1.
Graphics display resolution
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The graphics display resolution is the width and height dimensions of an electronic visual display device, such as a computer monitor, in pixels. Certain combinations of width and height are standardized and typically given a name, a higher display resolution in a display of the same size means that displayed content appears sharper. The favored aspect ratio of mass market display industry products has changed gradually from 4,3, then to 16,10, and then to 16,9, the 4,3 aspect ratio generally reflects older products, especially the era of the cathode ray tube. The 16,10 aspect ratio had its largest use in the 1995–2010 period, and the 16,9 aspect ratio tends to reflect post-2010 mass market computer monitor, laptop, and entertainment products displays. The 4,3 aspect ratio was common in older cathode ray tube displays. The 16,10 ratio allowed some compromise between showing older 4,3 aspect ratio broadcast TV shows, but also allowing better viewing of widescreen movies. However, around the year 2005, entertainment industry displays gradually moved from 16,10 to the 16,9 aspect ratio, by about 2007, virtually all mass market entertainment displays were 16,9. In 2011, 1920×1080 was the resolution in the most heavily marketed entertainment market displays. The next standard, 3840×2160 emerged on the market in 2013, also in 2013, displays with 2560×1080 appeared, which closely approximate the common CinemaScope movie standard aspect ratio of 2. 35–2.40. In 2014,21,9 screens with pixel dimensions of 3440×1440 became available as well, in this time frame, with the notable exception of Apple, almost all desktop, laptop, and display manufacturers gradually moved to promoting only 16,9 aspect ratio displays. By 2011, the 16,10 aspect ratio had virtually disappeared from the Windows laptop display market, one consequence of this transition was that the highest available resolutions moved generally downward. NHD is a resolution of 640×360 pixels, which is exactly one ninth of a Full HD frame. Pixel doubling nHD frames will form one 720p frame and pixel tripling nHD frames will form one 1080p frame, one drawback of this resolution is that the vertical resolution is not an even multiple of 16, which is a common macroblock size for video codecs. Video frames encoded with 16×16 pixel macroblocks would be padded to 640×368, H.264 codecs have this padding and cropping ability built-in as standard. The same is true for qHD and 1080p but the amount of padding is more for lower resolutions such as nHD. To avoid storing the eight lines of padded pixels, some prefer to encode video at 624×352. When such video streams are encoded from HD frames or played back on HD displays in full screen mode they are scaled by non-integer scale factors. True nHD frames on the hand has integer scale factors
2.
BT.709
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ITU-R Recommendation BT.709, more commonly known by the abbreviations Rec.709 or BT.709, standardizes the format of high-definition television, having 16,9 aspect ratio. The first edition of the standard was approved in 1990, Rec.709 refers to HDTV systems having roughly two million luma samples per frame. Rec.709 has two parts, Part 2 codifies current and prospective 1080i and 1080p systems with square sampling, in an attempt to unify 1080-line HDTV standards, part 2 defines a common image format with picture parameters independent of the picture rate. Part 1 codifies what are now referred to as 1035i30 and 1152i25 HDTV systems, the 1035i30 system is now obsolete, having been superseded by 1080i and 1080p square-sampled systems. The 1152i25 system was used for equipment in Europe and was never commercially deployed. Rec.709 specifies the following picture rates,60 Hz,50 Hz,30 Hz,25 Hz and 24 Hz, fractional rates having the above values divided by 1.001 are also permitted. Initial acquisition is possible in either progressive or interlaced form, video captured as progressive can be transported with either progressive transport or progressive segmented frame transport. Video captured as interlaced can be transported with interlace transport, in cases where a progressive captured image is transported as a segmented frame, segment/field frequency must be twice the frame rate. Rec.709 defines an R’G’B’ encoding and a Y’CBCR encoding, in the 8-bit encoding, the R’, B’, G’, and Y’ channels have a nominal range of, and the CB and CR channels have a nominal range of with 128 as the neutral value. So in R’G’B’, reference black is and reference white is, and in Y’CBCR, reference black is, values outside the nominal ranges are allowed, but typically they would be clamped for broadcast or for display. Values 0 and 255 are reserved as timing references, and may not contain color data, 709s 10-bit encoding uses nominal values four times those of the 8-bit encoding. 709s nominal ranges are the same as those defined in ITU Rec, note that red and blue are the same as the EBU Tech 3213 primaries while green is halfway between EBU Tech 3213 and SMPTE C. In coverage of the CIE1931 color space the Rec.709 color space is almost identical to Rec.601, when converting between the various HD and SD formats, it would be correct to compensate for the differences in the primaries. Correcting for differences in the primaries would cause the color bars on the converted tape to be inaccurate. Incorrect color bars will cause a master to be rejected by quality control checks, HDTV according to Rec.709 forms luma using R’G’B’ coefficients 0.2126,0.7152, and 0.0722. 601, the match the primaries and white points, so luma corresponds more closely to luminance. Some experts feel that the advantages of correct matrix coefficients do not justify the change from Rec.601 coefficients, although worldwide agreement on a single R’G’B’ system was achieved upon the adoption of Rec. 709, adoption of different luma coefficients created a second flavour of Y’CBCR, Rec.709 is written as if it specifies the capture and transfer characteristics of HDTV encoding - that is, as if it were scene-referred
3.
Image resolution
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Image resolution is the detail an image holds. The term applies to digital images, film images. Higher resolution means more image detail, image resolution can be measured in various ways. Resolution quantifies how close lines can be to other and still be visibly resolved. Resolution units can be tied to physical sizes, to the size of a picture. Line pairs are used instead of lines, a line pair comprises a dark line. A line is either a line or a light line. A resolution of 10 lines per millimeter means 5 dark lines alternating with 5 light lines, photographic lens and film resolution are most often quoted in line pairs per millimeter. The resolution of digital cameras can be described in different ways. Resolution is the capability of the sensor to observe or measure the smallest object clearly with distinct boundaries, there is a difference between the resolution and a pixel. A pixel is actually a unit of the digital Resolution depends upon the size of the pixel, usually, with any given lens setting, the smaller the size of the pixel, the higher the resolution will be and the clearer the object in the image will be. Images having smaller pixel sizes might consist of more pixels, the number of pixels correlates to the amount of information within the image. An image of N pixels height by M pixels wide can have any less than N lines per picture height. Other conventions include describing pixels per unit or pixels per area unit. None of these pixel resolutions are true resolutions, but they are referred to as such. Below is an illustration of how the image might appear at different pixel resolutions. An image that is 2048 pixels in width and 1536 pixels in height has a total of 2048×1536 =3,145,728 pixels or 3.1 megapixels, one could refer to it as 2048 by 1536 or a 3. 1-megapixel image. Or, you can think of it as a low quality image if printed at about 28.5 inches wide
4.
High-definition video
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High-definition video is video of higher resolution and quality than standard-definition. While there is no standardized meaning for high-definition, generally any video image with more than 480 horizontal lines or 576 horizontal lines is considered high-definition. 480 scan lines is generally the even though the majority of systems greatly exceed that. Images of standard resolution captured at rates faster than normal, by a camera may be considered high-definition in some contexts. Some television series shot on video are made to look as if they have been shot on film. The first electronic scanning format,405 lines, was the first high definition television system, from 1939, Europe and the US tried 605 and 441 lines until, in 1941, the FCC mandated 525 for the US. In wartime France, René Barthélemy tested higher resolutions, up to 1,042, in late 1949, official French transmissions finally began with 819. In 1984, however, this standard was abandoned for 625-line color on the TF1 network, modern HD specifications date to the early 1980s, when Japanese engineers developed the HighVision 1, 125-line interlaced TV standard that ran at 60 frames per second. The Sony HDVS system was presented at a meeting of television engineers in Algiers, April 1981. HighVision video is still usable for HDTV video interchange, but there is almost no modern equipment available to perform this function, attempts at implementing HighVision as a 6 MHz broadcast channel were mostly unsuccessful. All attempts at using this format for terrestrial TV transmission were abandoned by the mid-1990s, Europe developed HD-MAC, a member of the MAC family of hybrid analogue/digital video standards, however, it never took off as a terrestrial video transmission format. HD-MAC was never designated for video interchange except by the European Broadcasting Union, in essence, the end of the 1980s was a death knell for most analog high definition technologies that had developed up to that time. In the end, however, the DVB standard of resolutions, the FCC officially adopted the ATSC transmission standard in 1996, with the first broadcasts on October 28,1998. In the early 2000s, it looked as if DVB would be the video standard far into the future, high definition video is defined threefold, by, The number of lines in the vertical display resolution. High-definition television resolution is 1,080 or 720 lines, in contrast, regular digital television is 480 lines or 576 lines. However, since HD is broadcast digitally, its introduction sometimes coincides with the introduction of DTV, additionally, current DVD quality is not high-definition, although the high-definition disc systems Blu-ray Disc and the HD DVD are. The scanning system, progressive scanning or interlaced scanning, progressive scanning redraws an image frame when refreshing each image, for example 720p/1080p. Interlaced scanning yields greater image resolution if subject is not moving, the number of frames or fields per second
5.
