1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
3.
Air National Guard
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When Air National Guard units are used under the jurisdiction of the state governor they are fulfilling their militia role. However, if federalized by order of the President of the United States and they are jointly administered by the states and the National Guard Bureau, a joint bureau of the Army and Air Force that oversees the National Guard of the United States. The ANG of the territories of Guam and the Virgin Islands have no aircraft assigned, ANG units typically operate under Title 32 USC. However, when operating under Title 10 USC all ANG units are operationally-gained by an active duty USAF major command. ANG units of the Combat Air Forces based in the Continental United States, conversely, CONUS-based ANG units in the Mobility Air Forces, plus the Puerto Rico ANGs airlift wing and the Virgin Islands ANGs civil engineering squadron are gained by the Air Mobility Command. The vast majority of ANG units fall under either ACC or AMC, established under Title 10 and Title 32 of the U. S. S. When not in a status, the Air National Guard operates under their respective state. The exception to rule is the District of Columbia Air National Guard. Because both state Air National Guard and the Air National Guard of the United States relatively go hand-in-hand, Air National Guard of the United States units or members may be called up for federal active duty in times of Congressionally sanctioned war or national emergency. The United States Air National Guard has about 110,000 men and women in service, even traditional part-time air guardsmen, especially pilots, navigators/combat systems officers, air battle managers and enlisted aircrew, often serve 100 or more man-days annually. As such, the concept of Air National Guard service as representing only one weekend a month, the Georgia Air National Guard and the Kansas Air National Guard previously flew the B-1B Lancer prior to converting to the E-8 Joint STARS and KC-135R Stratotanker, respectively. In addition, the 131st Fighter Wing of the Missouri Air National Guard transitioned from flying the F-15C/D Eagle at St and these proposals were eventually overruled and cancelled by the U. S. Congress. As state militia units, the units in the Air National Guard are not in the normal United States Air Force chain of command and they are under the jurisdiction of the United States National Guard Bureau unless they are federalized by order of the President of the United States. Air National Guard units are trained and equipped by the United States Air Force, the state ANG units, depending on their mission, are operationally gained by a major command of the USAF if federalized. Air National Guard personnel are expected to adhere to the moral and physical standards as their full-time active duty Air Force. The same ranks and insignia of the U. S. Air Force are used by the Air National Guard, the Air National Guard also bestows a number of state awards for local services rendered in a service members home state or equivalent. The creation of the regiments was caused by the perceived need to defend the Bay Colony against American Indians. This organization formed the basis of subsequent colonial and, post-independence, state and this distinction accounts for why there are no National Guard components in the U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps or U. S. Coast Guard
4.
New York Air National Guard
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The New York Air National Guard is the air force militia of the State of New York, United States of America. It is, along with the New York Army National Guard, as state militia units, the units in the New York Air National Guard are not in the normal United States Air Force chain of command. They are under the jurisdiction of the Governor of New York though the office of the New York Adjutant General unless they are federalized by order of the President of the United States. The New York Air National Guard is headquartered at Stratton Air National Guard Base, Glenville, NY, under the Total Force concept, New York Air National Guard units are considered to be Air Reserve Components of the United States Air Force. New York ANG units are trained and equipped by the Air Force and are gained by a Major Command of the USAF if federalized. State missions include disaster relief in times of earthquakes, hurricanes, floods and forest fires, search and rescue, protection of public services. The New York Air National Guard is the largest and most diverse ANG organization established by the National Guard Bureau, the unit is an associate Wing with the Air Force Reserve 914th Airlift Wing. The 109th Airlift Wing is the unit in the world to fly these aircraft. Support Unit Functions and Capabilities, 152d Air Operations Group Located at Hancock Field, Syracuse and it has two levels of control, at the larger force level, or at the detailed unit level. It is used to generate the Air Tasking Order and it replaced the Contingency Theater Automated Planning System. Eastern Air Defense Sector Located at Rome, NY, the origins date to 1956 as the 4621st Air Defense Wing. It is one of two sectors that carries out NORADs aerospace warning and control mission, the Eastern Air Defense Sector is part of the U. S. There are also Canadian and Alaskan NORAD regions and this unit also provides direct support for the annual NORAD Tracks Santa program. The Militia Act of 1903 established the present National Guard system, units raised by the states but paid for by the Federal Government, if federalized by Presidential order, they fall under the regular military chain of command. On 1 June 1920, the Militia Bureau issued Circular No.1 on organization of National Guard air units, the New York Air National Guard origins date to 28 August 1917 with the establishment of the 102d Aero Squadron as part of the World War I American Expeditionary Force. Its origins begin however, on 30 April 1908 as the 1st Aero Company and its history and lineage were bestowed on the 102d Observation Squadron. The 102d Aero Squadron was demobilized 1918 Armistice with Germany in 1919, constituted in 1920 as the 102nd Squadron, the squadron was assigned to the 27th Division, allotted to the state of New York, as its divisional aviation. It was reorganized and federally recognized in November 1922 at Miller Field on Staten Island and it is one of the 29 original National Guard Observation Squadrons of the United States Army National Guard formed before World War II
5.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
6.
Air Mobility Command
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Air Mobility Command is a Major Command of the U. S. Air Force. AMC is headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois, east of St. Louis, the Commander of AMC is Gen Carlton D. Everhart II, with Lt Gen Wayne Schatz Jr as Vice Commander and CMSgt Shelina Frey as Command Chief Master Sergeant. Air Mobility Command was established on June 1,1992 and it was formed from elements of the inactivated Military Airlift Command and Strategic Air Command. AMC melded a worldwide system with a tanker force that had been freed from its strategic nuclear strike commitments by the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Air Mobility Commands mission is to provide global air mobility, the command also plays a crucial role in providing humanitarian support at home and around the world. Many special duty and operational aircraft and stateside aeromedical evacuation missions are also assigned to AMC. U. S. forces must be able to provide a rapid, tailored response with a capability to intervene against a foe, hit hard. Rapid global mobility lies at the heart of U. S. strategy in this environment, without the capability to project forces, there is no conventional deterrent. As the number of U. S. forces stationed overseas continue to decline, global interests remain, Air Mobility Command also has the mission of establishing bare air bases in contingencies. To accomplish this mission, AMC established two Contingency Response Wings, and operates the Eagle Flag exercise, in addition to its status as a MAJCOM of the Air Force, AMC is also the Air Force component command of the United States Transportation Command. It provides airlift, special missions, aerial refueling, and aeromedical evacuation for the United States armed forces]], AMC also operates VIP flights such as Air Force One, Air Force Two, and other Special Assignment Airlift Missions. Finally, AMC acts as the manager, on behalf of United States Transportation Command. Principal aircraft assets of the include, C-17 Globemaster III, C-5 Galaxy, C-130 Hercules, KC-135 Stratotanker, KC-10 Extender, C-40 Clipper, C-37 Gulfstream V. As of 2015, the command is preparing for the addition of the KC-46 Pegasus. Additional aircraft in support of high-profile VIP airlift include, VC-25, C-32, C-20 and these units train and exercise frequently and routinely provide augmentative operational support to AMCs active duty forces. Instead, they report to AMC via the National Guard Bureau, civil Reserve Air Fleet AMC has undergone considerable change since its establishment. Focusing on the mission of strategic air mobility, the command divested itself of infrastructure. The Air Rescue Service, intratheater aeromedical airlift forces based overseas, as a result of the Global War on Terrorism, on October 1,2003, AMC underwent a major restructuring, bringing a war fighting role to its numbered air force
7.
National Science Foundation
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The National Science Foundation is a United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health, with an annual budget of about US$7.0 billion, the NSF funds approximately 24% of all federally supported basic research conducted by the United States colleges and universities. In some fields, such as mathematics, computer science, economics, and the social sciences, the current NSF director, confirmed in March 2014, is astronomer France A. Córdova, former president of Purdue University. The NSF seeks to fulfill its mission chiefly by issuing competitive, the NSF also makes some contracts. Some proposals are solicited, and some are not, the NSF funds both kinds, the NSF does not operate its own laboratories, unlike other federal research agencies, notable examples being the NASA and the National Institutes of Health. The NSF receives over 50,000 such proposals each year and those funded are typically projects that are ranked highest in a merit review process, the current version of which was introduced in 1997. For example, reviewers cannot work at the NSF itself, nor for the institution that employs the proposing researchers, all proposal evaluations are confidential, the proposing researchers may see them, but they do not see the names of the reviewers. However, both already had been mandated for all NSF merit review procedures in the 2010 re-authorization of the America COMPETES Act. The Act also includes an emphasis on promoting potentially transformative research, most NSF grants go to individuals or small groups of investigators, who carry out research at their home campuses. Other grants provide funding for research centers, instruments. Still, others fund national-scale facilities that are shared by the community as a whole. In addition to researchers and research facilities, NSF grants also support science, engineering, Undergraduates can receive funding through Research Experiences for Undergraduates summer programs. K-12 and some community college instructors are eligible to participate in compensated Research Experiences for Teachers programs, the NSFs workforce numbers about 1,700, nearly all working at its Arlington headquarters. In June 2013 it was announced that the NSF would relocate its headquarters to Alexandria, Virginia in 2017. S, examples include initiatives in, Nanotechnology The science of learning Digital libraries The ecology of infectious diseases The NSF was established by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950. Its stated mission is To promote the progress of science, to advance the health, prosperity, and welfare. Some historians of science have argued that the result was a compromise between too many clashing visions of the purpose and scope of the federal government. The NSF was certainly not the government agency for the funding of basic science. By 1950, support for areas of research had already become dominated by specialized agencies such as the National Institutes of Health
8.
Lockheed LC-130
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The Lockheed LC-130 is a ski-equipped United States Air Force variant of the C-130 Hercules used in the Arctic and Antarctic. Ten are currently in service with the 109th Airlift Wing of the New York Air National Guard, the LC-130 started as a prototype model developed by modifying a C-130A with skis in 1956. After testing in 1957,12 additional C-130A models were modified with skis, in 1959 the first four factory equipped, ski-based Hercules were produced under the Navy designation of UV-1L. These C-130s are USAF C-130B models, later in the program the designation was changed from UV-1L to C-130BL. This designation was later changed to LC-130F when aircraft nomenclature was standardized for all services by the U. S. Defense Department in 1962. These four aircraft were bought by the Navy Department to support the Navy’s Antarctic expedition that was ongoing at the time, the Navy also bought one LC-130R model in 1968. The National Science Foundation bought the set of aircraft as replacement aircraft. The Polar Program Division of the Foundation had assumed management of the Antarctic Program in the early 1970s and these aircraft were designated LC-130R and were delivered in two lots, the first lot of three in 1974 and the remaining two in 1976. The aircraft are equipped with skis that allow the aircraft to land on snow. The Navy Antarctic Development Squadron Six originally operated the LC-130 aircraft, initially, VXE-6 was home based at the Naval Air Station Quonset Point, Rhode Island and later at the Naval Air Station Point Mugu, California. Operation of the aircraft was transferred in the late 1990s to the 109th Airlift Wing of the New York Air National Guard when Navy support of the Antarctic program was terminated. Currently all LC-130 aircraft are operated by the New York Air National Guard and are based at the Air National Guards facility at Schenectady County Airport, 109th Airlift Wing Home Page Bill Spindlers South Pole Home Page The Entire LC-130 Production List Development of the C-130D
9.
