nevada and it was sent overseas on 3 August 1918 and redesignated as the 6th Depot Division, received, equipped, trained, and forwarded replacements. Strong was assigned as commander on 25 August 1917, but was replaced less than a month later by Brigadier General G. H. Cameron on 18 September 1917. The division then saw a rapid turnover of leaders – Brigadier General L. S. Lyon, Brigadier General G. H. Cameron, Brigadier General L. S. Lyon, strong again on 8 December 1917. When the division arrived in France in August 1918, the German Army had just completed a series of offensives that started on 21 March and it was decided that the new divisions would be used as depot divisions, supplying fresh troops to the more experienced combat divisions. By the end of the war, the 40th Division had provided over 27,000 replacements to the 26th, 28th, 32nd, 77th, 80th, 81st, 82nd, the division returned to the United States on 30 June 1919 where it was deactivated. The division was reconstituted on 18 June 1926 with its headquarters in Berkeley, the division was organized much as it was in 1917 with a lot of the units coming from Nevada and Utah. However, the Arizona and Colorado infantry regiments were replaced by two new California regiments, the 184th Infantry and 185th Infantry, in 1937 the division headquarters was moved to Los Angeles. Story Major General Ernest J. Dawley Major General Rapp Brush Brigadier General Donald J. Myers The 40th Infantry Division was activated for World War II on 3 March 1941. It was at the time a National Guard division from the California, Nevada Army National Guard, in February 1942, the 40th Infantry Division was reorganized from a square, two-brigade, four-regiment division to a three-regiment division without any intermediate brigade headquarters. Thus the 79th and 80th Infantry Brigade were inactivated, the division departed for overseas service on 23 August 1942. The divisions first overseas assignment was the defense of the outer Hawaiian Islands, Training continued as defensive positions were improved and maintained. In July 1943, the division was concentrated on Oahu, relieved of the North Sector in October 1943, the 40th entered upon a period of intensive amphibious and jungle training. On 20 December 1943, the first units left for Guadalcanal, and by mid-January 1944, movement was completed, on 24 April 1944, it left Guadalcanal for New Britain
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Hawaii
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Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
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V Amphibious Corps
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The V Amphibious Corps was a formation of the United States Marine Corps which was composed of the 3rd, 4th and 5th Marine Divisions in World War II. The three divisions were the landing force for the United States Fifth Fleet and were notably involved in the battles for Tarawa, Saipan. The V Amphibious Corps was commanded by General Holland Howlin Mad Smith followed by General Harry Schmidt, the V Amphibious Corps was formed on 25 August 1943 at Camp Elliot, California. In September 1943, it moved to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, the third was the Amphibian Tractor Group, which was made up of four amphibian tractor battalions and an armored amphibian tractor battalion. Smith,25 August 1943 –11 July 1944 General Harry Schmidt,12 July 1944 –15 February,1946 Brigadier General Graves B, members of the unit who participated in said actions are allowed to wear on their uniforms the appropriate ribbon of the awarded unit citation. V Amphibious Corps Planning for Operation Olympic and the Role of Intelligence in Support of Planning, Marine Corps Staff and Command College. Written in fulfillment of a requirement for the Marine Corps Staff, rottman, Gordon L. U. S. Marine Corps World War II Order of Battle – Ground and Air Units in the Pacific War,1939 –1945. Drez, Ronald J. and Stephen E. Ambrose, twenty-Five Yards of War, The Extraordinary Courage of Ordinary Men in World War II. This three division Marine force was the largest ever committed to a battle in the history of the Corps. It would bear the title V Amphibious Corps or VAC, rottman, Gordon L. and Mike Chappell
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Majuro