Interlaced video
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Interlaced video is a technique for doubling the perceived frame rate of a video display without consuming extra bandwidth. The interlaced signal contains two fields of a video frame captured at two different times and this enhances motion perception to the viewer, and reduces flicker by taking advantage of the phi phenomenon. This effectively doubles the resolution as compared to non-interlaced footage. Interlaced signals require a display that is capable of showing the individual fields in a sequential order. CRT displays and ALiS plasma displays are made for displaying interlaced signals, Interlaced scan refers to one of two common methods for painting a video image on an electronic display screen by scanning or displaying each line or row of pixels. This technique uses two fields to create a frame, one field contains all odd-numbered lines in the image, the other contains all even-numbered lines. A Phase Alternating Line -based television set display, for example, the two sets of 25 fields work together to create a full frame every 1/25 of a second, but with interlacing create a new half frame every 1/50 of a second. To display interlaced video on progressive displays, playback applies deinterlacing to the video signal. The European Broadcasting Union has argued against interlaced video in production and they recommend 720p 50 fps for the current production format—and are working with the industry to introduce 1080p 50 as a future-proof production standard. 1080p 50 offers higher vertical resolution, better quality at lower bitrates, despite arguments against it, television standards organizations continue to support interlacing. It is still included in digital video formats such as DV, DVB. Progressive scan captures, transmits, and displays an image in a similar to text on a page—line by line. The interlaced scan pattern in a CRT display also completes such a scan, the first pass displays the first and all odd numbered lines, from the top left corner to the bottom right corner. The second pass displays the second and all even numbered lines and this scan of alternate lines is called interlacing. A field is an image that contains only half of the lines needed to make a complete picture, persistence of vision makes the eye perceive the two fields as a continuous image. In the days of CRT displays, the afterglow of the displays phosphor aided this effect, interlacing provides full vertical detail with the same bandwidth that would be required for a full progressive scan of twice the perceived frame rate and refresh rate. To prevent flicker, all analog broadcast television systems used interlacing, format identifiers like 576i 50 and 720p 50 specify the frame rate for progressive scan formats, but for interlaced formats they typically specify the field rate. This can lead to confusion, because industry-standard SMPTE timecode formats always deal with frame rate, not field rate
6.
1080p
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1080p is a set of HDTV high-definition video modes characterized by 1080 horizontal lines of vertical resolution, the p stands for progressive scan, id est non-interlaced. The term usually assumes a widescreen ratio of 16,9. It is often marketed as full HD, to contrast 1080p with 720p resolution screens, 1080p video signals are supported by ATSC standards in the United States and DVB standards in Europe. Small camcorders, smartphones and digital cameras can capture still and moving images in 1080p resolution.485 Gbit/s to nominally 3 Gbit/s using uncompressed RGB encoding. Most current revisions of SMPTE 372M, SMPTE 424M and EBU Tech 3299 require YCbCr color space and 4,2,2 chroma subsampling for transmitting 1080p50 and 1080p60 signal. In the United States, the original ATSC standards for HDTV supported 1080p video, in July 2008, the ATSC standards were amended to include H. 264/MPEG-4 AVC compression and 1080p at 50,59.94 and 60 frames per second. Such frame rates require H. 264/AVC High Profile Level 4.2, in Europe, 1080p25 signals have been supported by the DVB suite of broadcasting standards. The 1080p50 format is considered to be a production format and, eventually. EBU requires that legacy MPEG-4 AVC decoders should avoid crashing in the presence of SVC and/or 1080p50 packets, the ITU-T BT.2100 standard that includes advanced 1080p video was subsequently published in July 2016. There is no word when any of the networks will consider airing at 1080p in the foreseeable future. However, satellite services utilize the 1080p/24-30 format with MPEG-4 AVC/H.264 encoding for pay-per-view movies that are downloaded in advance via satellite or on-demand via broadband. At this time, no pay service such as USA, HDNET, etc. nor premium movie channel such as HBO. For material that originates from a progressive scanned 24 frame/s source, MPEG-2 lets the video be coded as 1080p24 and these progressively-coded frames are tagged with metadata instructing a decoder how to perform a 3,2 pulldown to interlace them. In June 2016, Germany commenced terrestrial broadcasts of eight 1080p50 high-definition channels, using DVB-T2 protocol with HEVC encoding, a total of 40 channels will be available by March 2017. Blu-ray Discs are able to hold 1080p HD content, and most movies released on Blu-ray Disc produce a full 1080p HD picture when the player is connected to a 1080p HDTV via an HDMI cable. The Blu-ray Disc video specification allows encoding of 1080p23.976, 1080p24, 1080i50, generally this type of video runs at 30 to 40 megabits per second, compared to the 3.5 megabits per second for conventional standard definition broadcasts. Smartphones with 1080p FullHD display have been available on the market since 2012, as of the end of 2014, it is the standard for mid-range to high-end smartphones and many of the flagship devices of 2014 used even higher resolutions. Several websites, including YouTube, allow videos to be uploaded in the 1080p format, YouTube streams 1080p content at approximately 4 megabits per second compared to Blu-rays 30 to 40 megabits per second
7.
Widescreen
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Widescreen images are a variety of aspect ratios used in film, television and computer screens. In film, a film is any film image with a width-to-height aspect ratio greater than the standard 1.37,1 Academy aspect ratio provided by 35mm film. For television, the screen ratio for broadcasts was 4,3. Between the 1990s and early 2000s,16,9 TV displays came into wide use and they are typically used in conjunction with high-definition television receivers, or Standard-Definition DVD players and other digital television sources. With computer displays, aspect ratios wider than 4,3 are also called widescreen, widescreen computer displays were previously of 16,10 aspect ratio, but now are usually 16,9. Widescreen was first used in the film of the Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight in 1897 and this was not only the longest film that had been released to date at 100 minutes, it was also the first widescreen film being shot on 63mm Eastman stock with five perforations per frame. Widescreen was first widely used in the late 1920s in some films and newsreels. Claude Autant-Lara released a film Pour construire un feu in the early Henri Chretien widescreen process, in 1927, The American aka The Flag Maker was released. In 1926, Spoor and Berggren had released a Natural Vision film of Niagara Falls, the Natural Vision widescreen process used 63. 5mm film and had a 2,1 aspect ratio. On May 26,1929, Fox Film Corporation released Fox Grandeur News, which premiered at Graumans Chinese Theatre in Hollywood on October 2,1930, all of which were also made in the 70mm Fox Grandeur process. On November 13,1930, United Artists released The Bat Whispers directed by Roland West in a 70mm widescreen process known as Magnafilm, warner Brothers released Song of the Flame and Kismet in a widescreen process they called Vitascope. In 1930, after experimenting with the system called Fanthom Screen for The Trail of 98, MGM filmed The Great Meadow in Realife—however, its unclear if it was ever released in that widescreen process due to declining interest of the movie-going public. S. However, a few producers and directors, among them Alfred Hitchcock, have been reluctant to use the anamorphic widescreen size featured in such formats as Cinemascope. Hitchcock alternatively used VistaVision, a widescreen process developed by Paramount Pictures. Masked widescreen was introduced in April 1953, a detriment is that the film grain size is thus increased because only part of the image is being expanded to full height. Films are designed to be shown in cinemas in masked widescreen format, in such an instance, a photographer will compose for widescreen, but protect the full image from things such as microphones and other filming equipment. Standardized flat wide screen ratios are 1.66,1,1.75,1,1.85,1,1.85,1 has become the predominant aspect ratio for the format. 35mm anamorphic – This type of widescreen is used for CinemaScope, Panavision, the film is essentially shot squeezed, so that the actors appear vertically elongated on the actual film
8.
Aspect ratio (image)
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The aspect ratio of an image describes the proportional relationship between its width and its height. It is commonly expressed as two separated by a colon, as in 16,9.5 yards high. The most common ratios used today in the presentation of films in cinemas are 1.85,1 and 2.39,1. Two common videographic aspect ratios are 4,3, the video format of the 20th century. Other cinema and video aspect ratios exist, but are used infrequently, in still camera photography, the most common aspect ratios are 4,3,3,2, and more recently being found in consumer cameras 16,9. Other aspect ratios, such as 5,3,5,4, in motion picture formats, the physical size of the film area between the sprocket perforations determines the images size. The universal standard is a frame that is four perforations high, the film itself is 35 mm wide, but the area between the perforations is 24.89 mm×18.67 mm, leaving the de facto ratio of 4,3, or 1.33,1. A4,3 ratio mimics human eyesight visual angle of 155°h x 120°v, the motion picture industry convention assigns a value of 1.0 to the image’s height, an anamorphic frame is often incorrectly described as 2.40,1 or 2.40. After 1952, a number of aspect ratios were experimented with for anamorphic productions, a SMPTE specification for anamorphic projection from 1957 finally standardized the aperture to 2.35,1. An update in 1970 changed the ratio to 2.39,1 in order to make splices less noticeable. This aspect ratio of 2.39,1 was confirmed by the most recent revision from August 1993, in American cinemas, the common projection ratios are 1.85,1 and 2.39,1. Some European countries have 1.66,1 as the wide screen standard, the Academy ratio of 1.375,1 was used for all cinema films in the sound era until 1953. During that time, television, which had a aspect ratio of 1.33,1. Hollywood responded by creating a number of wide-screen formats, CinemaScope, Todd-AO. The flat 1.85,1 aspect ratio was introduced in May 1953, and became one of the most common cinema projection standards in the U. S. and elsewhere. The goal of these lenses and aspect ratios was to capture as much of the frame as possible, onto as large an area of the film as possible. In either case the image was squeezed horizontally to fit the frame size. Development of various film camera systems must ultimately cater to the placement of the frame in relation to the constraints of the perforations
9.
Pixel
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The address of a pixel corresponds to its physical coordinates. LCD pixels are manufactured in a grid, and are often represented using dots or squares. Each pixel is a sample of an image, more samples typically provide more accurate representations of the original. The intensity of each pixel is variable, in color imaging systems, a color is typically represented by three or four component intensities such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. The word pixel is based on a contraction of pix and el, the word pixel was first published in 1965 by Frederic C. Billingsley of JPL, to describe the elements of video images from space probes to the Moon. Billingsley had learned the word from Keith E. McFarland, at the Link Division of General Precision in Palo Alto, McFarland said simply it was in use at the time. The word is a combination of pix, for picture, the word pix appeared in Variety magazine headlines in 1932, as an abbreviation for the word pictures, in reference to movies. By 1938, pix was being used in reference to pictures by photojournalists. The concept of a picture element dates to the earliest days of television, some authors explain pixel as picture cell, as early as 1972. In graphics and in image and video processing, pel is often used instead of pixel, for example, IBM used it in their Technical Reference for the original PC. A pixel is generally thought of as the smallest single component of a digital image, however, the definition is highly context-sensitive. For example, there can be printed pixels in a page, or pixels carried by electronic signals, or represented by digital values, or pixels on a display device, or pixels in a digital camera. This list is not exhaustive and, depending on context, synonyms include pel, sample, byte, bit, dot, Pixels can be used as a unit of measure such as,2400 pixels per inch,640 pixels per line, or spaced 10 pixels apart. For example, a high-quality photographic image may be printed with 600 ppi on a 1200 dpi inkjet printer, even higher dpi numbers, such as the 4800 dpi quoted by printer manufacturers since 2002, do not mean much in terms of achievable resolution. The more pixels used to represent an image, the closer the result can resemble the original, the number of pixels in an image is sometimes called the resolution, though resolution has a more specific definition.3 megapixels. The pixels, or color samples, that form an image may or may not be in one-to-one correspondence with screen pixels. In computing, a composed of pixels is known as a bitmapped image or a raster image
10.