Operation Enduring Freedom
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Operation Enduring Freedom comprises several subordinate operations, Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, lasted from October 2001 to 31 December 2014. Government used the term Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan to officially describe the War in Afghanistan, continued operations in Afghanistan by the United States military forces, both non-combat and combat, now occur under the name Operation Freedoms Sentinel. In September 2001, U. S. President George W, the term OEF-A typically refers to the phase of the War in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2014. Other operations, such as the Georgia Train and Equip Program, are loosely or nominally connected. All the operations, however, have a focus on counterterrorism activities, Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, which was a joint U. S. U. K. and Afghan operation, was separate from the International Security Assistance Force, which was an operation of North Atlantic Treaty Organization nations including the U. S. and the U. K. The two operations ran in parallel, although it had suggested that they merge. S. and British ships. The initial military objectives of OEF-A, as articulated by President George W, of those groups included are Abu Sayyaf Group, al-Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah. The operation consisted of training the AFP in counter-terrorist operations as well as supporting the people with humanitarian aid in Operation Smiles. In October 2002, the Combined Task Force 150 and United States military Special Forces established themselves in Djibouti at Camp Lemonnier, the stated goals of the operation were to provide humanitarian aid and patrol the Horn of Africa to reduce the abilities of terrorist organizations in the region. The military aspect involves coalition forces searching and boarding ships entering the region for illegal cargo as well as providing training, the humanitarian aspect involves building schools, clinics and water wells to enforce the confidence of the local people. Since 2001, the expenditure by the U. S. government on Operation Enduring Freedom has exceeded $150 billion. The operation continues, with military direction mostly coming from United States Central Command, seizing upon a power vacuum after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan after their invasion, the Taliban assumed the role of government from 1996–2001. Their extreme interpretation of Islamic law prompted them to ban music, television, sports, and dancing, amputation was an accepted form of punishment for stealing, and public executions could often be seen at the Kabul football stadium. Womens rights groups around the world were frequently critical as the Taliban banned women from appearing in public or holding many jobs outside the home and they drew further criticism when they destroyed the Buddhas of Bamyan, historical statues nearly 1500 years old, because the Buddhas were considered idols. In 1996, Saudi dissident Osama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan upon the invitation of the Northern Alliance leader Abdur Rabb ur Rasool Sayyaf, when the Taliban came to power, bin Laden was able to forge an alliance between the Taliban and his al-Qaeda organization. It is understood that al-Qaeda-trained fighters known as the 055 Brigade were integrated with the Taliban army between 1997 and 2001 and it has been suggested that the Taliban and bin Laden had very close connections. On 20 September 2001, the U. S. stated that Osama bin Laden was behind the 11 September attacks in 2001, the US made a five-point ultimatum to the Taliban, Deliver to the U. S
10.
Tropical cyclone
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Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by names such as hurricane, typhoon /taɪˈfuːn/, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, and simply cyclone. A hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water. They derive their energy through the evaporation of water from the ocean surface and this energy source differs from that of mid-latitude cyclonic storms, such as noreasters and European windstorms, which are fueled primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts. The strong rotating winds of a tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of momentum imparted by the Earths rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation. As a result, they form within 5° of the equator. Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and 2,000 km in diameter, Tropical refers to the geographical origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively over tropical seas. Cyclone refers to their nature, with wind blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. The opposite direction of circulation is due to the Coriolis effect, in addition to strong winds and rain, tropical cyclones are capable of generating high waves, damaging storm surge, and tornadoes. They typically weaken rapidly over land where they are cut off from their energy source. For this reason, coastal regions are vulnerable to damage from a tropical cyclone as compared to inland regions. Heavy rains, however, can cause significant flooding inland, though their effects on human populations are often devastating, tropical cyclones can relieve drought conditions. They also carry heat away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes. Tropical cyclones are areas of low pressure in the troposphere. On Earth, the pressures recorded at the centers of tropical cyclones are among the lowest ever observed at sea level, the environment near the center of tropical cyclones is warmer than the surroundings at all altitudes, thus they are characterized as warm core systems. The near-surface wind field of a cyclone is characterized by air rotating rapidly around a center of circulation while also flowing radially inwards. At the outer edge of the storm, air may be nearly calm, however, due to the Earths rotation, as air flows radially inward, it begins to rotate cyclonically in order to conserve angular momentum. At an inner radius, air begins to ascend to the top of the troposphere and this radius is typically coincident with the inner radius of the eyewall, and has the strongest near-surface winds of the storm, consequently, it is known as the radius of maximum winds. Once aloft, air flows away from the center, producing a shield of cirrus clouds
11.
139th Airlift Squadron
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The 139th Airlift Squadron is a unit of the New York Air National Guard 109th Airlift Wing Stationed at Stratton Air National Guard Base, Schenectady, New York. The 139th is equipped with the specialized ski-equipped LC-130H Hercules for polar operations, activated at Morris Field, North Carolina, receiving its initial cadre from the 20th Fighter Group. Initially Operated as a training squadron, flying P-39 Airacobras. Beginning in mid-1943 switched to replacement training, of pilots, equipment upgraded to P-47 Thunderbolts and lastly P-40 Warhawks. Was disbanded in May 1944 with reorganization of training units, personnel and equipment absorbed by Squadron B, the wartime 303d Fighter Squadron was reconstituted and redesignated as the 139th Fighter Squadron, and was allotted to the New York Air National Guard, on 24 May 1946. It was organized at Schenectady County Airport, Schenectady, New York, the 139th Fighter Squadron was bestowed the lineage, history, honors, and colors of the 303d Fighter Squadron. The squadron was equipped with F-47D Thunderbolts and was assigned to the New York ANG 52d Fighter Wing. The mission of the 139th Fighter Squadron was the air defense of eastern and northern New York. In some ways, the postwar Air National Guard was almost like a country club. With the surprise invasion of South Korea on 25 June 1950, the 139th was retained by the State of New York to maintain the air defense mission. In 1951, the Thunderbolts were replaced by Very Long Range F-51H Mustangs with were capable of extended air defense flights over all of New York State, the air defense mission remained after the Korean War armistice and the unit resumed normal peacetime training and drills. In 1954, the Mustang was ending its life and Air Defense Command was re-equipping its fighter-interceptor squadrons with jet aircraft. The 139th received F-94B Starfires, however the F-94 required a two-man aircrew a pilot, trainees for the radar assignment had to attend regular Air Force Training Schools, and required virtually the same qualifications as the pilot trainees. The additional recruitment of guardsmen led to the units having a manning, in 1956, the 107th Fighter-Interceptor Wing was reorganized and redesignated as the 107th Air Defense Wing. As a result, the 139th was authorized to expand to a level. The 139th TFS becoming the flying squadron. Other squadrons assigned into the group were the 109th Headquarters, 109th Material Squadron, 109th Combat Support Squadron, the F-86H Sabre replaced the F-94B Starfires in 1957. The new assignment involved a change in the Groups training mission to include high-altitude interception, air-to-ground rocketry, ground strafing, the 139th TFS retained their F-86H Sabres
12.
National Guard Bureau
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It was created by the Militia Act of 1903. The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008, elevated the National Guard to a joint function of the Department of Defense. This act also elevated the Chief of the National Guard Bureau from Lieutenant General to General with the appointment of General Craig R. McKinley, the National Guard Bureau holds a unique status as both a staff and operation agency. United States Secretary of War Elihu Root militated for reform of the guard, in annual reports of 1901 of 1903. The Militia Act of 1792 was obsolete, the resulting Militia Act of 1903 became law. It gave federal status to the militia and required the militia of the States to conform to Regular Army organization. It dramatically increased funding of the militia, between 1903 and 1916, the federal government spent $53 million on the Guard, more than the total of the previous hundred years. The 1903 act authorized the creation of a section responsible for National Guard affairs. The Division remained a part of the Office of the Secretary of War until July 25,1910 when the Chief was directed to report directly to the Army Chief of Staff. The Division continued to perform under the jurisdiction of the Chief of Staff until the passage of the National Defense Act of June 3,1916. Then the Division of Militia Affairs became the Militia Bureau of the War Department, the National Defense Act of 1916 is the most important piece of legislation in the history of the National Guard. It transformed the militia from individual state forces into a Reserve Component of the U. S. Army—and made the term National Guard mandatory. The act stated that all units would have to be recognized. It increased the number of training days to 15, increased the number of yearly drills to 48. The 1916 act transformed the Division of Militia Affairs into a separate Militia Bureau, increasing its autonomy, eight new civilian positions were authorized, something which the various Chiefs had been requesting for years, the number of military assigned to the Bureau had grown to 13. The National Defense Act also authorized the President to assign two National Guard officers to duty with the Militia Bureau, the inclusion of National Guard officers in the Militia Bureau was an important step towards creating a centralized planning organization for the National Guard headed by its own officers. The first National Guard officer assigned to the Bureau was Major Louis C. Wilson of Texas in 1916, thus the National Guard Bureau was charged with the responsibility of maintaining high standards in the National Guard. Prior to 1910 the Chief of the Militia Bureau was a Regular Army officer and this situation changed on June 4,1920, when Congress passed an amendment to the National Defense Act of 1916
13.
107th Attack Wing
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The 107th Airlift Wing is a unit of the New York Air National Guard, stationed at Niagara Falls Joint Air Reserve Station, New York. If activated to service, the Wing is gained by the United States Air Force Air Mobility Command. Redesignated a fighter-bomber group in August 1943, the 339th moved to California in September 1943 as part of Desert Training Center in Mojave Desert. After the A-24 was taken out of service, trained with P-39 Airacobras and became combat ready, being reassigned to VIII Fighter Command in England. The group frequently strafed airfields and other targets of opportunity while on escort missions, the 339th received a Distinguished Unit Citation for operations on 10 and 11 September 1944. The 339th provided fighter cover over the English Channel and the coast of Normandy during the invasion of France in June 1944, strafed and dive-bombed vehicles, locomotives, marshalling yards, anti-aircraft batteries, and troops while Allied forces fought to break out of the beachhead in France. Attacked transportation targets as Allied armies drove across France after the breakthrough at Saint-Lô in July, flew area patrols during the airborne attack on the Netherlands in September. Escorted bombers to, and flew patrols over the area during the German counterattack in the Ardennes. Provided area patrols during the assault across the Rhine in March 1945, among all these varied activities, the outstanding feature of this groups combat record is the 235 enemy aircraft it destroyed in the air and 440 on the ground during its one year of operations. The group returned to the United States in October and was inactivated on 18 October 1945, the wartime 339th Fighter Group was redesignated as the 107th Fighter Group, and was allotted to the New York Air National Guard, on 24 May 1946. It was organized at Niagara Falls Municipal Airport, New York, the 107th Fighter Group was bestowed the lineage, history, honors, and colors of the 339th Fighter Group and all predecessor units. It was assigned to the NY Air National Guard 52d Fighter Wing and its mission was the air defense of New York State. In the postwar era, the Air National Guard was like a club for the many World War II veterans that filled its ranks. A pilot could often show up at the field, check out an aircraft, in October 1950, the Air National Guard converted to the wing-base organization. As a result, the 52d Fighter Wing was withdrawn from the Air National Guard, the 107th Fighter Wing was activated as one of two new NY ANG Wings which replaced it, both reporting directly to the New York National Guard Adjutant general in Albany. With the surprise invasion of South Korea on 25 June 1950, the 136th Fighter Squadron was federalized on 2 March 1951, being assigned to the Maine ANG 101st Fighter-Interceptor Group, being moved to Dow Air Force Base, Maine as an air defense squadron. The unit was reformed at Niagara Falls by 1 January 1953 and was re-equipped with the F-51H Mustang very long range fighter, the air defense mission for western New York remained and the unit resumed normal peacetime training and drills. In 1954, the Mustang was ending its life and Air Defense Command was re-equipping its fighter-interceptor squadrons with jet aircraft
14.