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Majuro, /ˈmædʒəroʊ/, is the capital and largest city of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. It is also a large atoll of 64 islands in the Pacific Ocean. It forms a district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. The atoll has an area of 9.7 square kilometres and encloses a lagoon of 295 square kilometres. As with other atolls in the Marshall Islands, Majuro consists of land masses. The main population center, named Delap-Uliga-Djarrit, DUD - three contiguous motus, had 20,301 people as of 2012, Majuro has a port, shopping district, hotels, and an international airport. At the western end of the atoll, about 50 kilometres from D–U–D by road, is the community of Laura. Laura has the highest elevation point on the atoll, estimated at less than 3 metres above sea level, being slightly north of the Equator, Majuro has a tropical climate with temperatures always above 21 °C. Humans have inhabited the atoll for at least 2,000 years, Majuro Atoll was claimed by the German Empire with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884, and the Germans established a trading outpost. As with the rest of the Marshalls, Majuro was captured by the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1914 during World War I, on January 30,1944, United States troops invaded, but found that Japanese forces had evacuated their fortifications to Kwajalein and Enewetak about a year earlier. A single Japanese warrant officer had left as a caretaker. With his capture, the islands were secured and this gave the U. S. Navy use of one of the largest anchorages in the Central Pacific. The lagoon became a forward naval base of operations and was the largest and most active port in the world until the war moved westward when it was supplanted by Ulithi. Following World War II, Majuro came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. It supplanted Jaluit Atoll as the center of the Marshall Islands. The major population centers are the D–U–D communities, the islets of Delap–Uliga–Djarrit, as of 2011, Majuro had a population of 27,797. Most of the population is Christian, the majority follows the United Church of Christ. The Cathedral of the Assumption of the Roman Catholic Apostolic Prefecture of the Marshall Islands is located in Majuro, there is a sizable number of Ahmadi Muslims
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Oahu
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Oʻahu or Oahu /oʊˈɑːhu/, known as The Gathering Place, is the third largest of the Hawaiian Islands. It is home to about two-thirds of the population of the U. S. state of Hawaii, the state capital, Honolulu, is on Oʻahus southeast coast. Along with the rest of the Hawaiian Islands, Oahu is one of the largest and northernmost islands of Polynesia, in the greatest dimension, this volcanic island is 44 miles long and 30 miles across. The length of the shoreline is 227 miles, the island is the result of two separate shield volcanoes, the Waiʻanae and Koʻolau Ranges, with a broad valley or saddle between them. The highest point is Kaʻala in the Waiʻanae Range, rising to 4,003 feet above sea level, the island was home to the Kunia Regional SIGINT Operations Center from 1941 to 2012, it is now home to the National Security Agencys Hawaii Cryptologic Center. The island is home to 953,207 people in 2010, Oʻahu has for a long time been known as the Gathering Place. The term Oʻahu has no confirmed meaning in Hawaiian, other than that of the place itself, ancient Hawaiian tradition attributes the names origin in the legend of Hawaiʻiloa, the Polynesian navigator credited with discovery of the Hawaiian Islands. The story relates that he named the island after a son, residents of Oʻahu refer to themselves as locals, no matter their ancestry. The city of Honolulu—largest city, state capital, and main deepwater marine port for the State of Hawaiʻi—is located here. As a jurisdictional unit, the island of Oʻahu is in the Honolulu County, although as a place name. Well-known features found on Oʻahu include Waikīkī, Pearl Harbor, Diamond Head, Hanauma Bay, Kāneʻohe Bay, Kailua Bay, being roughly diamond-shaped, surrounded by ocean and divided by mountain ranges, directions on Oʻahu are not generally described with the compass directions found throughout the world. Locals instead use directions originally using Honolulu as the central point, to go ewa means traveling toward the western tip of the island, Diamond Head is toward the eastern tip, mauka is inland and makai toward the sea. Oʻahu is also known for having the longest rain shower in history, kaneohe Ranch, Oʻahu, Hawaiʻi reported 247 straight days with rain from August 27,1993 to April 30,1994. The island has many one of them being rainbow state. This is because rainbows are a sight in Hawaiʻi due to the frequent rain showers. The average temperature in Oʻahu is around 70 to 85 degrees, the weather during the winter is cooler, but still warm with the average temperature of 68-78 degrees. The windward side is known for some of the most beautiful beaches in the world, lanikai Beach on the windward coast of Oʻahu has been consistently ranked among the best beaches in the world. The 300-year-old Kingdom of Oʻahu was once ruled by the most ancient aliʻi in all of the Hawaiian Islands, the first great king of Oʻahu was Mailikukahi, the lawmaker, who was followed by many generation of monarchs