Refresh rate
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The refresh rate is the number of times in a second that a display hardware updates its buffer. For example, most movie projectors advance from one frame to the next one 24 times each second, but each frame is illuminated two or three times before the next frame is projected using a shutter in front of its lamp. As a result, the movie runs at 24 frames per second. On cathode ray tube displays, increasing the rate decreases flickering. However, if a refresh rate is specified that is beyond what is recommended for the display, for computer programs or telemetry, the term is also applied to how frequently a datum is updated with a new external value from another source. It is limited by the maximum horizontal scan rate and the resolution. The refresh rate can be calculated from the scan rate by dividing the scanning frequency by the number of horizontal lines multiplied by 1.05. For instance, a monitor with a horizontal scanning frequency of 96 kHz at a resolution of 1280 ×1024 results in a rate of 96,000 ÷ ≈89 Hz. CRT refresh rates have historically been an important factor in game programming. Traditionally, one of the principles of game programming is to avoid altering the computers video buffer except during the vertical retrace. This is necessary to prevent flickering graphics or screen tearing, some video game consoles such as the Famicom/Nintendo Entertainment System did not allow any graphics changes except during the retrace. Contrary to popular belief, liquid-crystal displays do suffer from flickering problems and it is still necessary to avoid modifying graphics data except during the retrace phase to prevent tearing from an image that is rendered faster than the display operates. CRTs have the ability to use light guns and pens. These are devices with a photosensor that detects the electron beam and this can be used to determine if a specific graphics object is on the screen. The light gun is a variant used in arcade games. Unlike light pens, they are held at a distance from the screen, light pens and guns cannot be used on fixed-pixel displays because they have no electron beam to detect. Pen tablets and touchscreen LCDs are used as a substitute for them, the Nintendo DS is an example of a video game system that has a touchscreen LCD. Refresh rate or the resolution of an LCD is the number of times per second in which the display draws the data it is being given
11.
CCIR System M
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Japan uses System J, which is nearly identical to System M. The systems were given their letter designations in the ITU identification scheme adopted in Stockholm in 1961, both System M and System J display 525 lines of video at 30 frames per second using 6 MHz spacing between channel numbers, and is used for both VHF and UHF channels. Currently, System M and J is being replaced by digital broadcasting such as the Americas, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, strictly speaking, System M does not designate how color is transmitted. In NTSC-M and Japans NTSC-J, the rate is offset slightly, becoming 30⁄1.001 frames per second. PAL-M signals are at 30 frames per second instead of slowing down to 29.97 like NTSC, NTSC — dominant color system used with System M, so much so that System M is often referred to as NTSC
12.
NTSC
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The first NTSC standard was developed in 1941 and had no provision for color. In 1953 a second NTSC standard was adopted, which allowed for television broadcasting which was compatible with the existing stock of black-and-white receivers. NTSC was the first widely adopted broadcast color system and remained dominant until 1997, North America, parts of Central America, and South Korea are adopting or have adopted the ATSC standards, while other countries are adopting or have adopted other standards instead of ATSC. After nearly 70 years, the majority of over-the-air NTSC transmissions in the United States ceased on January 1,2010, the majority of NTSC transmissions ended in Japan on July 24,2011, with the Japanese prefectures of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima ending the next year. In March 1941, the committee issued a standard for black-and-white television that built upon a 1936 recommendation made by the Radio Manufacturers Association. Technical advancements of the side band technique allowed for the opportunity to increase the image resolution. The NTSC selected 525 scan lines as a compromise between RCAs 441-scan line standard and Philcos and DuMonts desire to increase the number of lines to between 605 and 800. The standard recommended a frame rate of 30 frames per second, other standards in the final recommendation were an aspect ratio of 4,3, and frequency modulation for the sound signal. In January 1950, the committee was reconstituted to standardize color television, in December 1953, it unanimously approved what is now called the NTSC color television standard. The compatible color standard retained full backward compatibility with existing black-and-white television sets, Color information was added to the black-and-white image by introducing a color subcarrier of precisely 315/88 MHz. These changes amounted to 0.1 percent and were tolerated by existing television receivers. The FCC had briefly approved a different color standard, starting in October 1950. However, this standard was incompatible with black-and-white broadcasts and it used a rotating color wheel, reduced the number of scan lines from 525 to 405, and increased the field rate from 60 to 144, but had an effective frame rate of only 24 frames per second. CBS rescinded its system in March 1953, and the FCC replaced it on December 17,1953, with the NTSC color standard, later that year, the improved TK-41 became the standard camera used throughout much of the 1960s. The NTSC standard has been adopted by countries, including most of the Americas. With the advent of television, analog broadcasts are being phased out. Most US NTSC broadcasters were required by the FCC to shut down their analog transmitters in 2009, low-power stations, Class A stations and translators were required to shut down by 2015. NTSC color encoding is used with the System M television signal, each frame is composed of two fields, each consisting of 262.5 scan lines, for a total of 525 scan lines
13.
PAL-M
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PAL-M is the analog TV system used in Brazil since February 19,1972. At that time, Brazil was the first South American country to broadcast in colour, colour TV broadcast began on September 1972 when the TV networks Globo, Tupi and Bandeirantes TV transmitted the Caxias do Sul Grape Festival. Transition from black and white to colour was not complete until 1977, two years later, in 1979 colour broadcast nationwide in Brazil was commonplace. PAL-M signals are identical to North American NTSC signals, except for the encoding of the colour carrier, therefore, PAL-M will display in monochrome with sound on an NTSC set and vice versa. PAL-M is incompatible with 625-line based versions of PAL, because its rate, scan line, colour subcarrier. It will therefore give a rolling and/or squashed monochrome picture with no sound on a native European PAL television. PAL-M being a unique to one country, the need of to convert it to/from other standards often arises. Conversion to/from NTSC is easy, as only the colour needs to be changed. Frame rate and scan lines can remain untouched, conversion to/from PAL/625 lines/25 frame/s and SECAM/625/25 signals involves changing the frame rates as well as the scan lines. This is achieved using complicated circuitry involving a frame store. The fact that the encoding of PAL-M and PAL/625/25 is the same does not help. However some special VHS video recorders are available which can allow viewers the flexibility of enjoying PAL-M recordings using a standard PAL colour TV, or even through multi-system TV sets. Video recorders like Panasonic NV-W1E, AG-W2, AG-W3, NV-J700AM, Aiwa HV-MX100, HV-MX1U, the PAL colour system can also be applied to an NTSC-like 525-line picture to form what is often known as PAL-60. This non-standard signal is a used in European domestic VCRs. Its not identical to PAL-M and incompatible with it, because the colour subcarrier is at a different frequency, it will display in monochrome on PAL-M. Before SBTVD, from 1999 to 2000, the ABERT/SET group in Brazil did system comparison tests of DTV under the supervision of the CPqD foundation, the comparison tests were done under the direction of a work group of SET and ABERT. Originally, Brazil including Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay are planned to adopt the DVB-T system, however, the ABERT/SET group selected ISDB-T as the best system among ATSC, DVB-T and ISDB-T. The outdoor coverage of field-tests result in Brazilian digital television tests show that ISDB-T is most robust system in Brazil
14.
576i
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576i is a standard-definition video mode originally used for broadcast television in most countries of the world where the utility frequency for electric power distribution is 50 Hz. Because of its association with the colour encoding system, it is often referred to as simply PAL, PAL/SECAM or SECAM when compared to its 60 Hz NTSC-colour-encoded counterpart. The 576 identifies a vertical resolution of 576 lines, and the i identifies it as an interlaced resolution and its basic parameters common to both analogue and digital implementations are,576 scan lines or vertical pixels of picture content,25 frames per second. Digital information not to be displayed as part of the image can be transmitted in the lines, teletext and other services. Analogue television signals have no pixels, they are rastered in scan lines, in digital applications, the number of pixels per line is an arbitrary choice as long as it fulfils the sampling theorem. Values above about 500 pixels per line are enough for conventional broadcast television, DVB-T, DVD and DV allow better values such as 704 or 720. The video format can be transported by major digital television formats, ATSC, DVB and ISDB, and on DVD, when 576i video is transmitted via baseband, most of the differences between the one-letter systems are no longer significant, other than vertical resolution and frame rate. Digital video uses its own separate space, so even the minor colour space differences between PAL and SECAM become moot in the digital domain. When 576i is used to transmit content that was composed of 25 full progressive frames per second. This is the opposite of NTSC, motion pictures are typically shot on film at 24 frames per second. When telecined and played back at PALs standard of 25 frames per second and this also applies to most TV series that are shot on film or digital 24p. Depending on the system in use, it also slightly increases the pitch of the soundtrack by 70.67 cents. More recently, digital conversion methods have used algorithms which preserve the pitch of the soundtrack. Conversion methods exist that can convert 24 frames per second video to 25 frames per second with no speed increase, however image quality suffers when conversions of this type are used. This method is most commonly employed through conversions done digitally, and is employed in situations where the importance of preserving the speed of the video outweighs the need for image quality. Many movie enthusiasts prefer PAL over NTSC despite the formers speed-up, because the results in telecine judder. States the majority of authorities on the subject favour PAL over NTSC for DVD playback quality, also DVD reviewers often make mention of this cause. For example, in his PAL vs. NTSC article, the founder of MichaelDVD says, Personally, I find all but intolerable and find it very hard to watch a movie on an NTSC DVD because of it
15.