139th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron
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The 139th Airlift Squadron is a unit of the New York Air National Guard 109th Airlift Wing Stationed at Stratton Air National Guard Base, Schenectady, New York. The 139th is equipped with the specialized ski-equipped LC-130H Hercules for polar operations, activated at Morris Field, North Carolina, receiving its initial cadre from the 20th Fighter Group. Initially Operated as a training squadron, flying P-39 Airacobras. Beginning in mid-1943 switched to replacement training, of pilots, equipment upgraded to P-47 Thunderbolts and lastly P-40 Warhawks. Was disbanded in May 1944 with reorganization of training units, personnel and equipment absorbed by Squadron B, the wartime 303d Fighter Squadron was reconstituted and redesignated as the 139th Fighter Squadron, and was allotted to the New York Air National Guard, on 24 May 1946. It was organized at Schenectady County Airport, Schenectady, New York, the 139th Fighter Squadron was bestowed the lineage, history, honors, and colors of the 303d Fighter Squadron. The squadron was equipped with F-47D Thunderbolts and was assigned to the New York ANG 52d Fighter Wing. The mission of the 139th Fighter Squadron was the air defense of eastern and northern New York. In some ways, the postwar Air National Guard was almost like a country club. With the surprise invasion of South Korea on 25 June 1950, the 139th was retained by the State of New York to maintain the air defense mission. In 1951, the Thunderbolts were replaced by Very Long Range F-51H Mustangs with were capable of extended air defense flights over all of New York State, the air defense mission remained after the Korean War armistice and the unit resumed normal peacetime training and drills. In 1954, the Mustang was ending its life and Air Defense Command was re-equipping its fighter-interceptor squadrons with jet aircraft. The 139th received F-94B Starfires, however the F-94 required a two-man aircrew a pilot, trainees for the radar assignment had to attend regular Air Force Training Schools, and required virtually the same qualifications as the pilot trainees. The additional recruitment of guardsmen led to the units having a manning, in 1956, the 107th Fighter-Interceptor Wing was reorganized and redesignated as the 107th Air Defense Wing. As a result, the 139th was authorized to expand to a level. The 139th TFS becoming the flying squadron. Other squadrons assigned into the group were the 109th Headquarters, 109th Material Squadron, 109th Combat Support Squadron, the F-86H Sabre replaced the F-94B Starfires in 1957. The new assignment involved a change in the Groups training mission to include high-altitude interception, air-to-ground rocketry, ground strafing, the 139th TFS retained their F-86H Sabres
15.
Lockheed F-94 Starfire
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The Lockheed F-94 Starfire was a first-generation jet aircraft of the United States Air Force. It was developed from the twin-seat Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star in the late 1940s as an all-weather, the aircraft reached operational service in May 1950 with Air Defense Command, replacing the piston-engined North American F-82 Twin Mustang in the all-weather interceptor role. The F-94 was the first operational USAF fighter equipped with an afterburner and was the first jet-powered all-weather fighter to combat during the Korean War in January 1953. It had a brief operational life, being replaced in the mid-1950s by the Northrop F-89 Scorpion. The last aircraft left active-duty service in 1958 and Air National Guard service in 1959, the F-94 was derived from the TF-80C which was a two-seat trainer version of the F-80 Shooting Star. A lengthened nose area with guns, radar and automatic control system was added. Since the conversion seemed so simple, a contract was awarded to Lockheed in early 1949, the early test YF-94s used 75% of the parts used in the earlier F-80 and T-33As. The fire control system was the Hughes E-1, which incorporated an AN/APG-33 radar and this short-range radar system was useful only in the terminal phases of the interception. Most of the operation would be directed using ground-controlled interception, as was the case with the aircraft it replaced. The combination reduced the fuel capacity. The F-94 was to be the first US production jet with an afterburner, the J33-A-33 had standard thrust of 4,000 pounds-force, and with water injection this was increased to 5,400 pounds-force and with afterburning a maximum of 6,000 pounds-force thrust. The YF-94As afterburner had many teething problems with its igniter and the stabilization system. The initial production model was the F-94A, which entered service in May 1950. Its armament was four 0.50 in M3 Browning machine guns mounted in the fuselage with the muzzles exiting just behind the radome, two 165 US Gallon drop tanks, as carried by the F-80 and T-33, could be carried beneath the wingtips. Alternatively, these could be replaced by 1,000 lb bombs, the F-94A was in operational service for only a brief time as it was originally built, and was not received well by its aircrews. Primarily, this was due to the unreliability of its J33 engine, the aircraft was judged as unstable and hard to maneuver at high altitude by its pilots. The pilot and radar operator found that the cockpit was too narrow for them to be able to get in and out of the aircraft quickly during alerts, the clearance for the ejection seats was too small, resulting in several tragic accidents during emergency ejections. The subsequent F-94B, which entered service in January 1951, was virtually identical to the F-94A
16.
Tactical Air Command
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Tactical Air Command is an inactive United States Air Force organization. It was a Major Command of the United States Air Force, established on 21 March 1946 and headquartered at Langley Air Force Base and it was inactivated on 1 June 1992 and its personnel and equipment absorbed by Air Combat Command. Tactical Air Command was established to provide a balance between strategic, air defense, and tactical forces of the post–World War II U. S. Army Air Forces followed by, in 1947, the U. S. Air Force. In 1948, the Continental Air Command assumed control over air defense, tactical air, after two years in a subordinate role, Tactical Air Command was established as a major command. World War II showed the effectiveness of air power in supporting army ground forces. However, the demobilization in late 1945 meant that the huge air armada that had brought Germany to her knees. Following the end of World War II, Headquarters United States Army Air Forces had little funding and most wartime personnel had been released from active duty and returned to civilian life. Many USAAF aircraft were being sent to storage or scrapyards, although the tension with the Soviet Union meant that combat military air forces were still needed. The big questions were how large and what kind of forces, a major realignment of the USAAF was undertaken in early 1946. As part of the realignment, three major divisions within the Continental United States were formed, Strategic Air Command, Tactical Air Command. Each was given a specific responsibility, using assets prescribed to accomplish the assigned mission, Tactical Air Command was formed to command, organize, equip, train and administer assigned or attached forces. It was to plan for and participate in tactics for fighter, light bombardment and these included tactical fighters, tactical bombers, tactical missiles, troop carrier aircraft, assault, reconnaissance, and support units. TAC also planned for and developed the capability to deploy tactical striking forces anywhere in the world, during its existence, Tactical Air Command deployed personnel, material and/or aircraft to Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe and Australia in support of its prescribed mission. TACs original authorization was 25,500 officers and enlisted men, aircraft assets available consisted of propeller-driven North American P-51 Mustangs, Republic P-47 Thunderbolts and a handful of the new jet-powered Lockheed P-80 Shooting Stars. TAC was also given control of the Third Air Force, Ninth Air Force, on 18 September 1947, the United States Air Force was established as a separate military force, with TAC as one of its major commands. At the time, there was only one U. S. Air Forces in Europe tactical air unit available in Europe, TAC was called upon to send additional units and aircraft to Europe to reinforce the 86 FG. The 36th Fighter Group, flying Lockheed F-80B Shooting Stars, was transferred from Howard AFB in the Panama Canal Zone to Furstenfeldbruck Air Base near Munich. In addition to fighter aircraft, TAC also deployed available C-47 Skytrain transports to Europe, transferring them to USAFE
17.
North American F-86 Sabre
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The North American F-86 Sabre, sometimes called the Sabrejet, is a transonic jet fighter aircraft. Considered one of the best and most important fighter aircraft in that war and its success led to an extended production run of more than 7,800 aircraft between 1949 and 1956, in the United States, Japan and Italy. Variants were built in Canada and Australia, the Canadair Sabre added another 1,815 airframes, and the significantly redesigned CAC Sabre, had a production run of 112. The Sabre was by far the most-produced Western jet fighter, with production of all variants at 9,860 units. North American Aviation had produced the propeller-powered P-51 Mustang in World War II, by late 1944, North American proposed its first jet fighter to the U. S. Navy, which became the FJ-1 Fury. It was an unexceptional transitional jet fighter that had a wing derived from the P-51. Initial proposals to meet a United States Army Air Forces requirement for a medium-range, single-seat, in early 1945, North American Aviation submitted four designs. The USAAF selected one design over the others, and granted North American a contract to build three examples of the XP-86, despite the gain in speed, early studies revealed the XP-86 would have the same performance as its rivals, the XP-80 and XP-84. It was also feared that, because these designs were advanced in their development stages. Crucially, the XP-86 would not be able to meet the top speed of 600 mph. The North American F-86 Sabre was the first American aircraft to take advantage of research data seized from the German aerodynamicists at the end of World War II. By 1944, German engineers and designers had established the benefits of swept wings based on designs dating back to 1940. Study of the data showed that a wing would solve their speed problem. Because development of the XP-86 had reached a stage, the idea of changing the sweep of the wing was met with resistance from some senior North American staff. Despite stiff opposition, after results were obtained in wind tunnel tests. Many Sabres had the 6–3 wing retrofitted after combat experience was gained in Korea and this modification changed the wing airfoils to the NACA 0009-64 mod at the root and the NACA0008. 1–64 mod at the tip. Delays caused by the major redesign meant that manufacturing did not begin until after World War II, the XP-86 prototype, which would lead to the F-86 Sabre, was rolled out on 8 August 1947. The maiden flight occurred on 1 October 1947 with George Welch at the controls, flying from Muroc Dry Lake, the United States Air Forces Strategic Air Command had F-86 Sabres in service from 1949 through 1950
18.
Military Air Transport Service
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The Military Air Transport Service is an inactive Department of Defense Unified Command. Activated on 1 June 1948, MATS was a consolidation of the United States Navy Naval Air Transport Service and it was inactivated and discontinued on 8 January 1966 when the Air Force and Navy set up separate strategic airlift commands. In 1982, the World War II Air Transport Command and the Military Air Transport Service were consolidated with Military Airlift Command, the Military Air Transport Service was activated under United States Air Force Major General Laurence S. Kuter, in order to harness interservice efforts more efficiently. It was an amalgamation of Navy and Army air transport commands, MATS was the first Joint-Service command and Naval aircrews participated in every major MATS airlift operation. During the Berlin Airlift, Naval aviators flew transport aircraft from the United States to European supply depots, in the Korean War, in its original organization, a Rear Admiral commanded the MATS Pacific Division and another rear admiral served as MATS vice-commander. During the 1958 reorganization, senior Naval officers were on the staffs of the commanders of both EASTAF and WESTAF, and at MATS Headquarters. In 1965 conflicting views of the Air Force and Navy triggered by the demands of the Vietnam War led to the returning to separate airlift commands. In turn, MATS was disbanded and superseded in the Air Force by the Military Airlift Command, with the end of World War II, the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command found itself in limbo. Senior ATC officers, on the hand, thought that ATC should be developed into a national government operated airline. While the war had firmly established the necessity of a troop carrier mission, when the United States Air Force was established as a separate service in 1947, the Air Transport Command was not established as one of its major commands. The ATC commander and his staff took it upon themselves to convince the new leadership of the newly created Department of Defense that ATC had a mission. Williams had been pressing for the development of a troop carrier airplane when he made his statement. Also, as a measure, MATS would combine the resources of Air Transport Command with those of the Naval Air Transport Service. This way the command would be sanctioned by the Department of Defense, although MATS was under the operational control of the United States Air Force, the United States Navy was a full partner in the command and operational components of the organization. Major naval components of MATS were naval air transport squadrons, vR-3 and VR-6 were assigned to McGuire AFB and VR-22 was assigned to the Naval Air Transport Station at Naval Station Norfolk/Chambers Field, Virginia. Together they constituted MATS EASTAFs Naval Air Transport Wing, Atlantic, on the Pacific Coast, Naval Air Transport Wing, Pacific, consisted of Air Transport Squadron VR-7 and Maintenance Squadron VR-8, both at Naval Air Station Moffett Field, California. A detachment of VR-7 was also stationed at Tachikawa Air Base, Naval aviators flew scheduled MATS routes to Newfoundland, Iceland, Scotland, West Germany, Italy, Puerto Rico and Africa. In the Pacific, MATS naval aviators flew to all MATS stations from Hawaii to Japan to South Vietnam, Bangkok, India, Air Force pilots flew Navy MATS planes, just as naval aviators could be found piloting Air Force MATS transport aircraft
19.
Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter
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The Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter is a long-range heavy military cargo aircraft developed from the B-29 and B-50 bombers. Design work began in 1942, with the prototypes first flight being on 9 November 1944, between 1947 and 1958,888 C-97s in several versions were built,811 being KC-97 tankers. C-97s served in the Berlin Airlift, the Korean War, some aircraft served as flying command posts for the Strategic Air Command, while others were modified for use in Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadrons. It was built before the death of Boeing president Philip G. Johnson and it can be easily distinguished from the 377 Stratocruiser by the beak radome beneath the nose and by the flying boom and jet engines on later tanker models. The prototype XC-97 was powered by the 2,200 hp Wright R-3350 engine, the XC-97 took off for its first flight on November 9,1944. The tenth and all subsequent aircraft were fitted with the taller fin, the C-97 had clamshell doors under its tail, so that a retractable ramp could be used to drive in cargo. However, unlike the later Lockheed C-130 Hercules, it was not designed as a transport which could deliver directly to primitive forward bases using relatively short takeoffs. The rear ramp could not be used in flight for air drops, production models featured the 3,500 hp Pratt & Whitney Wasp Major engine, the same engine as for the B-50. The C-97 had a payload of 35,000 lb. The C-97 was also the first mass-produced air transport to feature cabin pressurization, the civilian derivative of the C-97 was the Boeing 377 Stratocruiser, a very luxurious transoceanic airliner which featured a lower deck lounge and could be fitted with sleeper cabins. The first Stratocruiser flew on July 8,1947, One YC-97A was used in the Berlin Airlift during April 1949 operating for the 1st Strategic Support Squadron. It suffered a landing accident at Rhein Main Air Base and by the time it was repaired. C-97s evacuated casualties during the Korean War, C-97s also participated in the Biafran airlift, delivering relief materials to Uli airstrip in Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War. Flying under the cover of darkness and at treetop level to evade radar, the USAF Strategic Air Command operated C-97 Stratofreighters from 1949–1978. Early in its life, it served as an airborne alternative SAC command post. While only 77 C-97 transports were built,811 were built as KC-97 Stratofreighters for inflight refueling, many KC-97s were later refitted as C-97G transports and equipped several squadrons of the US Air National Guard. Two C-97s are still airworthy at the present day, one operated as a privately owned warbird, the Israelis turned to Stratocruisers and KC-97s when they could not buy the highly regarded C-130. They adapted Boeing 377 Stratocruiser airliners into transports, including many using C-97 tail sections including the loading ramp, others were adapted with swiveling tails and refueling pods
20.
1961 Berlin Crisis
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The Berlin Crisis of 1961 was the last major politico-military European incident of the Cold War about the occupational status of the German capital city, Berlin, and of post–World War II Germany. The 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union—the last to be attended by the Communist Party of China—was held in Moscow during the crisis. After the Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe at the end of World War II, some of those living in the acquired areas of the Eastern Bloc aspired to independence. Between 1945 and 1950, over 15 million people emigrated from Soviet-occupied Eastern European countries to the West. Taking advantage of this route, the number of Eastern Europeans applying for asylum in West Germany was 197,000 in 1950,165,000 in 1951,182,000 in 1952 and 331,000 in 1953. By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to controlling national movement, restricting emigration, was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc, up until 1953, the lines between East Germany and the western occupied zones could be easily crossed in most places. Consequently, the Inner German border between the two German states was closed, and a fence erected. When large numbers of East Germans then defected under the guise of visits, accordingly, Berlin became the main route by which East Germans left for the West. The Berlin sector border was essentially a loophole through which Eastern Bloc citizens could still escape, the 4.5 million East Germans that had left by 1961 totaled approximately 20% of the entire East German population. The loss was disproportionately heavy among professionals—engineers, technicians, physicians, teachers, lawyers, in November 1958, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev issued the Western powers an ultimatum to withdraw from Berlin within six months and make it a free, demilitarised city. In response, the United States, United Kingdom, and France clearly expressed their determination to remain in. With tensions mounting, the United States, United Kingdom and France formed a group with orders to plan for an eventual response to any aggression on West Berlin. The planning group was named LIVE OAK, and staff from the three countries prepared land and air plans to access to and from West Berlin. The Soviet Union withdrew its deadline in May 1959, and the ministers of the four countries spent three months meeting. Eisenhower and Khrushchev had a few together at the US presidential retreat Camp David. There was nothing more inadvisable in this situation, said Eisenhower, than to talk about ultimatums, Khrushchev responded that he did not understand how a peace treaty could be regarded by the American people as a threat to peace. Eisenhower admitted that the situation in Berlin was abnormal and that human affairs got very badly tangled at times, Khrushchev came away with the impression that a deal was possible over Berlin, and they agreed to continue the dialogue at a summit in Paris in May 1960. However, the Paris Summit that was to resolve the Berlin question was cancelled in the fallout from Gary Powerss failed U-2 spy flight on 1 May 1960
21.
Military Airlift Command
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The Military Airlift Command is an inactive United States Air Force major command that was headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois. In 1982, the heritage of the World War II Air Transport Command, mACs emblem reflected its predecessors history by incorporating the emblem of MATS into its shield. Under the USAF lineage system, they did not possess a permanent lineage or history and were discontinued upon inactivation, AFCON units were activated under MAC, to which USAF personnel and equipment formerly assigned to MATS MAJCOM units were reassigned effective 8 January 1966. No formal lineage or history between former MATS MAJCOM units and MAC AFCON units was ever made, with the establishment of MAC by the USAF, plans were also made to discontinue the role of the United States Navy within the new command. At first, MAC transports to Vietnam landed regularly only at Tan Son Nhut AB, New air bases opened at Da Nang AB and Cam Ranh AB in January 1966, and later at Pleiku, Bien Hoa and Phu Cat Air Bases, reducing the need for redistribution. Major unit movements by MAC aircraft from the United States usually required further airlifts to operating areas by in-country transports, eventually, however, C-5s could unload at Tan Son Nhut and elsewhere. Primarily, MAC transports carried high-value cargo such as aircraft and equipment parts, while MAC civilian-contract flights transported passengers to and from the combat zone. In the winter of 1965-66, MAC conducted Operation Blue Light, generally, patients requiring hospitalization for thirty days or more were moved to offshore hospitals, others were sometimes evacuated to keep an empty-bed reserve of fifty percent in Vietnam. Military Airlift Command transports carried the more serious cases from Clark AB to the United States, on 30 March 1972, North Vietnam launched an all-out invasion of South Vietnam, which came to be known as the Easter Offensive. The Vietnamization policy of the United States had resulted in the vast majority of US ground combat forces been withdrawn from South Vietnam with PACAFs tactical air units also being reduced. Military Airlift Commands C-141 force, accustomed to operating in and out of Vietnam from offshore were utilized for movement of large amounts of men and materiel to oppose the invasion. Beginning on 21 April, MAC C-141s began shuttling passengers and cargo between Tan Son Nhut AB and the other main bases, principally Da Nang AB, Bien Hoa AB. Planes and crews were based for one or more nights at Tan Son Nhut and this C-141 effort permitted the VNAF and PACAF C-130s to concentrate on drops, unit hauls, and deliveries to forward locations. The rapid American response to the invasion allowed the South Vietnamese forces to defeat the invaders for the moment, by the terms of the 1973 Paris Peace Accords, the cease-fire was to become effective in Vietnam the morning of 28 January 1973, Saigon time. American prisoners in North Vietnam were to be released and the last 23,700 American troops withdrawn from Vietnam within sixty days, planning for Operation Homecoming, the return of the Americans held by North Vietnam, was given to the Military Airlift Command. C-141s of the 63d Military Airlift Wing, stationed at Norton AFB, a second C-130 left Tan Son Nhut AB carrying members of the international commission to Hanoi oversee the repatriations. This C-130 arrived at Gia Lam Airport about one hour before the C-130 from CCK arrived, on the ground at Gia Lam the C-130 crew met the airport manager, and went indoors for tea offered by the North Vietnamese. The first of three C-141s flown in from Clark landed soon after and repatriation began, as the first returnee moved from the release desk, one of the C-130 flight engineers quickly moved to clear the way, leading the former prisoner by the arm
22.
Lockheed C-130 Hercules
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The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is a four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft designed and built originally by Lockheed. Capable of using unprepared runways for takeoffs and landings, the C-130 was originally designed as a troop, medevac and it is now the main tactical airlifter for many military forces worldwide. Over forty variants and versions of the Hercules, including a civilian one marketed as the Lockheed L-100, the C-130 entered service with the U. S. in the 1950s, followed by Australia and others. During its years of service, the Hercules family has participated in numerous military, the C-130 Hercules is the longest continuously produced military aircraft at over 60 years, with the updated Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules currently being produced. The new transport would have a capacity of 92 passengers,72 combat troops or 64 paratroopers in a compartment that was approximately 41 feet long,9 feet high. Unlike transports derived from passenger airliners, it was to be designed from the ground-up as a transport with loading from a hinged loading ramp at the rear of the fuselage. A key feature was the introduction of the Allison T56 turboprop powerplant, as was the case on helicopters of that era, such as the UH-1 Huey, turboshafts produced much more power for their weight than piston engines. Lockheed would subsequently use the engines and technology in the Lockheed L-188 Electra. The Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter also had a ramp, which made it possible to drive vehicles onto the plane. The ramp on the Hercules was also used to airdrop cargo, the new Lockheed cargo plane design possessed a range of 1,100 nmi, takeoff capability from short and unprepared strips, and the ability to fly with one engine shut down. Fairchild, North American, Martin, and Northrop declined to participate, the remaining five companies tendered a total of ten designs, Lockheed two, Boeing one, Chase three, Douglas three, and Airlifts Inc. one. The contest was an affair between the lighter of the two Lockheed proposals and a four-turboprop Douglas design. The Lockheed design team was led by Willis Hawkins, starting with a 130-page proposal for the Lockheed L-206, both Hibbard and Johnson signed the proposal and the company won the contract for the now-designated Model 82 on 2 July 1951. The first flight of the YC-130 prototype was made on 23 August 1954 from the Lockheed plant in Burbank, the aircraft, serial number 53-3397, was the second prototype, but the first of the two to fly. The YC-130 was piloted by Stanley Beltz and Roy Wimmer on its 61-minute flight to Edwards Air Force Base, Jack Real, kelly Johnson flew chase in a Lockheed P2V Neptune. After the two prototypes were completed, production began in Marietta, Georgia, where over 2,300 C-130s have been built through 2009. The initial production model, the C-130A, was powered by Allison T56-A-9 turboprops with three-blade propellers, deliveries began in December 1956, continuing until the introduction of the C-130B model in 1959. Some A-models were equipped with skis and re-designated C-130D, four-bladed Hamilton Standard propellers replaced the Aeroproducts three-blade propellers that distinguished the earlier A-models
23.