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Imperial Japanese Army
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The Imperial Japanese Army or IJA, literally Army of the Greater Japanese Empire, was the official ground-based armed force of the Empire of Japan, from 1871 to 1945. Later an Inspectorate General of Military Aviation became the agency with oversight of the army. During the Meiji Restoration, the forces loyal to Emperor Meiji were samurai drawn primarily from the loyalist daimyōs of Satsuma. This central army, the Imperial Japanese Army, became even more essential after the abolition of the han system in 1871. One of the differences between the samurai and the peasant class was the right to bear arms, this ancient privilege was suddenly extended to every male in the nation. In 1878, the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office, based on the German General Staff, was established directly under the Emperor and was given broad powers for military planning and strategy. The Japanese invasion of Taiwan under Qing rule in 1874 was an expedition by Japanese military forces in response to the Mudan Incident of December 1871. The Paiwan people, who are indigenous peoples of Taiwan, murdered 54 crewmembers of a merchant vessel from the Ryukyu Kingdom on the southwestern tip of Taiwan. 12 men were rescued by the local Chinese-speaking community and were transferred to Miyako-jima in the Ryukyu Islands and it marked the first overseas deployment of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy. Not surprisingly, the new led to a series of riots from disgruntled samurai. One of the riots, led by Saigō Takamori, was the Satsuma Rebellion. Thenceforth, the military existed in an intimate and privileged relationship with the imperial institution, top-ranking military leaders were given direct access to the Emperor and the authority to transmit his pronouncements directly to the troops. The sympathetic relationship between conscripts and officers, particularly junior officers who were mostly from the peasantry, tended to draw the military closer to the people. In time, most people came to look more for guidance in matters more to military than to political leaders. By the 1890s, the Imperial Japanese Army had grown to become the most modern army in Asia, well-trained, well-equipped, however, it was basically an infantry force deficient in cavalry and artillery when compared with its European contemporaries. The Sino-Japanese War would come to symbolize the weakness of the military of the Qing dynasty and this was the result by Japans 120, 000-strong western-style conscript army of two armies and five divisions, which was well-equipped and well-trained when compared with their Qing counterparts. The Treaty of Shimonoseki made the Qing defeat official, with a shift in regional dominance in Asia from China to Japan. In 1899–1900, Boxer attacks against foreigners in China intensified eventually resulting in the siege of the legations in Beijing
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22nd Marine Regiment (United States)
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The 22nd Marine Regiment is an inactive United States Marine Corps infantry regiment. The 22nd Marines was activated in June 1942 during World War II, the Marine regiment was under the command of a task force, the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade, and the 6th Marine Division, fighting in the battles of Eniwetok, Guam, and Okinawa. The regiment served in northern China following the war and were inactivated in March 1946. The 22nd Marines was reactivated at Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia in 1947 and was inactivated in October 1949. The 22nd Marine Regiment was composed of three battalions and one headquarters battalion. The 22nd Marines initially also had a 2nd Separate Howizer Battalion which would become a battalion within the 15th Marine Regiment of the 6th Marine Division upon its formation. The 22nd Marine Regiment was activated on June 1,1942 at Camp Elliot in San Diego, on February 18,1944, the 22nd Marines under the command of Colonel John T. The 22nd Marine proceeded to take Kwajalein and Roi-Namur from March 7 to April 5 and this was the first Marine Corps unit to formally employ fire team tactics in combat. On April 6, the Marine regiment was sent to Guadalcanal for