PAL
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Phase Alternating Line is a colour encoding system for analogue television used in broadcast television systems in most countries broadcasting at 625-line /50 field per second. Other common colour encoding systems are NTSC and SECAM, all the countries using PAL are currently in process of conversion or have already converted standards to DVB, ISDB or DTMB. This page primarily discusses the PAL colour encoding system, the articles on broadcast television systems and analogue television further describe frame rates, image resolution and audio modulation. To overcome NTSCs shortcomings, alternative standards were devised, resulting in the development of the PAL, the goal was to provide a colour TV standard for the European picture frequency of 50 fields per second, and finding a way to eliminate the problems with NTSC. PAL was developed by Walter Bruch at Telefunken in Hannover, Germany, with important input from Dr. Kruse, the format was patented by Telefunken in 1962, citing Bruch as inventor, and unveiled to members of the European Broadcasting Union on 3 January 1963. When asked, why the system was named PAL and not Bruch the inventor answered that a Bruch system would not have sold very well. The first broadcasts began in the United Kingdom in June 1967, the one BBC channel initially using the broadcast standard was BBC2, which had been the first UK TV service to introduce 625-lines in 1964. Telefunken PALcolor 708T was the first PAL commercial TV set and it was followed by Loewe-Farbfernseher S920 & F900. Telefunken was later bought by the French electronics manufacturer Thomson, Thomson also bought the Compagnie Générale de Télévision where Henri de France developed SECAM, the first European Standard for colour television. The term PAL was often used informally and somewhat imprecisely to refer to the 625-line/50 Hz television system in general, accordingly, DVDs were labelled as PAL or NTSC even though technically the discs do not carry either PAL or NTSC composite signal. CCIR 625/50 and EIA 525/60 are the names for these standards, PAL. Both the PAL and the NTSC system use a quadrature amplitude modulated subcarrier carrying the chrominance information added to the video signal to form a composite video baseband signal. The frequency of this subcarrier is 4.43361875 MHz for PAL and NTSC4.43, the SECAM system, on the other hand, uses a frequency modulation scheme on its two line alternate colour subcarriers 4.25000 and 4.40625 MHz. Early PAL receivers relied on the eye to do that cancelling, however. The effect is that phase errors result in changes, which are less objectionable than the equivalent hue changes of NTSC. In any case, NTSC, PAL, and SECAM all have chrominance bandwidth reduced greatly compared to the luminance signal. The 4.43361875 MHz frequency of the carrier is a result of 283.75 colour clock cycles per line plus a 25 Hz offset to avoid interferences. Since the line frequency is 15625 Hz, the carrier frequency calculates as follows,4.43361875 MHz =283.75 ×15625 Hz +25 Hz
16.
SECAM
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SECAM, also written SÉCAM, is an analogue colour television system first used in France. It was one of three major television standards, the others being the European PAL and North American NTSC. Development of SECAM began in 1956 by a led by Henri de France working at Compagnie Française de Télévision. The first SECAM broadcast was made in France in 1967, making it the first such standard to go live in Europe, the system was also selected as the standard for colour in the Soviet Union, who began broadcasts shortly after the French. The standard spread from these two countries to many client states and former colonies, SECAM remained a major standard into the 2000s. It is in the process of being phased out and replaced by DVB, work on SECAM began in 1956. The technology was ready by the end of the 1950s, a version of SECAM for the French 819-line television standard was devised and tested, but not introduced. The first proposed system was called SECAM I in 1961, followed by studies to improve compatibility. These improvements were called SECAM II and SECAM III, with the latter being presented at the 1965 CCIR General Assembly in Vienna, further improvements were SECAM III A followed by SECAM III B, the adopted system for general use in 1967. Soviet technicians were involved in the development of the standard, and created their own incompatible variant called NIR or SECAM IV, the team was working in Moscows Telecentrum under the direction of Professor Shmakov. The NIR designation comes from the name of the Nautchno-Issledovatelskiy Institut Radio, two standards were developed, Non-linear NIR, in which a process analogous to gamma correction is used, and Linear NIR or SECAM IV that omits this process. SECAM was inaugurated in France on 1 October 1967, on la deuxième chaîne, a group of four suited men—a presenter and three contributors to the systems development—were shown standing in a studio. Following a count from 10, at 2,15 pm the black-and-white image switched to color, in 1967, CLT of Lebanon became the third television station in the world, after the Soviet Union and France, to broadcast in color utilizing the French SECAM technology. The first color television sets cost 5000 Francs, color TV was not very popular initially, only about 1500 people watched the inaugural program in color. A year later, only 200,000 sets had been sold of an expected million and this pattern was similar to the earlier slow build-up of color television popularity in the US. SECAM was later adopted by former French and Belgian colonies, Greece, the Soviet Union and Eastern bloc countries, and Middle Eastern countries. However, with the fall of communism, and following a period when multi-standard TV sets became a commodity, other countries, notably the United Kingdom and Italy, briefly experimented with SECAM before opting for PAL. Since late 2000s, SECAM is in the process of being phased out, some have argued that the primary motivation for the development of SECAM in France was to protect French television equipment manufacturers
17.
European Broadcasting Union
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The European Broadcasting Union is an alliance of public service media entities, established on 12 February 1950. As of 2015, the organisation comprises 73 active members in 56 countries, most EU states are part of this organisation and therefore EBU has been subject to supranational legislation and regulation. It also hosted debates between candidates for the European Commission presidency for the 2014 parliamentary elections but is unrelated to the institution itself and it is best known for producing the Eurovision Song Contest. EBU is a member of the International Music Council, Members of the EBU are radio and television companies, most of which are government-owned public service broadcasters or privately owned stations with public service missions. Active Members come from as far north as Iceland and as far south as Egypt, from Ireland in the west and Azerbaijan in the east, Associate Members are from countries and territories beyond Europe, such as Canada, Japan, Mexico, India, and Hong Kong. Associate Members from the United States include ABC, CBS, NBC, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, Time Warner, and the only individual station, Chicago-based classical music station WFMT. Active Members are those paying EBU members meeting all technical criteria for full membership, syria is an example of a country within the EBA not complying with all technical criteria for full membership, and thus it is currently only granted Associated Membership. The EBUs highest profile production is the Eurovision Song Contest, organised by its Eurovision Network, the countries represented in the EBU also co-operate to create documentaries and childrens programming. Most EBU broadcasters have a deal to carry the Olympics. Another annually recurring event which is broadcast across Europe through the EBU is the Vienna New Years Concert, the theme music played before EBU broadcasts is Marc-Antoine Charpentiers Prelude to Te Deum. It is well known to Europeans as it is played before and after the Eurovision Song Contest, the EBU was a successor to the International Broadcasting Union that was founded in 1925 and had its administrative headquarters in Geneva and technical office in Brussels. It fostered programming exchanges between members and mediated disputes between members that were mostly concerned with frequency and interference issues. It was in effect taken over by Nazi Germany during the Second World War, france proposed that it would have four votes with the inclusion of its North African colonies. Great Britain felt it would have influence with just one vote. On 27 June 1946 the alternative International Broadcasting Organisation was founded with 26 members, the following day the IBU met in General Assembly and an attempt was made to dissolve it but failed, though 18 of its 28 members left to join the IBO. For a period of time in the late 1940s both the IBU and IBO vied for the role of organising frequencies but Britain decided to be in involved in neither, the BBC attempted but failed to find suitable working arrangements with them. However, for practical purposes the IBO rented the IBU technical centre in Brussels, in August 1949 a meeting took place in Stresa, Italy but it resulted in disagreement between delegates on how to resolve the problems. One proposal was for the European Broadcasting Area to be replaced by one that would exclude Eastern Europe, after Stresa, a consensus emerged among the Western Europeans to form a new organisation and the BBC proposed it be based in London
18.
Cathode ray tube
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The cathode ray tube is a vacuum tube that contains one or more electron guns and a phosphorescent screen, and is used to display images. It modulates, accelerates, and deflects electron beam onto the screen to create the images, the images may represent electrical waveforms, pictures, radar targets, or others. CRTs have also used as memory devices, in which case the visible light emitted from the fluorescent material is not intended to have significant meaning to a visual observer. In television sets and computer monitors, the front area of the tube is scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster. An image is produced by controlling the intensity of each of the three beams, one for each additive primary color with a video signal as a reference. A CRT is constructed from an envelope which is large, deep, fairly heavy. The interior of a CRT is evacuated to approximately 0.01 Pa to 133 nPa. evacuation being necessary to facilitate the flight of electrons from the gun to the tubes face. That it is evacuated makes handling an intact CRT potentially dangerous due to the risk of breaking the tube and causing a violent implosion that can hurl shards of glass at great velocity. As a matter of safety, the face is made of thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-resistant and to block most X-ray emissions. Flat panel displays can also be made in large sizes, whereas 38 to 40 was about the largest size of a CRT television, flat panels are available in 60. Cathode rays were discovered by Johann Hittorf in 1869 in primitive Crookes tubes and he observed that some unknown rays were emitted from the cathode which could cast shadows on the glowing wall of the tube, indicating the rays were traveling in straight lines. In 1890, Arthur Schuster demonstrated cathode rays could be deflected by electric fields, the earliest version of the CRT was known as the Braun tube, invented by the German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1897. It was a diode, a modification of the Crookes tube with a phosphor-coated screen. In 1907, Russian scientist Boris Rosing used a CRT in the end of an experimental video signal to form a picture. He managed to display simple geometric shapes onto the screen, which marked the first time that CRT technology was used for what is now known as television. The first cathode ray tube to use a hot cathode was developed by John B. Johnson and Harry Weiner Weinhart of Western Electric and it was named by inventor Vladimir K. Zworykin in 1929. RCA was granted a trademark for the term in 1932, it released the term to the public domain in 1950. The first commercially made electronic television sets with cathode ray tubes were manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934, in oscilloscope CRTs, electrostatic deflection is used, rather than the magnetic deflection commonly used with television and other large CRTs
19.