Hurricane Agnes
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Hurricane Agnes was, at the time, the costliest hurricane to hit the United States in recorded history. Initially forming as a depression, the storm headed slowly eastward. Once in the Caribbean, the depression began to strengthen, and by the following day, thereafter, Agnes slowly curved northward and passed just west of Cuba on June 17. Early on June 18, the storm intensified enough to be upgraded to Hurricane Agnes, heading northward, the hurricane eventually made landfall near Panama City, Florida late on June 19. After moving inland, Agnes rapidly weakened and was only a depression when it entered Georgia. The weakening trend halted as the storm crossed over Georgia and into South Carolina, while over eastern North Carolina, Agnes re-strengthened into a tropical storm on June 21, as a result of baroclinic activity. Early the following day, the storm emerged into the Atlantic Ocean before re-curving northwestward, Agnes quickly became an extratropical cyclone on June 23, and tracked to the northwest of Great Britain before becoming absorbed by another cyclone on July 6. Though it moved slowly across the Yucatán Peninsula, damage in Mexico is unknown, although the storm bypassed the tip of Cuba, heavy rainfall occurred, killing seven people. In Florida, Agnes caused a significant tornado outbreak, with at least 26 confirmed twisters, the tornadoes and two initially unconfirmed tornadoes in Florida alone resulted in over $4.5 million in damage and six fatalities. At least 2,082 structures in Florida suffered either major damage or were destroyed, about 1,355 other dwellings experienced minor losses. Though Agnes made landfall as a hurricane, no hurricane-force winds were reported, along the coast abnormally high tides resulted in extensive damage, especially between Apalachicola and Cedar Key. Light to moderate rainfall was reported in Florida, though no significant flooding occurred, in Georgia, damage was limited to two tornadoes, which caused approximately $275,000 in losses. Minimal effects were recorded in Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, Rhode Island, South Carolina. The most significant effects, by far, occurred in Pennsylvania, the hurricane severely flooded the Susquehanna River and the Lackawanna River causing major damage to the Scranton/Wilkes-Barre metropolitan area. In both Pennsylvania and New Jersey combined, about 43,594 structures were destroyed or significantly damaged. In Canada, a home was toppled, killing two people. Overall, Agnes caused 128 fatalities and nearly $3 billion in damage, though more recently, due to the significant effects, the name Agnes was retired in the spring of 1973. In early-mid June 1972, atmospheric conditions favored tropical cyclogenesis in the Caribbean Sea, banded convection developed in the northwestern Caribbean Sea by June 11, though the system did not significantly organize
24.
Distant Early Warning Line
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It was set up to detect incoming Soviet bombers during the Cold War, and provide early warning of any sea-and-land invasion. The DEW Line was the northernmost and most capable of three lines in Canada and Alaska. The Mid-Canada Line was proposed as a solution using a new type of radar. This provided a trip wire warning located roughly at the 55th parallel, giving commanders ample warning time, the MCL proved largely useless in practice, the radar return of flocks of birds overwhelmed signals from aircraft. This would not only provide ample time for the defenses to prepare, the need was considered critical and the construction was given the highest national priorities. The 63-base Line reached operational status in 1957, the MCL was shut down in the early 1960s, and much of the Pinetree line was given over to civilian use. In 1985, as part of the Shamrock Summit, the US, beginning in 1988, most of the original DEW stations were deactivated, while a small number were upgraded with all-new equipment. The official handover from DEW to NWS took place on 15 July 1993, the shortest route for a Russian air attack on North America is through the Arctic, across the North Pole. The original DEW line was designed to detect bombers and was unable to detect intercontinental ballistic missiles, to give warning of this threat, in 1958 a more sophisticated radar system was constructed, the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System. The DEW Line was a significant achievement among Cold War initiatives in the Arctic, the DEW Line grew out of a detailed study made by a group of the nations foremost scientists in 1952, the Summer Study Group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The line would run roughly along the 69th parallel north, about 200 miles or 300 kilometers north of the Arctic Circle. Before this project was completed, men and women with the knowledge, skills, and experience were drawn from Bell Telephone companies in every state in the US. Much of the responsibility was delegated under close supervision to a vast number of subcontractors, suppliers, the designs of communication and radar detection equipment available at the time were known to be unsuited to the weather and atmospheric conditions to be encountered in the Arctic. Prototypes of several stations were designed and built in Alaska and in a section of Illinois in 1953. With the experimental phase completed successfully, the Air Forces asked the Western Electric Company to proceed as rapidly as possible with the construction of the entire DEW Line and that was in December 1954, before the route to be followed in the eastern section had even been determined. The locations were surveyed out by John Anderson-Thompson, siting crews covered the area – first from the air and then on the ground – to locate by scientific means the best sites for the main, auxiliary, and intermediate stations. These hardy men lived and worked under the most primitive conditions and they covered vast distances by airplanes, snowmobiles, and dog sleds, working in blinding snowstorms with temperatures so low that ordinary thermometers could not measure them. But they completed their part of the job on schedule and set the stage for the army of men
25.
Alaskan Air Command
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Alaskan Air Command is an inactive United States Air Force Major Command originally established in 1942 under the United States Army Air Forces. Its mission was to organize and administer the air defense system of Alaska, exercise control of all active measures. In addition, the also supported Strategic Air Command elements operating through. It was redesignated Eleventh Air Force on 9 August 1990 and, concurrently, established on 18 December 1945 the end of World War II, assuming jurisdiction of former Eleventh Air Force, assets in the Alaska Territory. Headquartered at Davis Army Airfield on Adak, the mission of AAC was the consolidation of wartime Army Air Forces in Alaska. Its headquarters was moved back to Anchorage, and was re-established at Elmendorf Field on 1 October 1946. The 57th FG was equipped with 3 squadrons of very-long range P-51H Mustangs, originally designed for missions of B-29 Superfortresses during the war from the Mariana Islands to Japan. Two of its squadrons the 64th and 66th were located at Shemya, the 449th Fighter Squadron was activated at Davis AFB on 1 September 1947. It was equipped with P-61 Black Widows and assigned directly to Headquarters, the only other flying unit was the 54th Troop Carrier Squadron at Elmendorf Field. It was believed that Alaska was threatened more by Soviet bomber attacks across the polar regions, shortly after the Japanese Capitulation, most airfields in the Aleutians were placed in a standby status. Headquarters, Alaskan Air Command was moved to Elmendorf Field on 1 October 1946, the Aleutian Sector was inactivated on 1 July 1947. Following the National Security Act of 1947, the United States Air Force assumed control of the original Army Fort Richardson and Elmendorf Field, Elmendorf officially became an Air Force base 28 March. With tight Air Force budgets in the late 1940s, Amchatka AFB was placed in caretaker status in February 1949, Cape and Thornborough AFB were inactivated in January 1950, avis AFB was transferred to the Department of the Navy. With the exception of Shemya AFB, the Air Force had no bases in the Aleutian Islands. Following the Armistice in Korea, Shimeya was declared surplus and inactivated on 1 July 1954, see also, Kee Bird, Boeing RC-135 Strategic Air Command established a significant presence in Alaska in the late 1940s, initially as a result of its strategic reconnaissance mission. The first efforts were in photo-reconnaissance and mapping, with very long-range B-29 Superfortress reconnaissance aircraft based at Ladd AFB, with growing tensions in US-Soviet relations, SAC explored the possibility of attacking Soviet targets via great circle routes over the North Pole as part of Project Nanook. Ladd AFB, however, due to the geography of its location, was unsuitable for SACs postwar B-36 Peacemaker bomber as well as the new jet B-47 Stratojet. Ladd, being sited next to the Chena River, could not have its runway expanded to meet the requirements for new aircraft
26.
South Pole
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The South Pole, also known as the Geographic South Pole or Terrestrial South Pole, is one of the two points where the Earths axis of rotation intersects its surface. It is the southernmost point on the surface of the Earth, situated on the continent of Antarctica, it is the site of the United States Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, which was established in 1956 and has been permanently staffed since that year. The Geographic South Pole should not be confused with the South Magnetic Pole, the South Pole is at the center of the Southern Hemisphere. For most purposes, the Geographic South Pole is defined as the point of the two points where the Earths axis of rotation intersects its surface. However, the Earths axis of rotation is actually subject to very small wobbles, the geographic coordinates of the South Pole are usually given simply as 90°S, since its longitude is geometrically undefined and irrelevant. When a longitude is desired, it may be given as 0°, at the South Pole, all directions face north. For this reason, directions at the Pole are given relative to grid north, along tight latitude circles, clockwise is east, and counterclockwise is west, opposite to the North Pole. The Geographic South Pole is located on the continent of Antarctica. It sits atop a featureless, barren, windswept and icy plateau at an altitude of 2,835 metres above sea level, and is located about 1,300 km from the nearest open sea at Bay of Whales. The ice is estimated to be about 2,700 metres thick at the Pole, the polar ice sheet is moving at a rate of roughly 10 metres per year in a direction between 37° and 40° west of grid north, down towards the Weddell Sea. Therefore, the position of the station and other artificial features relative to the geographic pole gradually shift over time. The Geographic South Pole is marked by a stake in the ice alongside a small sign, these are repositioned each year in a ceremony on New Years Day to compensate for the movement of the ice. The sign records the respective dates that Roald Amundsen and Robert F. Scott reached the Pole, followed by a quotation from each man. A new marker stake is designed and fabricated each year by staff at the site, the Ceremonial South Pole is an area set aside for photo opportunities at the South Pole Station. It is located around 180 metres from the Geographic South Pole, Amundsens Tent, The tent was erected by the Norwegian expedition led by Roald Amundsen on its arrival on 14 December 1911. It is currently buried beneath the snow and ice in the vicinity of the Pole and it has been designated a Historic Site or Monument, following a proposal by Norway to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. In 1820, several expeditions claimed to have been the first to have sighted Antarctica, with the very first being the Russian expedition led by Faddey Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. The first landing was probably just over a year later when American Captain John Davis, the basic geography of the Antarctic coastline was not understood until the mid-to-late 19th century
27.
VXE-6
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Following the closure of NAS Quonset Point in the 1970s, the squadron relocated to NAS Point Mugu. Using the tail code JD and XD, the squadron flew numerous aircraft over the course of its existence, on 1 January 1969, the former VX-6 was redesignated as VXE-6. Eight months later, on 31 August 1969, two LC-130 Hercules aircraft of VXE-6 arrived at McMurdo Station,6 weeks in advance of the opening of Operation Deep Freeze 70. Among the passengers were Rear Admiral David F. Welch, Commander U. S. Naval Support Force Antarctica and this trip was 1,825 miles round trip from McMurdo Station. On 28 November 1979, Air New Zealand Flight 901 crashed into Mount Erebus and these aircraft were joined a half-hour later, at 4, 16pm by six more aircraft launched from McMurdo Station. At around 9,00 am, twenty hours after the crash, the search parties confirmed that the wreckage was from Air New Zealand Flight 901, and that there were no survivors. In 1988, another medical evacuation to the South African National Antarctic Expedition Station at Vesleskarvet nunatak broke the record for time and distance in a single Antarctic flight. Another highlight of the 1988 season was the recovery of an LC-130 Hercules that had buried in ice. That aircraft was restored and operated with VXE-6 until its disestablishment in 1999. In 1990, VXE-6 moved almost 8,000 passengers and over 6 million pounds of cargo which included five resupply flights to Vostok Station and that year, VXE-6 also accomplished the first wheeled landing of an LC-130 Hercules on a blue ice surface near Beardmore Glacier. On 25 October 1991, the first all-female crew took an LC-130 Hercules to open up Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station,1993 saw VXE-6 break many records, including the transportation of nearly 9.4 million pounds of cargo and fuel. On 3 February 1996, during the squadrons 40th annual deployment to Antarctica, the helicopter component of VXE-6 was formally disestablished in April 1996. 1998 was marked by the delivery of necessary to begin the construction of the new South Pole Station. Beginning in 1997, responsibility for long-range logistical support of Operation Deep Freeze was transferred from the VXE-6 squadron to the 109th Airlift Wing of the New York Air National Guard. The transition was planned over a period to avoid any negative impact on operations. During the 1996/1997 season, VXE-6 operated six aircraft and was augmented by aircraft of the NYANG, VXE-6 operated five aircraft during the 1997/1998 season, and the number of flight hours was divided roughly equally between VXE-6 and the NYANG. S. Antarctic Program at the beginning of the 1998/1999 season, a new organization, Detachment 13, was formed to manage the overall support from the Department of Defense. The detachment replaced the NSFA organization, the main organizations under Detachment 13 were the 109th Airlift Wing of the NYANG, the Navy’s VXE-6 squadron, and Aviation Technical Services
28.
