1.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
2.
French Army
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The French Army, officially the Land Army is the land-based and largest component of the French Armed Forces. Along with the French Air Force, the French Navy and the National Gendarmerie, the current Chief of Staff of the French Army is General Jean-Pierre Bosser, a direct subordinate of the Chief of the Defence Staff. All soldiers are considered professionals following the suspension of conscription, voted in parliament in 1997, as of 2014, the French Army employed 111,628 personnel. In addition, the element of the French Army consisted of 15,453 personnel of the Operational Reserve. The Kings of France needed reliable troops during and after the Hundred Years War and these units of troops were raised by issuing ordonnances to govern their length of service, composition and payment. These Compagnies dordonnance formed the core of the Gendarme Cavalry into the sixteenth century, stationed throughout France and summoned into larger armies as needed. There was also made for Francs-archers units of bowmen and foot soldiers raised from the non-noble classes. The bulk of the infantry for warfare was still provided by urban or provincial militias, raised from an area or city to fight locally and named for their recruiting grounds. Gradually these units became more permanent, and in 1480s Swiss instructors were recruited and these men would be paid and contracted and receive training. Henry II further regularised the French army by forming standing Infantry regiments to replace the Militia structure, the first of these the Régiments de Picardie, Piémont, Navarre and Champagne were called the Les Vieux Corps. It was normal policy to disband regiments after a war was over as a cost saving measure with the Vieux Corps and the Kings own Household Troops the Maison du Roi being the only survivors. Regiments could be raised directly by the King and so called after the region in which they were raised, or by the nobility and so called after the noble or his appointed colonel. In 1684 there was a reorganisation of the French infantry and again in 1701 to fit in with Louis XIVs plans. This reshuffle created many of the regiments of the French Army and standardised their equipment. The army of the Sun King tended to wear coats with coloured linings. There were exceptions and the troops, recruited from outside France. In addition to these regiments of the line the Maison du Roi provided several elite units, the Swiss Guards, French Guards, the revolution split the army with the main mass losing most of its officers to aristocratic flight or guillotine and becoming demoralised and ineffective. The French Guard joined the revolt and the Swiss Guards were massacred during the storming of the Tuileries palace, under Napoleon I, the French Army conquered most of Europe during the Napoleonic Wars
3.
Suez Crisis
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The Suez Crisis, also named the Tripartite Aggression and the Kadesh Operation or Sinai War, was an invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by the United Kingdom and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal, after the fighting had started, political pressure from the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations led to a withdrawal by the three invaders. The episode humiliated Great Britain and France and strengthened Nasser, on October 29, Israel invaded the Egyptian Sinai. Britain and France issued a joint ultimatum to cease fire, which was ignored, on November 5, Britain and France landed paratroopers along the Suez Canal. The Egyptian forces were defeated, but they did block the canal to all shipping and it later became clear that the Israeli invasion and the subsequent Anglo-French attack had been planned beforehand by the three countries. The three allies had attained a number of their objectives, but the Canal was now useless and heavy political pressure from the United States. U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had strongly warned Britain not to invade, historians conclude the crisis signified the end of Great Britains role as one of the worlds major powers. The Suez Canal was closed from October 1956 until March 1957, Israel fulfilled some of its objectives, such as attaining freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran. The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, after ten years of work financed by the French, the canal instantly became strategically important, as it provided the shortest ocean link between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. The canal eased commerce for trading nations and particularly helped European colonial powers to gain, in 1875, as a result of debt and financial crisis, the Egyptian ruler was forced to sell his shares in the canal operating company to the British government of Benjamin Disraeli. They were willing buyers and obtained a 44 percent share in the operations for less than £4 million. With the 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the United Kingdom took de facto control of the country as well as the canal proper, the 1888 Convention of Constantinople declared the canal a neutral zone under British protection. In ratifying it, the Ottoman Empire agreed to international shipping to pass freely through the canal, in time of war. The Convention came into force in 1904, the year as the Entente cordiale between Britain and France. Following the Japanese surprise attack on the Russian Pacific Fleet based at Port Arthur, the British denied the Russian fleet use of the canal and forced it to steam around Africa, giving the Japanese forces time to consolidate their position in East Asia. The importance of the canal as an intersection was again apparent during the First World War. The attempt by German and Ottoman forces to storm the canal in February 1915 led the British to commit 100,000 troops to the defense of Egypt for the rest of the war. The canal continued to be strategically important after the Second World War as a conduit for the shipment of oil, petroleum business historian Daniel Yergin wrote of the period, In 1948, the canal abruptly lost its traditional rationale
4.