Television set
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A television set, more commonly called a television, TV, TV set, television receiver, or telly, is a device that combines a tuner, display, and loudspeakers for the purpose of viewing television. Introduced in the late 1920s in mechanical form, television became a popular consumer product after World War II in electronic form. The addition of color to broadcast television after 1953 further increased the popularity of television sets in the 1960s, the ubiquitous television set became the display device for the first recorded media in the 1970s, such as Betamax, VHS and later DVD. It was also the display device for the first generation of home computers, in the 2010s flat panel television incorporating liquid-crystal displays, especially LED-backlit LCDs, largely replaced cathode ray tubes and other displays. Modern flat panel TVs are typically capable of display and can also play content from a USB device. Mechanical televisions were sold from 1928 to 1934 in the United Kingdom, United States. The Baird Televisor is considered the first mass-produced television, selling about a thousand units, the first commercially made electronic televisions with cathode ray tubes were manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934, followed by other makers in France, Britain, and America. The cheapest model with a 12-inch screen was $445, an estimated 19,000 electronic televisions were manufactured in Britain, and about 1,600 in Germany, before World War II. About 7, 000–8,000 electronic sets were made in the U. S. before the War Production Board halted manufacture in April 1942, production resuming in August 1945. While only 0. 5% of U. S. households had a television in 1946,55. 7% had one in 1954, and 90% by 1962. In Britain, there were 15,000 television households in 1947,1.4 million in 1952, by the late 1960s and early 1970s, color television had come into wide use. In Britain, BBC1, BBC2 and ITV were regularly broadcasting in colour by 1969, during the first decade of the 21st century, CRT picture tube display technology was almost entirely supplanted worldwide by flat panel displays. By the early 2010s, LCD TVs, which increasingly used LED-backlit LCDs, television sets may employ one of several available display technologies. The production of plasma and CRT displays has been almost completely discontinued, the cathode ray tube is a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns and a fluorescent screen used to view images. It has a means to accelerate and deflect the beam onto the screen to create the images. The images may represent electrical waveforms, pictures, radar targets or others, the CRT uses an evacuated glass envelope which is large, deep, fairly heavy, and relatively fragile. As a matter of safety, the face is made of thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-resistant and to block most X-ray emissions. In television sets and computer monitors, the front area of the tube is scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster
20.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
21.
Discovery Communications
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Discovery Communications, Inc. is an American global mass media and entertainment company based in Silver Spring, Maryland. The company started as a channel in 1985, The Discovery Channel. DCI both produces original programming and acquires content from producers worldwide. A. T. in October 2016. NBCUniversal executive David Zaslav was named president and CEO on November 16,2006, on September 17,2008, Discovery Holding Company completed a restructuring plan. The new fully public company and trades on the NASDAQ stock market under the symbols DISCA, DISCB, SEC filings are submitted by the Discovery Holding Company. In May 2014, Discovery and Liberty Global announced an agreement to form a 50,50 joint venture to acquire All3Media, a producer and distributor of TV programming. On November 10,2015, Discovery and Liberty Global made a joint investment of $195–400 million in Lionsgate, DCI operates its businesses in the following groups, Discovery Networks U. S. Discovery Networks International, Discovery Studios Group, Discovery Digital Media, the company started out with just a single channel, Discovery Channel, launched in 1985. In 1991, they acquired Discovery Channels rival, The Learning Channel, in the mid-90s, Discovery Communications started developing several new networks. The first of these to launch was Animal Planet, which was launched in cooperation with the BBC in 1996 and this was followed by the 1998 launches of Discovery Wings Channel and Discovery Health Channel. In 2012, the company debuted Velocity, a network that has become the leader in upscale male programming, beating several sports niche competitor channels in ratings, Discovery Communications also signed on OWN, The Oprah Winfrey Network. Since its launch, OWN has grown to become the #1 network with African-American women, OWN has seen double and triple-digit ratings growth following the success of series The Haves and Haves Not and Greenleaf. The company employs an extensive localization strategy by offering customized schedules, Discovery Networks International has five regional operations spanning Asia-Pacific, Central & Eastern Europe, Middle East and Africa, Latin America/U. S. Hispanic, Northern Europe, and Southern Europe, with headquarters in Singapore, Warsaw, Miami, London, Mumbai. In June 2015, Discovery Communications won the multiplatform rights across Europe to the Olympic Games from 2018 to 2024, Discovery and Eurosport promised more coverage than ever across screens to Europes 700 million residents. This deal includes Discovery Channel, TLC, ID and Eurosport, the deal also includes digital rights. Discovery also signed deals with TDC and Sky Eurosport has also expanded its deal with The All England Club to show all the Wimbledon matches live in 16 additional countries and it is a 3-year deal that includes exclusive TV and digital rights. This expands their tennis portfolio to show all four Grand Slams, Eurosport Digital will be the first client in order to upgrade its suite of digital products to be powered by BAMTech’s video platform
22.
Viacom
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Viacom, Inc. is an American media conglomerate with interests primarily in cinema and cable television. It is currently the sixth largest broadcasting and cable company in terms of revenue—behind Comcast, The Walt Disney Company, Time Warner, and CBS Corporation. Voting control of Viacom is held by National Amusements, Inc. a privately owned theater company controlled by the billionaire Sumner Redstone, Redstone also holds – via National Amusements – a controlling stake in CBS Corporation. The current incarnation of Viacom was created on December 31,2005 as a spin-off from the incarnation of Viacom. CBS Corporation currently retains control of the broadcasting, TV production, subscription pay television and publishing assets. Predecessor firms of the original Viacom included Gulf+Western and Westinghouse Electric Corporation, in addition, the company was facing issues after MTV was banned from producing any more Super Bowl halftime shows after the Super Bowl Halftime Show controversy of 2004. Redstone was set to retire in the future, and a split was seen as a creative solution to the matter of replacing him. A new company, the present Viacom, was created and was headed by Freston and it comprises BET Networks, MTV Networks, and Paramount Pictures Corporation. In June 2005, Viacom announced its purchase of Neopets, a virtual pet website, along with GameTrailers, GoCityKids and that December, Paramount announced it would acquire DreamWorks. On February 1,2006, Paramount completed its acquisition of DreamWorks. On April 24, Viacom obtained Xfire, in August, just hours before announcing its most recent quarterly earnings, Viacom announced that it had acquired Atom Entertainment for $200 million. In September, Viacom acquired game developer Harmonix for $175 million, in February 2007, Viacom ordered leaked copyrighted video clips be taken off the videosharing service YouTube for copyright reasons. On February 21, Viacom publicly announced they would be offering free access to their own material through Silicon Valleys distributor Joost thanks to a thorough content licensing deal. All future Viacom content for India and new ventures such as a Hindi entertainment channel, on December 19,2007, Viacom signed a five-year, $500 million contract with Microsoft that included content sharing and advertisement. The deal allowed Microsoft to license many shows from Viacom owned cable television and film studios for use on Xbox Live, the deal also made Viacom a preferred publisher partner for casual game development and distribution through MSN and Windows. On the advertisement side of the deal, Microsofts Atlas ad-serving division became the provider of previously unsold advertising inventory on Viacom owned web sites. Also, Microsoft purchased a large amount of advertising on Viacom owned broadcasts, finally, Microsoft will also collaborate on promotions and sponsorships for MTV and BET award shows, two Viacom owned cable networks. On December 4,2008, Viacom announced layoffs of 850 personnel, at the end of the year, Time Warner Cable and Viacoms MTV Networks could not come to terms for the renewal of any Viacom channel beyond the end of year
23.
Time Warner
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Time Warner Inc. is an American multinational media and entertainment conglomerate headquartered in New York City. It is currently the third largest entertainment company in terms of revenue, after Comcast. It was also once the worlds largest media conglomerate, Time Warner was first founded in 1990 with the merger of Time Inc. and Warner Communications. The current company consists largely of the assets of the former Warner Communications, Time Warner currently has major operations in film and television, with a limited amount in publishing operations. Among its most popular assets are HBO, Turner Broadcasting System, The CW Television Network, CNN, DC Comics, and as of August 2016, Hulu, owning 10%. In the past, other divisions of Time Warner included Time Inc. AOL, Time Warner Cable, Warner Books and Warner Music Group, all of these operations were either sold to other investors or spun off as independent companies from 2004 to 2014. On October 22,2016, AT&T announced its intent to acquire Time Warner for $108.7 billion, Time Warner consists of three divisions, Home Box Office Inc. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. and Warner Bros. Home Box Office Inc. operates the namesake HBO premium television service as well as sister service Cinemax, hBO- and Cinemax-branded channels are currently available in over 70 countries around the world, and HBO programming is licensed to other television networks in over 150 countries. In 2012, HBO was the #1 premium pay television service in primetime television, in 2013, the network received five Golden Globes and 23 primetime Emmy Awards. HBO’s programming includes the airing of feature films, HBO Documentary Films, HBO original films, the network has developed content distribution platforms, like HBO GO and Max GO to help support and deliver programming to users via online and mobile devices. In 2011, Cinemax launched its first original series, Strike Back. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. operates international news, entertainment, animation, young adult, Turner brands include CNN, HLN, TNT, TBS, Cartoon Network, Turner Classic Movies, truTV, Turner Sports, and more. Turners brands and sub brands reach broad domestic and international audiences, in addition to television network programming, Turner manages digital sports entities, including bleacherreport. com NBA. com, PGA. com and NCAA. com. Turner Sports produces sports programming and content for the Turner Networks, Turner Sports’ television line-up includes NBA and MLB games, the NCAA Tournament Games, and the PGA Championship. Turner operates PGA. com and related properties of the PGA under agreements with the PGA. Pictures Group grossed 4.3 billion dollars at the box office. Home Video is the leader with a 21% market share in total DVD
24.