rest, replacements, the Marine regiment was replaced with 500 Marines and Navy corpsmen that were excess with the 3rd Marine Division and replacements from the United States. This greatly reduced the number of experienced Marines, corpsmen, on July 21,1944, the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade assaulted and landed south of the Orote Peninsula on Guam, the largest island of the Mariana Islands. The 3rd Marine Division landed north of the peninsula, in about 20 days of fighting the island was declared free of organized resistance. On August 23, the 4th and 22nd Marine Regiments sailed back to Guadalcanal, the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade was disbanded in September 1944 on Guadalcanal. On April 1,1945, during the invasion of Okinawa, following the landing they pushed north with the rest of the 6th Marine Division and secured the northern portion of the island. On 13 April, the 2nd Battalion, 22nd Marines reached Hedo-Misaki at the northernmost tip of the island. They were eventually pulled down south and placed in the line to the right of the 1st Marine Division where they would secure the city of Naha while taking very heavy casualties. On May 16, the 22nd Marines was ordered to capture Sugar Loaf Hill which was captured with the 29th Marines in two days, after the fighting on Okinawa on June 21, the 22nd Marines was moved to Guam to rest and refit. While recuperating on Guam, the war ended on September 2,1945, the 22nd Marines received a warning order for it to prepare to move to China. The 22nd Marines landed in Tsingtao on October 11,1945 and were there on March 26,1946 when the 6th division was officially inactivated
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Saipan
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Saipan /saɪˈpæn/ is the largest island of the Northern Mariana Islands, a commonwealth of the United States in the western Pacific Ocean. According to the 2010 United States Census, Saipans population was 48,220, the Commonwealths center of government is located in the village of Capitol Hill on the island. Since the entire island is organized as a municipality, most publications term Saipan as the Commonwealths capital. The current Mayor of Saipan is David M. Apatang, who was sworn into office on June 12,2015, Saipan is the second-largest island in the Mariana Islands archipelago, after Guam. It is located about 120 mi north of Guam and 5 nautical miles northeast of Tinian, Saipan is about 12 mi long and 5.6 mi wide, with a land area of 115.38 km2. The western side of the island is lined with sandy beaches, the eastern shore is composed primarily of rugged rocky cliffs and a reef. A narrow underwater bank of Marpi Reef lies 28 mi north of the Saipan, the highest elevation on Saipan is a limestone-covered mountain called Mount Tapochau at 1,560 ft. Unlike many of the mountains in the Mariana Islands, it is not an extinct volcano, to the north of Mount Tapochau towards Banzai Cliff is a ridge of hills. Mount Achugao, situated about 2 miles north, has interpreted to be a remnant of a stratified composite volcanic cone whose Eocene center was not far north of the present peak. Saipans flora is predominantly limestone forest, some developed areas on the island are covered with Leucaena leucocephala, also known as tangan-tangan trees, that were spread broadly some time after World War II. Tangan-Tangan trees were introduced, primarily, as an erosion-prevention mechanism, remaining native forest occurs in small isolated fragments on steep slopes at low elevations and highland conservation areas of the island. Coconuts, papayas, and Thai hot peppers – locally called donni såli or boonie peppers – are among the fruits grow wild. Mango, taro root, breadfruit, and bananas are a few of the many foods cultivated by local families, Saipan is home to a number of endemic bird species. Among them, the Mariana fruit dove, white-throated ground dove, bridled white-eye, golden white-eye, Micronesian myzomela and the endangered nightingale reed warbler. The island used to have a population of giant African land snails, introduced either deliberately as a food source, or accidentally by shipping. In the last few decades, its numbers have been controlled by an introduced flatworm. Unfortunately, possibly due to the flatworm, the native tree-snails also became extinct, Saipan has a tropical marine climate moderated by seasonal trade winds from the northeast from November to March, and easterly winds from May to October. Average year-round temperature is 84 °F, there is little seasonal temperature variation, and Saipan has been cited by the Guinness Book of World Records as having the least fluctuating temperatures in the world