Algerian War
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An important decolonization war, it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare, maquis fighting, and the use of torture by both sides. The conflict also became a war between loyalist Algerians supporting a French Algeria and their Algerian nationalist counterparts. A referendum took place on 8 April 1962 and the French electorate approved the Évian Accords, the planned French withdrawal led to a state crisis, to various assassination attempts on de Gaulle, and to some attempts at military coups. Upon independence, in 1962,900,000 European-Algerians fled to France, in fear of the FLNs revenge, the French government was totally unprepared for the vast number of refugees, which caused turmoil in France. On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded Algiers in 1830, in 1834, Algeria became a French military colony and was subsequently declared by the constitution of 1848 to be an integral part of France and divided into three departments. Many French and other Europeans later settled in Algeria, under the Second Empire, the Code de lindigénat was implemented by the Sénatus-consulte of July 14,1865. Its first article stipulated, The indigenous Muslim is French, however and he may be admitted to serve in the army and the navy. He may be called to functions and civil employment in Algeria and he may, on his demand, be admitted to enjoy the rights of a French citizen, in this case, he is subjected to the political and civil laws of France. However, prior to 1870, fewer than 200 demands were registered by Muslims and 152 by Jewish Algerians, the 1865 decree was then modified by the 1870 Crémieux decrees, which granted French nationality to Jews living in one of the three Algerian departments. In 1881, the Code de lIndigénat made the official by creating specific penalties for indigènes. The Law of September 20,1947, granted French citizenship to all Algerian subjects, Algeria was unique to France because, unlike all other overseas possessions acquired by France during the 19th century, only Algeria was considered and legally classified an integral part of France. Both Muslim and European Algerians took part in World War I, Algerian Muslims served as tirailleurs and spahis, and French settlers as Zouaves or Chasseurs dAfrique. Within this context, a grandson of Abd el-Kadir spearheaded the resistance against the French in the first half of the 20th century and he was a member of the directing committee of the French Communist Party. The North African Star broke from the PCF in 1928, before being dissolved in 1929 at Pariss demand, the pieds-noirs violently demonstrated against it and the North African Party opposed it, leading to the projects abandonment. This new party was dissolved in 1939, under Vichy, the French state attempted to abrogate the Crémieux decree in order to suppress the Jews French citizenship, but the measure was never implemented. On the other hand, nationalist leader Ferhat Abbas founded the Algerian Popular Union in 1938, in 1943 Abbas wrote the Algerian Peoples Manifesto. In the early morning hours of November 1,1954, FLN maquisards attacked military and he declared in the National Assembly, One does not compromise when it comes to defending the internal peace of the nation, the unity and integrity of the Republic. The Algerian departments are part of the French Republic and they have been French for a long time, and they are irrevocably French
5.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
6.
Military organization
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Military organization or military organisation is the structuring of the armed forces of a state so as to offer military capability required by the national defense policy. In some countries paramilitary forces are included in an armed forces. Armed forces that are not a part of military or paramilitary organizations, such as insurgent forces, often mimic military organizations, the use of formalized ranks in a hierarchical structure came into widespread use with the Roman Army. These in turn manage Armed Services that themselves command combat, combat support and combat support formations. Within each departmental agency will be found administrative branches responsible for further agency business specialization work, in most countries the armed forces are divided into three or four Armed services, army, navy, and air force. Many countries have a variation on the model of three or four basic Armed Services. Some nations also organize their marines, special forces or strategic missile forces as independent armed services, a nations coast guard may also be an independent military branch of its military, although in many nations the coast guard is a law enforcement or civil agency. A number of countries have no navy, for geographical reasons, most smaller countries have a single organization that encompasses all armed forces employed by the country in question. Third-world armies tend to consist primarily of infantry, while first-world armies tend to have larger units manning expensive equipment and it is worthwhile to make mention of the term joint. In western militaries, a joint force is defined as a unit or formation comprising representation of power from two or more branches of the military. It is common, at least in the European and North American militaries, to refer to the blocks of a military as commands, formations. In a military context, a command is a collection of units and it is not uncommon for a nations services to each consist of their own command, but this does not preclude the existence of commands which are not service-based. A formation is defined by the US Department of Defense as two or more aircraft, ships, or units proceeding together under a commander. The formations only differ in their ability to achieve different scales of application of force to achieve different strategic, operational and tactical goals and it is a composite military organization that includes a mixture of integrated and operationally attached sub-units, and is usually combat-capable. Example of formations include, divisions, brigades, battalions, wings, formation may also refer to tactical formation, the physical arrangement or disposition of troops and weapons. Examples of formation in such usage include, pakfront, panzerkeil, testudo formation, any unit subordinate to another unit is considered its sub-unit or minor unit. It is not uncommon for unit and formation to be used synonymously in the United States, in Commonwealth practice, formation is not used for smaller organizations like battalions which are instead called units, and their constituent platoons or companies are referred to as sub-units. In the Commonwealth, formations are divisions, brigades, etc, different armed forces, and even different branches of service of the armed forces, may use the same name to denote different types of organizations
7.