Comcast
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Comcast Corporation is an American global telecommunications conglomerate that is the largest broadcasting and cable television company in the world by revenue. Comcast services U. S. residential and commercial customers in 40 states, the companys headquarters are located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The first Universal theme park outside of the U. S, Universal Studios Japan, opened in 2001, followed by Universal Studios Singapore in 2011. Few new locations are being planned or developed for future operation, Comcast also has significant holdings in digital distribution. In February 2014 the company agreed to merge with Time Warner Cable in an equity swap deal worth $45.2 billion, under the terms of the agreement Comcast was to acquire 100% of Time Warner Cable. However, on April 24,2015, Comcast terminated the agreement, Comcast has been criticized for multiple reasons, the companys customer satisfaction often ranks among the lowest in the cable industry. Critics also point out a lack of competition in the vast majority of Comcasts service area, furthermore, given Comcasts negotiating power as a large ISP, some suspect that Comcast could leverage paid peering agreements to unfairly influence end-user connection speeds. And its ownership of content production and content distribution has raised antitrust concerns. These issues, in addition to others, led to Comcast being dubbed The Worst Company in America by The Consumerist in 2010 and 2014. Despite being publicly-traded, Comcast is a business, with the Ralph J Roberts family owning 33% controlling stake. Comcast is sometimes described as a family business, Brian L. Roberts, Chairman, President, and CEO of Comcast, is the son of co-founder Ralph Roberts. Roberts owns or controls just over 1% of all Comcast shares but all of the Class B supervoting shares, legal expert Susan P. Crawford has said this gives him effective control over every step. In 2010, he was one of the highest paid executives in the United States, Comcast is headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and also has corporate offices in Atlanta, Detroit, Denver, and Manchester, New Hampshire. On January 3,2005, Comcast announced that it would become the tenant in the new Comcast Center in downtown Philadelphia. The 975 ft skyscraper is the tallest building in Pennsylvania, Comcast has begun construction on a second 1,121 ft skyscraper directly adjacent to the original Comcast headquarters in the summer of 2014. The company is criticized by both the media and its own staff for its less upstanding policies regarding employee relations. A2012 Reddit post written by an anonymous Comcast call center employee eager to share their experiences with the public received attention from publications including The Huffington Post. A2014 investigative series published by The Verge involved interviews with 150 of Comcasts employees and it sought to examine why the company has become so widely criticized by its customers, the media and even members of its own staff
25.
21st Century Fox
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Twenty-First Century Fox Inc. is an American multinational mass media corporation based in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. It was one of two formed from the 2013 spin-off of the publishing assets of News Corporation, as founded by Rupert Murdoch in 1979. 21st Century Fox is the successor to News Corporation dealing primarily in the film. The other company, the new News Corporation, holds Murdochs print interests, 21st Century Fox was formed by the splitting of entertainment and media properties from News Corporation. In February 2012, Natalie Ravitz accepted a position to become Rupert Murdoch’s Chief of Staff at News Corporation. Plans for the split were originally announced on June 28,2012, while additional details, the move also came in the wake of a series of scandals that had damaged the reputation of the companys publishing operations in the United Kingdom. The split was structured so that the old News Corporation would change its name to 21st Century Fox and its logo was officially unveiled on May 9,2013, featuring a modernized version of the iconic Fox searchlights. However, the 21st Century Fox brand does not extend to the existing 20th Century Fox division, the formation of 21st Century Fox was officially finalized on June 28,2013. It formally began trading on the NASDAQ and Australian Securities Exchange on July 1,2013, on January 8,2014, Rupert Murdoch announced plans to delist 21st Century Foxs shares from the Australian Securities Exchange, in favor of solely trading on the NASDAQ. Its listing in Australia was a holdover from its period as News Corporation, in June 2014, 21st Century Fox made a bid to acquire Time Warner, which had similarly spun off its publishing assets, for $80 billion in a cash and stock deal. The deal, which was rejected by Time Warners board of directors in July 2014, on August 5,2014, 21st Century Fox announced it had withdrawn its bid for Time Warner. The companys stock had fallen sharply since the bid was announced, on July 25,2014, 21st Century Fox announced the sale of Sky Italia and Sky Deutschland to BSkyB for $9 billion, subject to regulatory and shareholder approval. Fox would use the money from the sale, along with $25 billion it received from Goldman Sachs, on September 9,2015, 21st Century Fox announced a for-profit joint venture with the National Geographic Society. 21st Century Fox holds a 73% stake in the company, on December 15,2016, 21st Century Fox reached an agreement to takeover the 61% of Sky that it did not already own. The company was valued at £18. 5bn, 21st Century Foxs operations can be broadly categorized into four major reporting segments, Cable Network Programming Television Filmed Entertainment Direct-Broadcast Satellite Television. Among the divisions of the company is Twentieth Century Fox Consumer Products which licenses and markets properties worldwide on behalf of a number of 21st Century Fox assets, as of 2015, the senior vice president for government relations was Joe Welch. On its formation in 2013, Murdoch was chairman and chief officer of the company, while Chase Carey took the posts of president. Co-chairman and Co-CEO positions were created in 2014 and filled by Lachlan Murdoch and James Murdoch, respectively, on July 1,2015, Lachlan Murdoch was elevated to Co-Executive Chairman alongside his father and James Murdoch replaced his father as CEO
26.
The Walt Disney Company
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The Walt Disney Company, commonly known as Disney, is an American diversified multinational mass media and entertainment conglomerate, headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, California. It is the second largest media conglomerate in terms of revenue. Disney was founded on October 16,1923 – by brothers Walt Disney, the company also operated under the names The Walt Disney Studio and then Walt Disney Productions. Taking on its current name in 1986, it expanded its operations and also started divisions focused upon theater, radio, music, publishing. In addition, Disney has since created corporate divisions in order to more mature content than is typically associated with its flagship family-oriented brands. The company is best known for the products of its studio, Walt Disney Studios. Disneys other three divisions are Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, Disney Media Networks, and Disney Consumer Products. The company has been a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average since May 6,1991, Mickey Mouse, an early and well-known cartoon creation of the company, is a primary symbol and mascot for Disney. In early 1923, Kansas City, Missouri, animator Walt Disney created a film entitled Alices Wonderland. After the bankruptcy in 1923 of his previous firm, Laugh-O-Gram Studios, Disney moved to Hollywood to join his brother, Walt and Roy Disney formed Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio that same year. More animated films followed after Alice, in January 1926, with the completion of the Disney studio on Hyperion Street, the Disney Brothers Studios name was changed to the Walt Disney Studio. The distributor owned Oswald, so Disney only made a few hundred dollars, Disney completed 26 Oswald shorts before losing the contract in February 1928, due to a legal loophole, when Winklers husband Charles Mintz took over their distribution company. After failing to take over the Disney Studio, Mintz hired away four of Disneys primary animators to start his own animation studio, Snappy Comedies. In 1928, to recover from the loss of Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, Disney came up with the idea of a character named Mortimer while on a train headed to California. The mouse was later renamed Mickey Mouse and starred in several Disney produced films, ub Iwerks refined Disneys initial design of Mickey Mouse. Disneys first sound film Steamboat Willie, a cartoon starring Mickey, was released on November 18,1928 through Pat Powers distribution company and it was the first Mickey Mouse sound cartoon released, but the third to be created, behind Plane Crazy and The Gallopin Gaucho. Disney used Pat Powers Cinephone system, created by Powers using Lee De Forests Phonofilm system, Steamboat Willie premiered at B. S. Mosss Colony Theater in New York City, now The Broadway Theatre. Disneys Plane Crazy and The Galloping Gaucho were then retrofitted with synchronized sound tracks, Disney continued to produce cartoons with Mickey Mouse and other characters, and began the Silly Symphonies series with Columbia Pictures signing on as Symphonies distributor in August 1929
27.
MLB Network
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MLB Network is an American television sports channel dedicated to baseball. It is primarily owned by Major League Baseball, with television providers AT&T, Comcast, Charter Communications, the channels headquarters and studios are located in the Secaucus, New Jersey facility which formerly housed MSNBCs studios. Tony Petitti, former producer of CBS Sports, was named the networks first president. Petitti served as MLB Networks president until December 2014 when he was appointed as Chief Operating Officer of Major League Baseball, rob McGlarry, who worked as Senior and later Executive Vice-president of Business Affairs at MLB Network since 2009, was named the networks second President. As of February 2015, MLB Network is available to approximately 69,991,000 television households in the United States, Major League Baseball became the fourth major North American professional sports league to launch its own 24-hour cable network. NBA TV dates back to 1999, the NHL Network to 2001, however, MLB Network is carried in the most households of these four networks, as it is available on all of the top ten video operators in the United States. The channel fully launched at 6 PM EST with the premiere of Hot Stove, in April 2012, MLB Networks standard definition feed shifted to a 16,9 letterbox format. Both of the networks SD and HD feeds now show the same format, on April 4,2016, MLB Network debuted a new on-air graphics package optimized for the 16,9 format, replacing the previous on-air look used since the networks New Years Day 2009 launch. In a deal that was pioneered by other sports league owned channels, in return, cable and satellite providers were offered a minority share of the new network. The switchover began on April 4, the first day of the 2010 MLB season, at launch, no announcement was made about MLB Network availability in Canada, home of the Toronto Blue Jays. In August 2008, Rogers secured Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission approval for a Canadian digital channel tentatively called Baseball TV. S and it was reported initially that Rogers intended to pursue this approach to bring MLB Network to Canada. However, the licence was issued on the condition the channel launch by August 2011, the application was published for public comment on June 13,2012 and was approved on November 21,2012. In the interim, the Rogers-owned Sportsnet One aired selected programs from MLB Network, including Quick Pitch, MLB Network was added to Rogers Cable systems in Ontario on January 8,2014, in both standard and high definition. On June 3,2015, SaskTel announced that it would begin carrying MLB Network, as of 2017, it is also available on MTS and Vidéotron. On March 23rd,2017, MLB Network launched on Bell Fibe TV, the 720p high definition simulcast of MLB Network launched simultaneously to the regular channel. As Mark Haden says, Thats our best shot of maintaining quality to viewers, the network also remastered 30 World Series films in high definition. On April 14,2016, it was announced that 25 MLB Network Showcase games will be broadcast in 4K ultra-high definition exclusively on DirecTV in the 2016 season, MLB Network airs several live games a week. These games are blacked out in the markets of the two teams
28.