1990 Gulf Crisis
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The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991
29.
Gulf War
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The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991
30.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
31.
Operation Support Hope
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The inhabitants of the camp consisted of approximately two million Hutus, participants in the genocide, and the bystanders, who had fled in anticipation of Tutsi retaliation. On July 22,1994 President Clinton announced Operation Support Hope, two days later, American joint task forces were airlifted to Goma, Zaire, Kigali, Rwanda, Entebbe, Uganda, and Mombasa, Kenya. The joint task force was headquartered in Entebbe, with the role of providing a cargo airlift to supplement United Nations efforts, the United States Army almost immediately set up a major water supply system at the refugee camp in Goma and helped bury the dead. Due to limited space, some aircraft were forced into holding patterns, their fuel requirements were met by KC-10 tanker aircraft based at Harare. During the peak of Operation Support Hope in late August, the United States had 2350 service members deployed, about 15,000 tons of humanitarian supplies were delivered by 1200 airlift sorties, about 60% of the total airlift tonnage. On August 14, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees requested that all agencies stop airlifting food to Goma, the operation continued supporting other locations in Rwanda. By presidential order, it ceased on September 27 and the last C-5 involved in the airlift left Entebbe on September 29. One noteworthy accomplishment was a C-5 that flew a 22-hour flight nonstop from Travis Air Force Base, California to Goma to deliver a supply system. As part of Operation Support Hope, the American defense contractor Halliburton earned $6. 3million through its engineering, the operations code name, Support Hope, has been criticized as uninspiring, along with a number of recent code names picked from a computer-generated list. Operation Restore Hope, a mission to Somalia in 1992
32.
United States Antarctic Program
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The United States Antarctic Program is an organization of the United States government which has presence in the continent of Antarctica. Founded in 1959, the USAP manages all U. S. scientific research, currently, the USAP maintains three year-round research stations in Antarctica, the McMurdo Station, the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, and the Palmer Station. In addition, the USAP operates several summer camps and several research vessels that sail in the Antarctic waters. The programs fiscal budget for 2008 was US$295 million, and for 2012 was US$350 million, the Antarctic Sun Operation Deep Freeze Eltanin Antarctic ecosystem United States Antarctic Program The Antarctic Sun
33.
Christchurch International Airport
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Christchurch International Airport is the main airport that serves Christchurch, New Zealand. It is located 12 kilometres to the northwest of the city centre, Christchurch Airport officially opened on 18 May 1940 and became New Zealands first international airport on 16 December 1950. It is the second busiest airport in New Zealand after Auckland by both passengers and aircraft movements. Christchurch along with Auckland are the two airports in New Zealand to regularly handle Boeing 747 and Airbus A380 aircraft. The airport is curfew free operating 24 hours a day, the prevailing wind in Christchurch is from the north-east and to a lesser extent from the south-west, but the city is also affected by Canterburys norwester foehn wind. The airport also has a grass runway, parallel to the primary runway. Due to increasing numbers, the airport has completed construction of a major terminal upgrade. The new constructions primary wing opened in 2011 and the upgrade was completed in 2013, in 1935 a decision was made by the local council to locate a new aerodrome at Harewood as the best site for Christchurch. Development of the aerodrome at Harewood commenced in 1936 when 227 hectares of land was purchased, in 1937 a 915-metre runway and a 60 square metre terminal were constructed. In 1940 the airport became RNZAF Station Harewood, by 1946 the form of the terminal area development was established with hangars, a small terminal building, the water tower and some barracks buildings. In 1950 Christchurch Airport received clearance for international operations from the government, the two runways and parallel taxiway concept was established in 1953—runway 02/20 at 2.012 metres and 11/29 at 1, 741m. In 1954 TEAL introduced Douglas DC-6 aircraft to its trans-Tasman services, in February 1960 a new terminal building, designed by architect Paul Pascoe, was brought into operation. During 1963 the main runway was extended 427m southwest to 2,442 metres, in April 1965 scheduled Boeing 707 jet services started, by Qantas to Sydney. Later in 1966 an international wing was added to the domestic terminal, in October 1968 NAC operated its first Boeing 737 to the airport. SAFE Air introduced a Chatham Island air link to Christchurch in December 1969, in 1972 the north-west runway was completely resealed and repainted. The first scheduled Boeing 747 service arrived on 3 December 1972, Air New Zealand introduced its DC-10 aircraft to trans-Tasman services at the end of October 1973. Extensions to the terminal were completed in 1975 with a new two level pier added, extending the total floor space to 16,000 square metres. In October that year, Air New Zealand began a weekly DC-8 service linking Christchurch to Nadi, Rarotonga, Air New Zealand opened its No.1 Hangar at the airport in August 1979
34.
Williams Field
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Williams Field or Willy Field is a United States Antarctic Program airfield in Antarctica. Williams Field consists of two runways located on approximately 8 meters of compacted snow, lying on top of 8–10 ft of ice. The airport, which is seven miles from Ross Island, serves McMurdo Station. Until the 2009-10 summer season, Williams was the airfield for on-continent aircraft operations in Antarctica. Williams Field is named in honor of Richard T. Williams, the skiway was typically in operation from December through to the end of February. Other McMurdo Station airfields include the Ice Runway and Pegasus Field used in August, the Williams Field snow runway is known locally as Willys Field. The airfield is a snow surface that can support ski-equipped aircraft landings only. A cluster of facilities for operations, referred to as Willy Town, includes several rows of containers for workers. Some of the buildings are relocated to support operations at the nearby Ice Runway. Willy Field Tavern, a bar at the airfield, closed in 1994, aviation fuel at Williams Field is pumped in a 16 km flexible pipe from McMurdo Station. Fuel is stored in up to 12 tanks, the fuel tanks, like other structures at the airfield, are mounted on skis or runners for portability. Generator and heating fuel is delivered to the station by fuel trucks from McMurdo Station, the extraordinary conditions encountered at Williams Field include the fact that the airfield is in a continuous slow slide towards the sea. Seaward movement of the floating McMurdo Ice Shelf upon which the airfield is constructed has forced Williams Field to be relocated three times since its original construction, workers last moved the airfield during the 1984-85 season. Subsequently, personnel housed at Williams lived in buildings constructed on sleds to facilitate relocation, in the past, up to 450 people were housed at the airfield, according to the National Science Foundation. 1960, U. S. Navy WV-2 BuNo 126513 crashes after landing short of the ice runway,1960, First ski-equipped C-130 Hercules cargo aircraft lands in Antarctica. 1960, Sunspots knock out radio communications for eight days, forcing cancellation of all flights between New Zealand and McMurdo,1966, First all-jet aircraft lands at Williams. 1970, U. S. Navy Pegasus C-121J crash lands, aircraft is destroyed but no fatalities among the 80 persons aboard. Pegasus Field is named after this aircraft,1979, Air New Zealand Flight 901 crashes on nearby Mt Erebus
35.
Ross Ice Shelf
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The Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica. It is several hundred metres thick, the nearly vertical ice front to the open sea is more than 600 kilometres long, and between 15 and 50 metres high above the water surface. Ninety percent of the ice, however, is below the water surface. Most of Ross Ice Shelf is in the Ross Dependency claimed by New Zealand and it floats in, and covers, a large southern portion of the Ross Sea and the entire Roosevelt Island located in the west of the Ross Sea. The ice shelf is named after Captain Sir James Clark Ross and it was originally called The Barrier, with various adjectives including Great Ice Barrier, as it prevented sailing further south. Ross mapped the ice front eastward to 160°W, in 1947, the US Board on Geographic Names applied the name Ross Shelf Ice to this feature and published it in the original US Antarctic Gazetteer. In January 1953 the name was changed to Ross Ice Shelf, four days later, they found their way into open water and were hoping that they would have a clear passage to their destination. But on 11 January, the men were faced with a mass of ice. Sir James Clark Ross, who was the commander, remarked, Well. Two volcanoes in the region were named by Ross for his vessels, for early Antarctic explorers seeking to reach the South Pole, the Ross Ice Shelf became a starting area. The findings were presented at a lecture entitled Universitas Antarctica, given 7 June 1911 and were published in the account of Scotts second expedition. Both Roald Amundsen and Scott crossed the shelf to reach the Pole in 1911, Amundsen wrote, Along its outer edge the Barrier shows an even, flat surface, but here, inside the bay, the conditions were entirely different. Even from the deck of the Fram we were able to observe great disturbances of the surface in every direction, the greatest elevation lay to the south in the form of a lofty, arched ridge, which we took to be about 500 feet high on the horizon. But it might be assumed that this continued to rise beyond the range of vision. The next day, the party made its first steps on the Barrier, after half an hour’s march we were already at the first important point—the connection between the sea-ice and the Barrier. This connection had always haunted our brains, a high, perpendicular face of ice, up which we should have to haul our things laboriously with the help of tackles. Or a great and dangerous fissure, which we should not be able to cross without going a long way round and we naturally expected something of the sort. This mighty and terrible monster would, of course, offer resistance in form or other
36.
McMurdo Station
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The McMurdo Station is a United States Antarctic research center on the south tip of Ross Island, which is in the New Zealand-claimed Ross Dependency on the shore of McMurdo Sound in Antarctica. It is operated by the United States through the United States Antarctic Program, the station is the largest community in Antarctica, capable of supporting up to 1,258 residents, and serves as one of three United States Antarctic science facilities. All personnel and cargo going to or coming from Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station first pass through McMurdo, british explorer Robert Falcon Scott first established a base close to this spot in 1902 and built Discovery Hut, still standing adjacent to the harbour at Hut Point. The volcanic rock of the site is the southernmost bare ground accessible by ship in the Antarctic, the United States officially opened its first station at McMurdo on February 16,1956. Founders initially called the station Naval Air Facility McMurdo, on November 28,1957, Admiral George J. Dufek was present with a U. S. congressional delegation during a change of command ceremony. McMurdo became the center of scientific and logistical operation during the International Geophysical Year, the Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System, was opened for signature on December 1,1959, and officially entered into force on June 23,1961. The first scientific diving protocols were established before 1960 and the first diving operations were documented in November 1961, in 1974, Mary Alice McWhinnie and Sister Mary Odile Cahoon became the first women to winter-over at McMurdo Station. On March 3,1962, operators activated a nuclear plant at the station. The plant, like nearby Scotts Discovery Hut, was prefabricated in modules, engineers designed the components to weigh no more than 30,000 pounds each and to measure no more than 8 feet 8 inches by 8 feet 8 inches by 30 feet. A single core no larger than an oil drum served as the heart of the nuclear reactor and these size and weight restrictions were intended to allow the reactor to be delivered in an LC-130 Hercules aircraft. However, the components were delivered by ship. The reactor generated 1.8 MW of electrical power and reportedly replaced the need for 1,500 US gallons of oil daily, engineers applied the reactors power, for instance, in producing steam for the salt water distillation plant. As a result of continuing safety issues, the U. S. Navy Nuclear Power Program decommissioned the plant in 1972, after the nuclear power station was no longer operational, conventional diesel generators were used. There were a number of 500 kilowatts diesel generators in a central powerhouse providing electric power, a conventionally fueled water desalination plant provided fresh water. The station is home to the continents two ATMs, both provided by Wells Fargo Bank. Scientists and other personnel at McMurdo are participants in the USAP, werner Herzogs 2007 documentary Encounters at the End of the World reports on the life and culture of McMurdo Station from the point of view of residents. An annual sealift by cargo ships as part of Operation Deep Freeze delivers 8 million U. S. gallons of fuel and 11 million pounds of supplies, the ships are operated by the U. S. Military Sealift Command but are manned by civilian mariners, cargo may range from mail, construction materials, trucks, tractors, dry and frozen food, to scientific instruments
37.