Algiers putsch of 1961
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The Algiers putsch, also known as the Generals putsch, was a failed coup détat to overthrow French President Charles de Gaulle and establish a military junta. The organisers of the putsch were opposed to the negotiations that French Prime Minister Michel Debrés government had started with the anti-colonialist National Liberation Front. The coup was to come in two phases, an assertion of control in French Algerias major cities Algiers, Oran and Constantine, the metropolitan operation would be led by Colonel Antoine Argoud, with French paratroopers descending on strategic airfields. The commanders in Oran and Constantine, however, refused to follow Challes demand that they join the coup, at the same time, information about the metropolitan phase came to Prime Minister Debrés attention through the intelligence service. On 22 April, all flights and landings were forbidden in Parisian airfields, the following day, President Charles de Gaulle made a famous speech on television, dressed with his 1940s generals uniform ordering the French people and army to help him. The majority of the French people had voted in favor of Algerian self-determination during the referendum of 8 January 1961 organised in metropolitan France. French citizens living abroad or serving abroad in the military were allowed to vote, as were all adult Algerians, regardless of ancestry, self-determination was approved by 75. 0% of voters overall and 69. 5% in Algeria. The government reported voter turnout of 92. 2%, other sources claim that four out of ten of the individuals in France and Algeria entitled to vote abstained. Following the outcome of the referendum, Michel Debrés government started secret negotiations with the GPRA, during the night, the 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment, composed of a thousand men, and headed by Hélie de Saint Marc took control of all of Algiers strategic points in three hours. The units directly involved in the putsch were the 1st and 2nd REP, the 1er REC, together they comprised the elite units of the airborne divisions of the French Army. Initially there were pledges of support from other regiments but these seem to have reflected the views of senior officers only and there was no active participation. The president was informed during the entracte of the coup by Jacques Foccart, his secretary of African and Malagasy Affairs and closest collaborator. Algiers population was awakened on 22 April at 7 am to a read on the radio, The army has seized control of Algeria. Several regiments put themselves under the command of the insurrectionary generals, General Jacques Faure, six other officers and several civilians were simultaneously arrested in Paris. At 5 pm, during the council, Charles de Gaulle declared, Gentlemen. The following day, on Sunday 23 April, General Salan arrived from Spain and this power has an appearance, a quartet of retired generals. It has a reality, a group of officers, partisan, ambitious and this group and this quartet possess an expedient and limited knowledge of things. But they only see and understand the Nation and the world distorted by their delirium and their enterprise leads directly towards a national disaster
8.