720p
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720p is a progressive HDTV signal format with 720 horizontal lines and an aspect ratio of 16,9, normally known as widescreen HDTV. The number 720 stands for the 720 horizontal scan lines of display resolution. The p stands for progressive scan, i. e. non-interlaced, when broadcast at 60 frames per second, 720p features the highest temporal resolution possible under the ATSC and DVB standards. The term assumes a widescreen ratio of 16,9. 720i is a term found in numerous sources and publications. Typically, it is an error in which the author is referring to the 720p HDTV format. However, in cases it is incorrectly presented as an actual alternative format to 720p. No proposed or existing broadcast standard permits 720 interlaced lines in a frame at any frame rate. Progressive scanning reduces the need to prevent flicker by anti-aliasing single high contrast horizontal lines and it is also easier to perform high-quality 50↔60 Hz conversion and slow-motion clips with progressive video. A 720p60 video has advantage over 480i and 1080i60 in that it reduces the number of 3,2 artifacts introduced during transfer from 24 frame/s film. However, 576i and 1080i50, which are common in Europe, generally do not suffer from pull down artifacts as film frames are simply played at 25 frames and the audio pitch corrected by 25/24ths. As a result, 720p60 is used for U. S. broadcasts while European HD broadcasts often use 1080i50 24* frame, arte, a dual-language French-German channel produced in collaboration by ARD, ZDF and France Télévisions, broadcasts in German at 720p50 but in French at 1080i50. EBU Technical paper on HDTV formats
29.
A&E Networks
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A&E Networks is an American media company that owns a group of television channels available via cable & satellite in the U. S. and abroad. A&E stands for Arts & Entertainment, the company is a joint venture with Hearst and Disney-ABC Television Group, a unit of the Disney Media Networks subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company. Thus A&Es shareholders were Hearst & ABC and Radio City Music Hall and RCA, the company launched Arts & Entertainment Network, a cultural cable channel, on February 1,1984. In 1991, the company launched the A&E Monthly general entertainment magazine, in June 1993, the Rockefeller Groups Radio City Music Hall sold its 12. 5% stake in A&E to the other three partners with NBC owning 25% and the other two 37. 5% each. Also that month, a new unit was set up. The A&E channel expanded to Canada, and later Mexico from 1993 to 1994, Biography began airing 5 nights a week in 1994. Also in 1994, A&E, on its 10th anniversary, changed its name from Arts, the A&E company launched The History Channel on January 1,1995 with its U. K. counterpart following on November 1 in partnership with British Sky Broadcasting. A&E Networks considered THC to be the driver in international expansion due to lack of rights to A&E international co-productions. As expected, the History Channel led A&Es overseas expansion in Brazil with TVA, formerly only direct sales, A&E Home Video initiated a six-month trial in which Barnes & Noble would sell the Biography line in stores and becoming permanent in 1996. THC debuted in two other media in September 1996 with a program on ABC Radio Networks and Border Books stocking THC videos, during the 1998-1999 season, Biography, American Justice and Biography Movies debuted. THC expanded in 1998 into tours of U. S. landmarks with Mayflower Tours having a website, a show History Channel Traveler. While in October, THC and Madison Square Garden Network teamed up to produce several short-form sports history programs, A+E spun out its first two digital cable channels in November 1998 with The Biography Channel and History Channel International from A&E and The History Channel. A&E was spending $10 million per year to convert to the digital format, AETN All Asia Networks was formed on April 2007 through a joint venture between A&E Television Networks and Malaysias pay TV provider Astro Overseas Limited. In August 2009, A&E TV Networks acquired Lifetime Entertainment Services, following the deal, Disney and Hearst each held approximately 42% of the combined company, while NBC Universal retained approximately 16%. The deal included mechanisms by which NBCU could choose, or alternatively be forced to, AETN and Network 18 Group In August 2010 formed a joint venture, AETN-18 India, which would first launch the History and Bio channels in India. In May 2011, A&E Television Networks changed its name to A+E Networks. A&E dropped TV as their brands had move beyond just the TV channel, in July 2012, NBCUniversal confirmed plans to divest its 15. 8% stake in A+E Networks by way of a share repurchase by A+E, making Disney and Hearst 50-50 partners in the joint venture. In August 2012, A+E switched distribution for their series and movies from New Video Group to Lionsgate Home Entertainment
30.
Hearst Television
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Hearst Television, Inc. is a broadcasting company in the United States, owned by the New York City-based Hearst. From 1998 to mid-2009, the company traded its stock on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol HTV. Hearsts involvement in broadcasting dates to the 1920s, other Hearst-owned stations also carry ESPN-aired NFL games, even though they are affiliated with other networks. Hearst also holds some joint ventures for syndicated programming with NBCUniversal Television Distribution, in June 2009, the Hearst Corporation announced that it would purchase substantially all of the stock not held by Hearst. Hearst-Argyle Television then dropped Argyle from its name and became a wholly owned subsidiary of the Hearst Corporation, in February 2009 Hearst-Argyle announced that its stations would comply with the new DTV transition date of June 12,2009. Since December 1,2014, Des Moines CBS affiliate KCCI has used their third subchannel as an H&I affiliate carrying MyNetworkTV programming in primetime. Hearst also owns two stations in Baltimore, the last remaining from the company divesting most of their radio assets after the Telecommunications Act of 1996 went into effect. Hearst also maintains a Washington, D. C. bureau to assist their stations in coverage of politics, including on-air reporters and facilities. Many Hearst stations license the Operation High School branding for coverage of high school sports. Until 2009, three of Hearsts television stations and its two stations were owned by Hearst Broadcasting, Inc. These stations were transferred to Hearst Television shortly after its privatization, the deal will close on February 1. Stations are listed alphabetically by state and city of license, note, – Indicates a station that was built and signed-on by Hearst. – Indicates a station that was owned by Argyle Television Holdings II prior to the formation of Hearst-Argyle Television in 1997, – Indicates a station that was affected by an ownership swap between Hearst-Argyle and Sunrise Television in 1998. – Indicates a station that was owned by Kelly Broadcasting prior to its acquisition by Hearst-Argyle in 1999, – Indicates a station that was owned by Pulitzer prior to its acquisition by Hearst-Argyle in 1999. Other Notes,1 KCWE in Kansas City has been managed by Hearst since its sign-on in 1996, Notes,1 WDTN was an ABC affiliate under Hearst during its ownership, LIN switched the stations affiliation back to NBC in 2004. 2 WNAC-TV was owned by Argyle, but operated from 1996 to 2001 by Clear Channel Communications under a local marketing agreement with WPRI-TV, in addition to the above, Hearst-Argyle never owned WZZM or WGRZ. Those two stations were divested by one of the predecessors, Argyle Television Holdings II, several months prior to the merger with Hearst Broadcasting. The years owned information reflects the years of ownership by Argyle Television Holdings II, and WDTN was the only formerly owned television station that was owned directly by Hearst prior to the merger
31.
Belo
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Belo Corporation /ˈbiːloʊ/ was a Dallas-based media company that owned 20 commercial broadcasting television stations and two regional 24-hour cable news television channels. The company was known as A. H. Belo Corporation after one of the early owners of the company, Alfred Horatio Belo. Belo had its headquarters in the Belo Building in Downtown Dallas, designed by Dallas architects Omniplan, the company traces its roots back to 1842 with the introduction of The Daily News in Galveston, Texas. Its flagship, The Dallas Morning News, has been publishing since 1885, the name A. H. Belo Corporation was applied to the company in 1926. The name was shortened to Belo Corporation in 2002, the television business retained the Belo Corporation name. The spin-off was structured so that the company was the legal successor to the prior company. In September 2010, Belo became the first non-ABC group to sign on with the Live Well Network, on June 13,2013, Gannett Company announced plans to buy Belo for $1.5 billion and the assumption of debt. Gannett would have provided services to the Sander stations under joint services agreements. Justice claimed that Gannett and Sander would be so closely aligned that Gannett would have dominated spot advertising in St. Louis, on December 20, the deal was approved by the FCC. Merediths purchase of KMOV was completed on February 28,2014, sagamoreHill has since been forced to divest KASW to Nexstar Broadcasting Group, that sale closed on January 30,2015. On June 29,2015, Gannett split into two companies, one specializing in print media and named Gannett, and the other specializing in broadcast and digital media. The latter company, Tegna, retained most of the Belo stations and is the successor to the company that previously bore Gannetts name. Stations are arranged in order by state and city of license. Notes, - Indicates a station owned by Dun & Bradstreet subsidiary Corinthian Broadcasting prior to its acquisition by the original A. H. Belo Corporation in 1984. - Indicates a station owned by The Providence Journal Company prior to its acquisition by the original A. H. Belo Corporation in 1997, in addition, Belo operates websites for each of its properties. The sites were part of a separate company, known as Belo Interactive. In late 2004, the company began the process of reintegrating the sites into sister media properties, one of its most infamous investments was in the failed CueCat and its parent company, Digital Convergence. Belo integrated its media properties to be able to use the device, Belo is also one of the major investors in Classified Ventures, LLC
32.
Tegna, Inc.