Scott Base
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The Scott Base is a New Zealand Antarctic research facility located at Pram Point on Ross Island near Mount Erebus in New Zealands Ross Dependency territorial claim. The research facility was named in honour of Captain Robert Falcon Scott, RN, the base was set up as support to field research and the centre for research into earth sciences, and now conducts research in many fields, operated by Antarctica New Zealand. By road, the base is 3 kilometres from the larger U. S. McMurdo Station, Scott Base was originally constructed in support of the UK inspired and privately managed Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition. The New Zealand government provided support for the TAE and also for the International Geophysical Year project of 1957, five of whose members were attached to the Expedition. In February 1956,10 months before the TAE and IGY parties were due to head to the Antarctic, Frank Ponder, ponders design consisted of six main buildings and three smaller scientific labs. The main buildings were to be placed at least 7 metres apart because of risk but were linked to one another by a covered way of galvanised iron. Three New Zealand observers were given the task of selecting the site for a base went to McMurdo Sound with the United States “Operation Deep Freeze I” in the summer of 1955. After evaluating possible sites, a location near Butter Point was chosen, the base looks out over what is now known as Haskell Strait. Scott Base passed over to NZ Government ownership via the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, on March 5,1958, during the IGY the United States facility at Hut Point did not operate as a scientific base. In order to maintain operations, a rebuilding programme began in 1976. As of 2008, the original building is the TAE A mess hut. The building was opened by then-Foreign Minister Phil Goff and Sir Edmund Hillary. From 1957 until 1986, dogs played a part in base operations, initially they were an essential means of transport, but with better technology their importance dwindled until they were removed in line with environmental treaties. Scientific diving operations began in 1985, between 1985 and 2006, a total of 1,296 had been logged. The A Hut of Scott Base is the only existing Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition building in Antarctica and it has been designated a Historic Site or Monument, following a proposal by New Zealand to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. The base is made up of a collection of Chelsea Cucumber green buildings which are linked by all-weather corridors and these buildings can accommodate 85 people over summer, with a skeleton staff of between 10 and 14 people remaining over the winter. Spark NZ also provide services to McMurdo for calls to New Zealand as well as to the Italian Programme at Terra Nova Bay. McMurdo Station has an independent communications infrastructure located at Black Island, Scott Base is today operated by Antarctica New Zealand
38.
Jerri Nielsen
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In 1998, during the southern winter, at a time when the station is physically cut off from the rest of the world, she developed breast cancer. Nielsen teleconferenced with medical personnel in the United States, and had to operate on herself in order to extract tissue samples for analysis, a military plane was later dispatched to the pole to airdrop equipment and medications. S. as soon as possible. Her ordeal attracted a great amount of attention from the media, the cancer went into remission, but recurred seven years later, eventually causing her death in 2009 from brain metastatic disease, eleven years after initial diagnosis. She graduated pre-med from Ohio University in Athens before entering the Medical College of Ohio in Toledo, while at Ohio university she also met Jay Nielsen, who she subsequently married. They had three children before divorcing acrimoniously in 1998 and she continued to work as a physician in various medical fields, mostly as an ER surgeon. In 1998, Nielsen was hired for a contract to serve as the medical doctor at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station on Antarctica. This isolated region experiences almost total darkness for the six months of winter, during this period, the station is completely cut off from the world, as no planes fly there between mid-February and late October. The winterover crew is stranded and entirely autonomous. In the course of her work at the station, Nielsen discovered a lump in her breast. After consulting US physicians via e-mail and video conference, she performed a biopsy upon herself, the results were, however, inconclusive, because the material used on site was too outdated to allow for a precise diagnosis. The National Science Foundation decided to send a plane to airdrop supplies. Such airdrops had been a yearly event several years earlier, when the station was run by the US Navy, the plane did not attempt a landing because its skis would risk sticking to the ice and its fuel and hydraulic lines would rapidly freeze, dooming the craft. South Pole workers lit fires in barrels in the Antarctic night to mark out a drop zone, an Air Force C-141 cargo plane, staged out of Christchurch, overflew the Pole in the darkness of mid-July and sent six bundles of supplies and medical equipment parachuting toward the station. Using the parachuted supplies, Nielsen began her treatment, following the advice of her doctors over the satellite link and she first began a hormone treatment. She trained her South Pole colleagues to form a team that could assist her in the procedures. A new biopsy performed with the airdropped equipment allowed better scans to be sent to the US, with the help of her makeshift medical team, Nielsen then began self-administering chemotherapy. Another crew member, who had suffered a hip injury during the winter, was also evacuated, once back in the United States, after multiple surgeries, complications and a mastectomy, Nielsen went into remission. She became a speaker and a scholarship was created in her honor, she also remarried
39.
World Trade Center (1973-2001)
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The World Trade Center was a large complex of seven buildings in Lower Manhattan, New York City, United States. It featured landmark twin towers, which opened on April 4,1973, and were destroyed as a result of the September 11 attacks. At the time of their completion, the Twin Towers—the original 1 World Trade Center, at 1,368 feet, the other buildings in the complex included the Marriott World Trade Center,4 WTC,5 WTC,6 WTC, and 7 WTC. All these buildings were built between 1975 and 1985, with a construction cost of $400 million, the complex was located in New York Citys Financial District and contained 13,400,000 square feet of office space. The World Trade Center experienced a fire on February 13,1975, a bombing on February 26,1993, and a robbery on January 14,1998. In 1998, the Port Authority decided to privatize the World Trade Center, leasing the buildings to a company to manage. On the morning of September 11,2001, Al-Qaeda-affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets into the North and South Towers within minutes of other, two hours later, both had collapsed. The attacks killed 2,606 people in and within the vicinity of the towers, the cleanup and recovery process at the World Trade Center site took eight months, during which time what remained of the other World Trade Center buildings was demolished. The World Trade Center complex was rebuilt over a span of more than a decade, the site is being rebuilt with six new skyscrapers, while a memorial to those killed in the attacks and a new rapid transit hub have both opened. One World Trade Center, the tallest building in the United States, is the building for the new complex. The western portion of the World Trade Center site was originally under the Hudson River and they built the first European settlement in Manhattan. The remains of the ship were buried under landfill when the shoreline was extended starting in 1797, the remains of a second ship from the eighteenth century were discovered in 2010 during excavation work at the site. The ship, believed to be a Hudson River sloop, was found just south of where the Twin Towers used to stand, later, the area became Radio Row. New York Citys Radio Row, which existed from 1921 to 1966, was a district on the Lower West Side in the Financial District. Harry Schneck opened City Radio on Cortlandt Street in 1921, and eventually the area several blocks of electronics stores. The used radios, war surplus electronics, junk, and parts often piled so high they would spill out onto the street, according to a business writer, it also was the origin of the electronic component distribution business. The idea of establishing a World Trade Center in New York City was first proposed in 1943, the New York State Legislature passed a bill authorizing New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey to begin developing plans for the project but the plans were put on hold in 1949. During the late 1940s and 1950s, economic growth in New York City was concentrated in Midtown Manhattan, to help stimulate urban renewal in Lower Manhattan, David Rockefeller suggested that the Port Authority build a World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan
40.
Southwest Asia
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Western Asia, West Asia, Southwestern Asia or Southwest Asia is the westernmost subregion of Asia. The concept is in limited use, as it overlaps with the Middle East. The term is used for the purposes of grouping countries in statistics. The total population of Western Asia is an estimated 300 million as of 2015, in an unrelated context, the term is also used in ancient history and archaeology to divide the Fertile Crescent into the Asiatic or Western Asian cultures as opposed to ancient Egypt. As a geographic concept, Western Asia almost always includes the Levant, Mesopotamia, the term is used pragmatically and has no correct or generally agreed-upon definition. In contrast to this definition, the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation in its 2015 yearbook also includes Armenia and Azerbaijan, unlike the UNIDO, the United Nations Statistics Division excludes Iran from Western Asia and include Turkey, Georgia, and Cyprus in the region. These four countries are listed in the European category of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, the Olympic Council of Asias multi-sport event West Asian Games are contested by athletes representing these thirteen countries. Among the regions sports organisations are the West Asia Basketball Association, West Asian Billiards and Snooker Federation, West Asian Football Federation, Western Asia was in use as a geographical term in the early 19th century, even before Near East became current as a geopolitical concept. Use of the term in the context of contemporary geopolitics or world economy appears to date from the 1960s, Western Asia is located directly south of Eastern Europe. The region is surrounded by seven major seas, the Aegean Sea, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Arabian Sea, the Red Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea. The Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut deserts in eastern Iran naturally delimit the region somewhat from Asia itself, three major tectonic plates converge on Western Asia, including the African, Eurasian, and Arabian plates. The boundaries between the plates make up the Azores-Gibraltar Ridge, extending across North Africa, the Red Sea. The Arabian Plate is moving northward into the Anatolian plate at the East Anatolian Fault, several major aquifers provide water to large portions of Western Asia. In Saudi Arabia, two large aquifers of Palaeozoic and Triassic origins are located beneath the Jabal Tuwayq mountains and areas west to the Red Sea. Cretaceous and Eocene-origin aquifers are located beneath large portions of central and eastern Saudi Arabia, including Wasia, flood or furrow irrigation, as well as sprinkler methods, are extensively used for irrigation, covering nearly 90,000 km² across Western Asia for agriculture. Western Asia is primarily arid and semi-arid, and can be subject to drought, the region consists of grasslands, rangelands, deserts, and mountains. Water shortages are a problem in parts of West Asia, with rapidly growing populations increasing demands for water. Major rivers, including the Tigris and Euphrates, provide sources for water to support agriculture
41.
Afghanistan
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Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north and its territory covers 652,000 km2, making it the 41st largest country in the world. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, the political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country and it remained peaceful during Zahir Shahs forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. The name Afghānistān is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, the root name Afghan was used historically in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the suffix -stan means place of in Persian. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more specifically in a historical sense, however, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states that he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. An important site of historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and it has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, in more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well, after 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, the region at the time was referred to as Ariana
42.