French Foreign Legion
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The French Foreign Legion is a military service branch of the French Army established in 1831, unique because it was created for foreign nationals willing to serve in the French Armed Forces. Commanded by French officers, it is open to French citizens. This is a way to strengthen them enough to work as a team, although it is part of the French Military, it is the only unit of the military that does not swear allegiance to France, but to the Foreign Legion itself. Consequently, training is described as not only physically challenging. French citizenship may be applied for three years service. Additionally, any soldier who becomes injured during a battle for France immediately becomes a French citizen under a known as Français par le sang versé. As of 2008, members come from 140 countries, the French Foreign Legion was primarily used to protect and expand the French colonial empire during the 19th century. The Foreign Legion was initially stationed only in Algeria, where it took part in the pacification, in World War I, the Foreign Legion fought in many critical battles on the Western Front. It played a role in World War II than in World War I, though having a part in the Norwegian, Syrian. During the First Indochina War, the Foreign Legion saw its numbers swell, the FFL lost a large number of men in the catastrophic Battle of Dien Bien Phu. Notable operations during this period included the Suez Crisis, the Battle of Algiers and various offensives launched by General Maurice Challe including Operations Oranie, in 1990, the Foreign Legion was sent to the Persian Gulf as a part of Opération Daguet. In the 1990s, the Foreign Legion helped with the evacuation of French citizens and foreigners in Rwanda, Gabon, the Foreign Legion was also deployed in Cambodia, Somalia, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the mid- to late-1990s, the Foreign Legion was deployed in the Central African Republic, Congo-Brazzaville, many other countries have tried to emulate the French Foreign Legion model. There have been composed of foreign recruits in China, Israel, the Netherlands, Rhodesia, Russia. The French Foreign Legion was created by Louis Philippe, the King of the French, recruits included soldiers from the recently disbanded Swiss and German foreign regiments of the Bourbon monarchy. The Royal Ordinance for the establishment of the new regiment specified that the foreigners recruited could only serve outside France, the French expeditionary force that had occupied Algiers in 1830 was in need of reinforcements and the Legion was accordingly transferred by sea in detachments from Toulon to Algeria. The Foreign Legion was initially divided into six national battalions, smaller national groups, such as the ten Englishmen recorded in December 1832, appear to have been placed randomly. In late 1831, the first legionnaires landed in Algeria, the country that would be the Foreign Legions homeland for 130 years, the Foreign Legions first service in Algeria came to an end after only four years, as it was needed elsewhere
9.
French Army Light Aviation
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The French Army Light Aviation is the Army aviation service of the French Army. ALAT was established on 22 November 1954 for observation, reconnaissance, assault, there can be no question of a serious attack to Paris. The hope was reborn in the French camp, reinforced by consistent reports of the British Expeditionary Force aircraft, in the hours following, airmen meticulously locate the different Imperial German Army corps. A gap formed between the First Army and Second Army, reports were submitted to Joffre, who decides to take without further delay of this possibility. On 6 September 1914, the First Battle of the Marne began, the use of armed helicopters coupled with helicopter transport during the Algerian War can drop troops into enemy territory gave birth to the tactics of airmobile warfare continues today. Acquiring these machines lay in the hands of the licensee Piasecki given France’s urgent need to have them on account of the circumstances. Usually, the H-21 could carry up to 18 troops, yet local operating conditions decreed that the French army examples could carry only up to around 12 troops each. In two years, GH2 received the vast majority of the H-21s acquired by ALAT, which consisted of five squadrons by the end of 1958. A sixth squadron from the French naval air arm, the Aéronautique navale, had operated with GH2 for little more than a year. From 1955 to 1962, GH2 took part in the major battles, by the time the war in Algeria had ended, eight officers and 23 non-commissioned officers from ALAT had given their lives in the course of their duties. In 1975, ALAT had 500 officer s,2500 NCOs and 3500 other ranks, qualitatively, after delivery of orders, there are 360 light helicopters including 170 Gazelle reconnaissance helicopters 180 anti-tank which 110 Gazelle HOT and 140 utility helicopters Puma. ALAT flew 170,000 flying hours, including 11,000 at night, ALAT is currently suffering from aging equipment and inadequate training of its crews, which has caused various incidents. According to a report of the National Assembly of 2007 the potential of the aircraft has in fact decreased sharply since 2004. Delivery of 80 aircraft is expected to be completed in 2020, on April 15,2011,30 helicopters were delivered to the ALAT, including 16 combat capable. The 4th Airmobile Brigade had most of the ALATs strength until it was disestablished in 2010, the three line regiments now report directly to Land Forces Command
10.