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Tegna, Inc. is an American publicly traded broadcast and digital media company headquartered in McLean, Virginia. It was created on June 29,2015, when Gannett Company split into two publicly traded companies, Tegna owns or operates 46 television stations, and is the largest group owner of stations affiliated with NBC and CBS, and properties in digital media. Additionally, the announced that it would buy out the remainder of Classified Ventures for $1.8 billion. On April 21,2015, the announced that the broadcasting. The spin-out was structured so that Tegna is the successor to the old Gannett. The split was completed on June 29,2015, Tegna retains old Gannetts stock price history, though it trades under a new ticker symbol, TGNA. The new Gannett inherited old Gannetts longtime ticker symbol, GCI, as of June 2015, Tegna Media currently owns 46 television stations located in 38 markets. 18 of the stations are affiliated with NBC, ten are affiliated with CBS, nine are affiliated with ABC. In addition, the company owns two CW affiliates, three MyNetworkTV affiliates and one independent station and it also provides operational services to KTTU in Tucson through shared services agreements with Tucker Operating Co. Stations are listed alphabetically by state and city of license, notes of prior ownership or current shared services agreement, – Indicates a station owned by Combined Communications prior to its acquisition by Gannett in 1978. – Indicates a station owned by Multimedia, Inc. prior to its acquisition by Gannett in 1995, – Indicates stations involved in the Gannett Companys station trade deal with Argyle Television Holdings II in 1997. – Indicates a station owned by Belo prior to its acquisition by Gannett in 2013, – Indicates a station owned by the London Broadcasting Company prior to its acquisition by Gannett in 2014. – Indicates a station owned by Sander Media from 2013 to 2015 and operated by Gannett/Tegna prior to its acquisition by Tegna, – KMSB is owned by Tegna, KTTU is owned by Tucker Operating Company. Tegna and Raycom Media affiliate KOLD-TV operate these stations through shared services agreements, – KVUE was previously owned by Gannett from 1986 to 1999, when it was traded to Belo in exchange for KXTV. All of these are news networks owned by Belo prior to acquisition by Tegna, in 2015, Tegna Media test-ran a limited-run informative talk show hosted by Dallas-based bishop T. D. Jakes on its owned stations in Dallas, Atlanta, Minneapolis and Cleveland. On December 9, Tegna greenlit the series for a run for the 2016–2017 broadcast season. The series will debut on September 12 on most, if not all Tegna-owned stations, as well as several large markets, including Baltimore, Detroit, Orlando, Chicago, San Antonio, and San Diego. Debmar-Mercury, however is not participating in the run, being replaced by independent company Flow Media Partners
33.
Weather forecasting
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Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a given location. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia, hence, forecasts become less accurate as the difference between current time and the time for which the forecast is being made increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error, there are a variety of end uses to weather forecasts. Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life, forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture, and therefore to traders within commodity markets. Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days, on an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day. Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by rain, snow and wind chill, forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events. In 2014, the US spent $5.1 billion on weather forecasting, for millennia people have tried to forecast the weather. In 650 BC, the Babylonians predicted the weather from cloud patterns as well as astrology, in about 340 BC, Aristotle described weather patterns in Meteorologica. Later, Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs, chinese weather prediction lore extends at least as far back as 300 BC, which was also around the same time ancient Indian astronomers developed weather-prediction methods. You know how to interpret the appearance of the sky, ancient weather forecasting methods usually relied on observed patterns of events, also termed pattern recognition. For example, it might be observed if the sunset was particularly red. This experience accumulated over the generations to produce weather lore, however, not all of these predictions prove reliable, and many of them have since been found not to stand up to rigorous statistical testing. It was not until the invention of the telegraph in 1835 that the modern age of weather forecasting began. Before that, the fastest that distant weather reports could travel was around 100 miles per day, the two men credited with the birth of forecasting as a science were officer of the Royal Navy Francis Beaufort and his protégé Robert FitzRoy. Beaufort developed the Wind Force Scale and Weather Notation coding, which he was to use in his journals for the remainder of his life. He also promoted the development of reliable tide tables around British shores, Robert FitzRoy was appointed in 1854 as chief of a new department within the Board of Trade to deal with the collection of weather data at sea as a service to mariners. This was the forerunner of the modern Meteorological Office, all ship captains were tasked with collating data on the weather and computing it, with the use of tested instruments that were loaned for this purpose. Fifteen land stations were established to use the new telegraph to transmit to him daily reports of weather at set times leading to the first gale warning service and his warning service for shipping was initiated in February 1861, with the use of telegraph communications
34.
Telecine
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Telecine is the process of transferring motion picture film into video and is performed in a color suite. The term is used to refer to the equipment used in the post-production process. Telecine enables a motion picture, captured originally on film stock, to be viewed with standard equipment, such as television sets, video cassette recorders, DVD. Within the film industry, it is referred to as a TK. With the advent of popular broadcast television, producers realized they needed more than live television programming, however, the difference in frame rates between film and television meant that simply playing a film into a television camera would result in flickering. Originally the kinescope was used to record the image from a display to film. This could then be re-played directly into a camera for re-display. Non-live programming could also be filmed using the cameras, edited mechanically as normal. As the film was run at the speed as the television. Color was supported by using a video camera, prisms. However, this still left film shot at cinema frame rates as a problem, the obvious solution is to simply speed up the film to match the television frame rates, but this, at least in the case of NTSC, is rather obvious to the eye and ear. This problem is not difficult to fix, however, the solution being to play a selected frame twice. For NTSC, the difference in rates can be corrected by showing every fourth frame of film twice. A more convincing technique is to use 2,3 pulldown, discussed below, PAL uses a similar system,2,2 pulldown. In recent decades, telecine has primarily been a film-to-videotape process, changes since the 1950s have primarily been in terms of equipment and physical formats, the basic concept remains the same. Home movies are video tapes of films that used this technique, the most complex part of telecine is the synchronization of the mechanical film motion and the electronic video signal. Every time the part of the telecine samples the light electronically. This is relatively easy when the film is photographed at the frame rate as the video camera will sample, but when this is not true
35.
Ultra-high-definition television
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From just 30 in Q32015, the forum published a list up to 55 commercial services available around the world offering 4K resolution. Ultra-high-definition television is also known as Ultra HD, UHD, in Japan, 8K UHDTV will be known as Super Hi-Vision since Hi-Vision was the term used in Japan for HDTV. In the consumer electronics market companies had only used the term 4K at the 2012 CES. Two resolutions are defined as UHDTV, 4K UHDTV is 3840 pixels wide by 2160 pixels tall, NHK advocates the 8K UHDTV format with 22.2 surround sound as Super Hi-Vision. The human visual system has an ability to discern improvements in resolution when picture elements are already small enough or distant enough from the viewer. UHDTV, however, allows other image enhancements than pixel density, specifically, dynamic range and color are greatly enhanced, and these impact saturation and contrast differences that are readily resolved and greatly improve the experience of 4KTV compared to HDTV. UHDTV allows the use of the new Rec.2020 color space which can reproduce colors that cannot be shown with the current Rec.709 color space. UHDTVs increases in dynamic range allow not only brighter highlights but also increased detail in the greyscale, UHDTV also allows for frame rates up to 120 frames per second. 2020, higher range, and higher frame rates to work on HD services without increasing resolution to 4K. NHK researchers built a UHDTV prototype which they demonstrated in 2003 and they used an array of 16 HDTV recorders with a total capacity of almost 3.5 TB that could capture up to 18 minutes of test footage. The camera itself was built with four 2.5 inch CCDs, using two CCDs for green and one each for red and blue, they then used a spatial pixel offset method to bring it to 7680x4320. A review of the NAB2006 demo was published in a Broadcast Engineering e-newsletter, individuals at NHK and elsewhere project that the timeframe for UHDTV to be available in domestic homes varies between 2015 and 2020 but Japan may get it in the 2016 time frame. On November 2,2006, NHK demonstrated a live relay of a UHDTV program over a 260 kilometer distance by a fiber-optic network, using dense wavelength division multiplex, 24 Gbit/s speed was achieved with a total of 16 different wavelength signals. On December 31,2006, NHK demonstrated a live relay of their annual Kōhaku Uta Gassen over IP from Tokyo to a 450 in screen in Osaka. Using a codec developed by NHK, the video was compressed from 24 Gbit/s to 180–600 Mbit/s, uncompressed, a 20-minute broadcast would require roughly 4 TB of storage. The SMPTE first released Standard 2036 for UHDTV in 2007, UHDTV was defined as having two levels called UHDTV1 and UHDTV2. In May 2007, the NHK did a demonstration at the NHK Open House in which a UHDTV signal was compressed to a 250 Mbit/s MPEG2 stream. The signal was input to a 300 MHz wide band modulator and this on the air transmission had a very limited range, but shows the feasibility of a satellite transmission in the 36,000 km orbit
36.
Display resolution
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The display resolution or display modes of a digital television, computer monitor or display device is the number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed. It is usually quoted as width × height, with the units in pixels, for example,1024 ×768 means the width is 1024 pixels and this example would normally be spoken as ten twenty-four by seven sixty-eight or ten twenty-four by seven six eight. A consequence of having a display is that, for multi-format video inputs. Note that for broadcast television standards the use of the word here is a misnomer. In digital measurement, the resolution would be given in pixels per inch. In analog measurement, if the screen is 10 inches high, in the case of television inputs, many manufacturers will take the input and zoom it out to overscan the display by as much as 5% so input resolution is not necessarily display resolution. The eyes perception of display resolution can be affected by a number of factors – see image resolution, one factor is the display screens rectangular shape, which is expressed as the ratio of the physical picture width to the physical picture height. This is known as the aspect ratio, a screens physical aspect ratio and the individual pixels aspect ratio may not necessarily be the same. An array of 1280 ×720 on a 16,9 display has square pixels, an example of pixel shape affecting resolution or perceived sharpness, displaying more information in a smaller area using a higher resolution makes the image much clearer or sharper. Most television display manufacturers overscan the pictures on their displays, so that the effective on-screen picture may be reduced from 720 ×576 to 680 ×550, the size of the invisible area somewhat depends on the display device. HD televisions do this as well, to a similar extent, Computer displays including projectors generally do not overscan although many models allow it. CRT displays tend to be underscanned in stock configurations, to compensate for the distortions at the corners. As of July 2002,1024 ×768 eXtended Graphics Array was the most common display resolution, many web sites and multimedia products were re-designed from the previous 800 ×600 format to the layouts optimized for 1024 ×768. The availability of inexpensive LCD monitors has made the 5,4 aspect ratio resolution of 1280 ×1024 more popular for desktop usage during the first decade of the 21st century. Many computer users including CAD users, graphic artists and video game players ran their computers at 1600 ×1200 resolution or higher such as 2048 ×1536 QXGA if they had the necessary equipment. A new more-than-HD resolution of 2560 ×1600 WQXGA was released in 30-inch LCD monitors in 2007, as of March 2012,1366 ×768 was the most common display resolution. In 2010, 27-inch LCD monitors with the 2560 × 1440-pixel resolution were released by manufacturers including Apple. Panels for professional environments, such as use and air traffic control
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