133rd Airlift Wing
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The 133rd Airlift Wing is a unit of the Minnesota Air National Guard, stationed at Minneapolis–Saint Paul Joint Air Reserve Station, Minnesota. If activated to service, the Wing is gained by the United States Air Force Air Mobility Command. The 109th Airlift Squadron assigned to the Wings 133rd Operations Group, is a descendant organization of the World War I 109th Aero Squadron, established on 27 August 1917. It was reformed on 17 January 1921, as the 109th Observation Squadron, the 133rd Airlift Wing is a unit of the Minnesota Air National Guard, stationed at Minneapolis–Saint Paul Joint Air Reserve Station. Gained by the USAF Air Mobility Command if federalize, the unit is an air transport organization flying C-130H Hercules tactical airlifters and its normal flying operations include air-drop training and transport missions. The four engine C-130 turboprop aircraft can land on runways or airdrop personnel. These capabilities are well suited for disaster relief missions, the 133rd AWs mission is to provide combat ready air crews, support personnel, and aircraft for the airlift of passengers and cargo anywhere in the world. Upon direction of the Governor, the unit can furnish personnel and equipment, including aircraft, to assist in disaster relief or to safeguard life. It was organized at Holman Field, Saint Paul and was extended federal recognition on 28 August 1947 by Air Defense Command, on 2 March 1951 the 133rd Fighter Wing was federalized and brought to active duty due to the Korean War and assigned to Air Defense Command. The 133rd Fighter-Interceptor Group controlled the 109th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron at Minneapolis, the 133rd Wing and Group were inactivated on 6 February 1952 and the squadrons reassigned to the 31st Air Division of Air Defense Command for the remainder of their federal service. The unit was reformed as the 133rd Fighter-Interceptor Wing under Minnesota state control on 1 December 1952, after the Korean War, the wing was reformed by 1 January 1953 and resumed its air defense mission. Was upgraded by ADC in 1954 to the dedicated F-94A Starfire all-weather interceptor, with this new aircraft, the mission of the 109th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron changed from day interceptor to day and night all-weather interceptor. In 1958 the 109th again upgraded to the improved F-89H Scorpion, in 1960, the 133rd FIW was reassigned to Military Air Transport Service as its gaining command, trading in its air defense interceptors for 4-engines C-97 Stratofreighter transports. With air transportation recognized as a critical wartime need, the unit was redesignated the 133rd Air Transport Wing, during the 1961 Berlin Crisis, the wing was federalized on 1 October 1961. From Minneapolis, the 109th ATS augmented MATS airlift capability worldwide in support of the Air Forces needs and it returned again to Minnesota state control on 31 August 1962. The C-97s were retired in 1971 and the 133rd TAW was transferred to Tactical Air Command as its gaining command and it transitioned to the C-130A Hercules theater transport, flying missions in support of TAC throughout the United States and Alaska. In 1974 the unit was returned to Military Airlift Command when TAC transferred out its troop carrier mission, the unit has been upgraded over the years with newer C-130E aircraft in 1981 and currently flies the C-130H, which it received in 1995. 2011 marked the 90th anniversary of the 1921 decision to make Minnesotas 109th Aero Squadron the first federally recognized National Guard flying unit in the country
43.
106th Air Transport Wing
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The 106th Fighter-Interceptor Wing is a former unit of the New York Air National Guard, last stationed at Francis S. Gabreski Air National Guard Base, Westhampton Beach, New York. The 102d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, which was assigned to the Wings 106th Fighter-Interceptor Group, was first organized during World War I as the 102d Aero Squadron on 23 August 1917. It was reconstituted on 4 November 1922, as the 102d Observation Squadron, the squadron has a history going back to 30 April 1908, and is the oldest unit of the New York Air National Guard. In October 1950, the Air National Guard converted to the wing-base organization, as a result, the 52d Fighter Wing was withdrawn from the Air National Guard and inactivated on 31 October 1950. The 106th Composite Wing was activated as one of two new New York Air National Guard wings which replaced it, both wings reported to the adjutant general of the New York National Guard in Albany. With the surprise invasion of South Korea on 25 June 1950, on 28 March 1951, the wing moved to March Air Force Base, California. At March, the 106th was re-equipped with Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers and tankers, the 106th Wings personnel and equipment at March were transferred to the 320th Bombardment Wing, which was activated on 1 December 1952 and the 106th Wing was returned to New York state control. With its return to New York state control, the 106th was again equipped with B-26 Invaders, the 106th trained with the Invader until the removal of the B-26 from bombing duties in 1956 as it neared the end of its service life. The 106th wartime gaining command was changed from Tactical Air Command to Air Defense Command and it assumed an air defense mission over Long Island and New York City, entering the jet age with the limited all-weather two seat Lockheed F-94B Starfire interceptor. With the Starfire, the 106th began standing end of air defense alert. The wing kept aircraft on air defense alert from one hour before sunrise until one hour after sunset every day, in 1957, ADC upgraded the wings 102d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron to the single seat North American F-86D Sabre. With the receipt of the F-86D, the mission was expanded to full-time. The State of New York was notified by the United States Air Force on 26 September 1957 that support for the wings 114th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron would be ended due to fiscal constraints. Initially equipped with specialized Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcars configured for transport of wounded and injured, with air transportation recognized as a critical wartime need, the 106th was redesignated the 106th Air Transport Wing in January 1964 and equipped with Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter heavy transports. With the C-97s, the 106th augmented MATS airlift capability world-wide in support of the Air Force’s needs and it also flew scheduled MATS transport missions to Europe, Africa the Caribbean and South America. With the acquisition of KC-97 Stratotankers from SAC, the 106th gaining command returned to Tactical Air Command in September 1969 and its mission was to provide air refueling to tactical fighter and reconnaissance aircraft. The KC-97 was a variant of the C-97 Stratofreighter and the conversion of the unit from transports to refueling aircraft was easily accomplished, the wings KC-97Ls had added jet engine pods mounted on their outboard wings. The success of this operation, which would continue until 1972, in 1969, the Air Force closed Suffolk County Air Force Base as an active base and the wing relocated there in 1970
44.
Aerospace Defense Command
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Aerospace Defense Command was a major command of the United States Air Forces, responsible for continental air defence. It was activated in 1968 and disbanded in 1980 and its predecessor, Air Defense Command, was established in 1946, briefly inactivated in 1950, reactivated in 1951, and then redesignated Aerospace rather than Air in 1968. Its mission was to air defense of the Continental United States. It directly controlled all active measures, and was tasked to coordinate all passive means of air defense, the air districts established on 16 January 1941 before the Pearl Harbor attack. The four air districts also handled USAAF combat training with the Army Ground Forces and organization and training of bomber, fighter and other units, the USAAFs Aircraft Warning Corps provided air defense warning with information centers that networked an areas Army Radar Stations which communicated radar tracks by telephone. The AWC information centers also integrated visual reports processed by Ground Observer Corps filter centers, AWC information centers notified air defense command posts of the 4 continental air forces for deploying interceptor aircraft which used command guidance for ground-controlled interception. The USAAF inactivated the aircraft warning network in April 1944, Continental Air Forces was activated on 12 December 1944 with the four Air Forces as components to consolidate the CONUS air defense mission under one command. The Continental Air Forces reorganization began in 1945, when ground radar, the Distant Early Warning Line was first conceived—and rejected—in 1946. By 1948 there were only 5 AC&W stations, including the Twin Lights station in NJ that opened in June and Montauk NY Air Warning Station #3 --cf. SAC radar stations, e. g. at Dallas & Denver Bomb Plots. By the time ADC was inactivated on 1 July 1950, ADC had deployed the Lashup Radar Network with existing radars at 43 sites, in addition,36 Air National Guard fighter units were called to active duty for the mission. ADC was reinstated as a command on 1 January 1951 at Mitchel Air Force Base. The headquarters was moved to Ent Air Force Base in Colorado Springs on 8 January 1951 and it received 21 former ConAC active-duty fighter squadrons. ADC was also assigned the 25th, 26th 27th and 28th Air Divisions ADC completed the Priority Permanent System network for Aircraft Warning, gaps were filled by additional Federal Aviation Administration radar stations and the Ground Observation Corps. During the mid-1950s, planners devised the idea of extending the wall of powerful land-based radar seaward with Airborne early warning, the RC-121s, EC-121s and Texas Towers, it was believed, would contribute to extending contiguous east-coast radar coverage some 300 to 500 miles seaward. In terms of the air threat of the 1950s, this meant a gain of at least 30 extra minutes warning time of a bomber attack. ADCs Operation Tail Wind on 11–12 July tested its augmentation plan that required Air Training Command interceptors participate in an air defense emergency, a total of seven ATC bases actively participated in the exercise, deploying aircraft and aircrews and supporting the ADC radar net. As the USAF prepared to deploy the Tactical Air Command E-3 Sentry in the later 1970s, all remaining EC-121s were transferred to the Air Force Reserve, which formed the 79th AEWCS at Homestead Air Force Base, Florida in early 1976. Besides monitoring Cuban waters, these last Warning Stars also operated from NAS Keflavik, final EC-121 operations ended in September 1978
45.
Stratton Air National Guard Base
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It is included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015, which categorized it as a reliever airport. Founded in 1927, the airport is home to Richmor Aviation, Fortune Air, the 109th Airlift Wing of the New York Air National Guard, the Empire State Aerosciences Museum, Schenectady County Airports military enclave is named Stratton Air National Guard Base. It has hosted the New York Air National Guard 109th Airlift Wing since 1949, the base is named after conservative Democratic US Representative Sam Stratton, who represented the Albany area. The wing is unique as it is the only USAF unit equipped with 10 ski-equipped C-130 Hercules aircraft, since 1971, the 109th has played an important role in support of the National Science Foundations research expeditions at both the North and South Poles. Annually, the hosts the Civil Air Patrols New York Wing Encampment. Schenectady County Airport covers an area of 750 acres at an elevation of 378 feet above sea level. It has two paved runways, 4/22 is 7,000 by 150 feet, 10/28 is 4,850 by 150 feet. For the 12-month period ending December 31,2009, the airport had 62,588 aircraft operations, an average of 171 per day, 79% general aviation, 15% military, and 6% air taxi. At that time there were 110 aircraft based at airport, 72% single-engine, 7% multi-engine, 6% jet, 2% helicopter. Airport page at Schenectady County website 109th Airlift Wing Airport diagram
46.
Operation Deep Freeze
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The U. S. Navy already had a record of earlier exploration in Antarctica. As early as 1839, Captain Charles Wilkes led the first U. S. Naval expedition into Antarctic waters. In 1929, Admiral Richard E. Byrd established a base at Little America I, led an expedition to explore further inland. From 1934–35, the second Byrd Expedition explored much further inland, the third Byrd Expedition in 1940 charted the Ross Sea. Byrd was instrumental in the Navys Operation Highjump after World War II from 1946–47, in 1948, Commander Finn Ronne led an expedition that photographed over 450,000 square miles by air. Then in 1954–55, the icebreaker USS Atka made an expedition for future landing sites. The impetus behind Operation Deep Freeze I was the International Geophysical Year 1957–58, IGY as it was known was a collaborative effort among forty nations to carry out earth science studies from the North Pole to the South Pole and at points in between. The United States along with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, Norway, Chile, Argentina, and the U. S. S. R. agreed to go to the South Pole, the least explored area on Earth. Their goal was to advance knowledge of Antarctic hydrography and weather systems, glacial movements. The U. S. Navy was charged with supporting the U. S. scientists for their portion of the IGY studies, in 1955, Task Force 43 was formed to carry out this work. Operation Deep Freeze I prepared a permanent research station and paved the way for more research in later Deep Freeze operations. The expedition transpired over the Antarctic summer of November 1955 to April 1956, Dufek and others successfully landed an R4D Skytrain aircraft at the South Pole, as part of the expeditions mounted for the IGY. This was the first aircraft to land at the South Pole, the aircraft was named Que Sera, Sera after a popular song and is now on display at the Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida. This marked the beginning of the establishment of the first permanent base, by airlift, the Operation Deep Freeze activities were succeeded by Operation Deep Freeze II, and so on, continuing a constant US presence in Antarctica since that date. The Navys Antarctic Development Squadron Six had been flying the missions, the 109th operated ski-equipped LC-130s and had been flying some National Science Foundation support missions to Antarctica since 1988. It had flown scientific and military missions to Greenland and the Arctic since 1975, the Antarctic operation would be fully funded by the National Science Foundation. The 109th expected to add approximately 235 full-time personnel to support that operation, the possibility of the Air National Guard assuming operational control of the mission had first emerged in 1988. The 109th Airlift Wing had been notified that, almost overnight, the other sites would soon follow, and the 109th would be largely out of business because its primary mission had ended
United States
New York
Air National Guard
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http://www.afhra.af.mil/.