1st Foreign Parachute Regiment
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The 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment was part of the Foreign French Airborne. Legion Lieutenant Colonel Pierre Paul Jeanpierre, Foreign Legion Para Legend, was considered the patron and symbol of the robust, the camp of the 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment was named after Jeanpierre in 1959. On 13 May 1948 a Groupement d’Instruction de Parachutistes was formed at Khamis, near Sidi Bel Abbès, the battalion boarded the transport ship “Pasteur” on 24 October 1948 at Mers El-Kebir, and arrived in Indochina on 12 November that same year. During the entire period of conflict in Indochina, the unit saw action in Tonkin. On 16 September 1950, the French post at Dong Khe was overrun, in so doing, the entire battle group was forced into the Coc Xa gorge, where it was destroyed piecemeal. The unit was almost entirely destroyed in the subsequent battle in October around Dong Khe, only isolated elements of the battalion were able to rejoin the French lines led by Pierre Jeanpierre, who would later command the regiment in Algeria. Having ceased to exist as a formation, the unit was disbanded on 31 December 1950. The 1er BEP reformed on 1 March 1951 from the survivors of the 1er BEP, as well as legionnaires from the 2ème BEP, thus the battalion consisted of 3 companies, including a headquarters formation, the 1st and 2nd companies, and a company composed of Indochinese volunteers. Having reached an apparent stalemate in early 1952 around the Red River Delta, on 9 November 1952, the 1st BEP and other airborne formations were dropped into combat near Phu Doan, capturing a quantity of Viet Minh supplies and securing the area. However, the operation failed in drawing the Viet Minh into a large, set-battle, and as such the operation was abandoned and the remaining French forces were withdrawn on 16 and 17 November. The battalion was one of the selected to hold the rearguard post at Na San. The post was well-fortified and held in the face of overwhelming numbers, in addition, on 1 September 1953 the 1st Foreign Parachute Heavy Mortar Company was created and attached to the 1er BEP. The operation was completed without incident, with the digging in around Dien Bien Phu in late November 1953. During the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, the battalion was divided into mobile fire-brigades, with the focus being the Huguette forts. The 1 CEPML was stationed at Dominique 2 until the 14th of March,1954, despite furious resistance, the 1st BEP is destroyed for a second time on 7 May 1954 with the final fall of Dien Bien Phu camp. The unit lost 316 legionnaires killed in action over the course of the siege, following the Geneva Conference, on 1 February 1955, the unit embarked on the steamship “Pasteur” in Saigon and arrived at Mers el-Kebir on the 24th of the same month. On 1 September 1955, the 1er BEP was expanded to a regiment-level formation, from that point on, the unit was based out of Zeralda. On 6 November 1956, as part of the 10th Parachute Division and it was evacuated piecemeal between 10 and 22 December 1956, at which point the towns were handed over to United Nations control
11.
1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment
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This elite regiment is part of the 11th Parachute Brigade. In 1935, Russians successfully parachuted airborne contingents with various equipment, on April 1,1937, two Airborne Infantry Groups were created, the 601st at Reims and the 602nd at Baraki near Algiers. Both Airborne Groups conducted their infantry tranining respectively at the 95th Infantry Regiment in Bourges, in 1939, the 601st Airborne Infantry Group joined the 602nd at Baraki and conducted joint military airborne parachute maneuvers at Boghar, Algeria using the Potez 650. With the outbreak of World War II on September 1,1939, in April 1940, a Air Marching Infantry Company was formed, under the command of Captain Sauvagnac, which served in the Niederbronn-les-Bains region of Alsace. On August 25,1940, the German offensive of May 1940 pushed the company to Marseille-Mérignane. In March 1941, the 1re C. I. A or Air Infantry Company was formed from components of the two dissolved Airborne Infantry Groups, at Oued Smar near Algiers, the 1re CIA was renamed Air Company n°1 and commanded by Captain Sauvagnac. In January 1943, following the landings in North Africa. Subsequently, the 1re C. I. A was transformed into the first battalion of parachute chasseurs n°1 under the command of Commandant Sauvagnac, on February 1,1943, the 1re C. I. On October 1943, the 1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment was attached to the U. S. 82nd Airborne Division, oldest French parachute regiment, the 1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment of the French Air Force illustrated capabilities during the Liberation combats. The regiment engaged in combat during the campaigns of Vosges and Alsace during World War II, during the final courses of the war, the 1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment of the French Air Force would be seen transferred to the French Army. On July 30,1947, the unit was separated as a regiment, the three parachute battalions engaged successively in airborne operations in and around the delta of Tonkin. The rapaces of the 1st Parachute Chasseur were the only ones dropped at night on Dien Bien Phu while encircled by Viêt-minh troops, the parachutes where submerged in water and doubled in weight. We tried to remain small because bullets were whistling near our ears, the beginning of May 1954, the Viêt-minh troops gave way to the final assault. On the night of May 1 to May 2, the first, one week later, Eliane 4 fell and only 19 survivors all which were taken prisoners. Dien Bien Phu was lost and fell on May 7,1954, on November 1,1954, its Toussaint Rouge in Algeria. During the day at Arris, rebel terrorist groups intercepted a vehicle carrying dozens of Muslims. The rebel terrorists killed the Qaid and the two Europeans, the insurrectionary debuted and the first bombs exploded in Algiers, and all over Algeria counted thirty some coordinated suicides are targets. It was the commencement of a war torn era
12.
9th Parachute Chasseur Regiment
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During the Algerian War, the 9th Parachute Chasseur Regiment relieved the 1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment and became part of the 25th Parachute Division. The regiment didn’t take part in the 1961 Algiers Putsch, the regiment took part in numerous overseas operations before merging in 1999. The 9th Parachute Chasseur Regiment was the heir to the traditions, battle honours, the parachute regiment didn’t take part in the 1961 Algiers putsch and after the end of the Algerian War, the regiment moved to Toulouse on mainland France. The regiment later took part in operations in Lebanon. Three years later, the regiment was quick to take part again in the United Nations Interim Force Lebanon in 1986. The 9th parachute regiment merged in 1999 as part of a restructuring of the 11th Parachute Brigade of the French Army,1956, Regiment was created on June 1 as the 9th Parachute Chasseur Regiment from the 18th Choc Parachute Chasseur Regiment in Algeria. 1968, the 9th Parachute Chasseur Regiment based in Saint-Sulpice-la-Pointe deployed in a battalion to New Caledonia. 1993, The 9th Parachute Chasseur Regiment deployed to Mogadishu, Somalia,1994, The 9th Parachute Chasseur Regiment under command orders of Colonel Oberto under BATINF2 engaged in Sarajevo under mandate United Nations Force Proctection. 1999, The 9th Parachute Chasseur Regiment merged with the 1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment part of the restructuring of the 11th Parachute Brigade in the French Army, the Archangel Saint Michael, patron of the French paratroopers is celebrated on September 29. The prière du Para was written by André Zirnheld in 1938, just like the paratrooper Brevet of the French Army, the Insignia of French Paratroopers was created in 1946. The French Army Insignia of metropolitan Paratroopers represents a closed <<winged armed dextrochere>>, the Insignia makes reference to the Patron of Paratroopers. In fact, the Insignia represents <<the right Arm of Saint Michael>> and this Insignia is the symbol of righteous combat and fidelity to superior missions. The French Army Insignia of Marine Infantry Paratroopers is backgrounded by a Marine Anchor, the paratroopers of the regiment wear the red berets with the Fourragère with colors of the Croix de Guerre. The regimental song is En avant Normandie
13.
2nd Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment
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The 2nd Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment is an airborne regiment of the French Army created in 1947. The regiment is heir to the traditions of the 2nd Colonial Commando Parachute Battalion 2eB. C. C. P, as of 2008, the regiment is stationed at Saint-Pierre, Réunion. In 1947, the 2nd Colonial Commando Parachute Battalion 2eB. C. C. P was posted to Indochina, in 1954, the 2nd Colonial Parachute Battalion 2e BPC made way to Morocco and was then subsequently dissolved on July 31,1955. The unit served from 1955 until 1962 in North Africa at the corps 10th Parachute Division, on 5 November 1956, the unit jumped in the second wave of the French/British attack on the Suez Canal over Port Said and was cited at the orders of the armed forces. In July 1961, the regiment jumped over Bizerte and broke the Tunisian siege of the French airport installations, the regiment thennwas dissolved on 5 July 1962 and recreated 1 January 1965 in Ivato, Madagascar from the 5th Marine Infantry Parachute Battalion 5e BPIM. The regiment was transferred to Reunion in 1973. Since then, the regiment has participated in operations, Djibouti, Comoros, Rwanda. The Archangel Saint Michael, patron of the French paratroopers is celebrated on September 29, the prière du Para was written by André Zirnheld in 1938. Just like the paratrooper Brevet of the French Army, the Insignia of French Paratroopers was created in 1946, the French Army Insignia of metropolitan Paratroopers represents a closed <<winged armed dextrochere>>, meaning a right winged arm armed with a sword pointing upwards. The Insignia makes reference to the Patron of Paratroopers, in fact, the Insignia represents <<the right Arm of Saint Michael>>, the Archangel which according to Liturgy is the <<Armed Arm of God>>. This Insignia is the symbol of righteous combat and fidelity to superior missions, the French Army Insignia of Marine Infantry Paratroopers is backgrounded by a Marine Anchor. The regiment bears wearing the Fourragère, Fourragère bearing the colors of the Croix de guerre des théâtres dopérations extérieures, indochine 1947-1954 Port Saïd 1956 AFN 1952-1962 Raymond Duc Elrick Irastorza List of French paratrooper units Collective, History of French paratroopers, Literary Production Company,1975. Colonel Roger Fleming, Paras Free France, Editions Presses de la Cité,1976, henry Corta, The Red Berets, Association of Former SAS paratrooper,1952. Friends of the 2e RPIMa Le 2e RPIMA en action Bizerte, Large maneuvers du 2e RPIMA, Le Quotidien de la Réunion,7 octobre 2009
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3rd Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment
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The regiment is part of the 11th Parachute Brigade. The battalion filled the ranks with the thousands throughout the various campaign battle courses of dissolutions and reformations, on January 81948, creation of the battalion at Vannes. On November 91948, administrative creation of the 3rd Colonial Parachute Commando Battalion, 3e BCCP On October 11950, became the 3rd Colonial Parachute Commando Group, November 11950, dissolution of the 3e GCCP. January 11951, recreation of the battalion at Saint-Brieuc, December 271951, became the 3rd Colonial Parachute Commando Battalion, 3e BCCP. May 281952, became the 3rd Colonial Parachute Battalion, 3e BPC, june 11955, recreation of the 3rd Colonial Parachute Battalion at Mont-de-Marsan. November 11955, became the 3rd Parachute Colonial Regiment, 3e RPC December 11958, became the 3rd Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment, created in January 1948, the 3rd Colonial Parachute Commando Battalion 3e BCCP joined Indochina on November of the same year. Cited twice at the orders of the forces, the battalion was dissolved after having sacrificed itself in October 1950. During this episode, the 3e BCCP of captain Cazaux and the 1st Foreign Parachute Battalion 1er BEP of Commandant Pierre Segretain, the battalion was then dissolved again, providing the reformation of another battalion. Recreated again, the battalion was designated as the 3rd Colonial Parachute Regiment 3e RPC on November 1955 under the orders, designated as the 3rd Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment in December 1958, the regiment joined the metropole and stationed on July 1962. The regiment formed a part of the 11th Light Intervention Division 11e DLI, in 1968, the regiment intervened in Chad during the during the first civil war conflict. The regiment partook in various peacekeeping missions in Lebanon on numerous yearly designated occasions within the UNIFIL first then integrated the corps of the Multinational Force in Lebanon, during one of these various peacekeeping interventions, the regimental commander colonel Jean Salvan was severely wouned. The Archangel Saint Michael, patron of the French paratroopers is celebrated on September 29, the prière du Para was written by André Zirnheld in 1938. Just like the paratrooper Brevet of the French Army, the insignia of French Paratroopers was created in 1946, the French Army insignia of metropolitan Paratroopers represents a closed winged armed dextrochere, meaning a right winged arm armed with a sword pointing upwards. The insignia makes reference to the Patron of Paratroopers, in fact, the insignia represents the right Arm of Saint Michael, the Archangel which according to Liturgy is the Armed Arm of God. This insignia is the symbol of righteous combat and fidelity to superior missions, the French Army insignia of Marine Infantry Paratroopers is backgrounded by a Marine Anchor. Since its creation, the regiment has endured the loss of 476 Officers, Sous-Officiers and paratroopers of the 3e RPIMa, the citation at the orders of the brigade was awarded for action while leading allied forces in Kosovo in 1999. On May 212012, the colors were decorated again with the croix de la valeur militaire with palm for service in Afghanistan within the cadre of ISAF. Livre ceux du 3e RPIMA Maison dédition BBK, livre 3e BCCP Indochine 19481950 Maison dédition Hexagone
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13th Parachute Dragoon Regiment
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The 13th Parachute Dragoon Regiment is a specialized Airborne Regiment of the French Army. It is one of two regiments in the French Army Special Forces Brigade, which is under the control of the COS, the regiments primary duties are airborne reconnaissance operations. The regiment was transformed into a corps in 1936, then a paratrooper unit in 1952. Like many regiments in European militaries of the 17th and 18th centuries the regiment often changed name to reflect its current commander or patron,1676,4 October, formation of the regiment in Languedoc by the Marquis de Barbezières, as Dragoon de Barbezières. 1714, designated as Dragoon de Goesbriand,1724,12 December, designated as Dragoon de Condé. 1744, designated as Dragoon de Bartillat 1774, designated as Dragoon Comté-de-Provence, then,1791, designated as 13e Dragoon Regiment. 1815, dissolution of the regiment after the Napoleonic wars,1855, Reformation of a dragoon regiment designated as the Dragoon Regiment of the Empress in reference to The Empress Eugénie de Montijo. 1870, re-designated as the 13e Dragoon Regiment,1936, Mechanized as an armoured regiment, receiving Somua and Hotchkiss tanks. 1940, again disbanded, after losing 90% of its strength,1944, New formation 1946, Regiment disbanded post-WW21952, reorganization and re-trained as the 13e Parachute Dragoon Regiment. After World War II the regiment was designated as a unit in 1952. From May 1,1963 to July 31,1963, the regiment was part of the 11th Light Intervention Division 11e DLI, the 13e RDP was transformed into a long-range recon unit. In a way similar to the role of the U. S. Army Long Range Surveillance Detachment or Long Range Surveillance Company. The 13e RDP took part in the Gulf War and this was highlighted when three operators were captured by the Iraqis in late 1990. The 13e RDP also contributed to the capture of Momčilo Krajišnik in 2001 by close range recons, the regiment is officially in charge of the research of strategic intelligence. The high skill level of 13e RDP operatives in special reconnaissance means that they are requested by other forces. The Groupe dIntervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale keeps a relationship with the 13e RDP to train its gendarmes in forward recon for hostage rescue operations in hostile environments. The Équipes dObservation en Profondeur of French artillery regiments use the operating procedures of the 13e RDP. 13e RDP operators are also reported to be requested to join the Service Action of the Direction générale de la sécurité extérieure
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6th Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment
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The 6th Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment was an airborne unit of the French Army. On May 16,1948, creation at Quimper of the 6th Colonial Parachute Commando Battalion, on October 1,1950, became the 6th Colonial Parachute Commando Groupment, 6e GCCP. On March 1,1951, became the 6th Colonial Parachute Battalion, on August 20,1951, dissolution of the 6th Colonial Parachute Battalion, 6e BPC. On July 5,1952, the 6e BPC is reconstituted at Saint-Brieuc, famed as the battalion of Bigeard. On May 8,1954, dissolution of the 6e BPC on August 1,1955, effectifs of the battalion were reinforced by elements of IV/6e RTS, formed the 6th Colonial Parachute Regiment. On July 10,1957, the 6e RPC inegrated the 10th Parachtue Division, on December 1,1958, the 6th Colonial Parachute Regiment became the 6th Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment, 6e RPIMa. On June 30,1998, dissolution of the regiment within the cadre of the restructuring of the French Army, the 6e BCCP made way to Indochina on July 28. The battalion fought valiantly on various sectors of the front and on March 30,1951. Following a five hours of combat, the battalion endured the loss of 51 men and 97 wounded. The battalion was dissolved on August 20,1951 during the embarking for France. Recreated on July 5,1952, the battalion illustrated capability at Tu Lê, on October 1952, the 6th para engaged Dien Bien Phu twice. On November 20,1953, the 6th, parachuted during Operation Castor and then on March 16,1954, despite heroic acts of valor led, the 6e BPC disappeared again, and was accordingly reconstituted. Reformed in Marrakech, French protectorate of Morocco, on 1 August 1955, active in the French colonies of French protectorate of Tunisia, French protectorate of Morocco and, particularly, French Algeria during the Algerian War as a part of the 10th Parachute Division. The regiment leaves French Algeria on 6 July 1961 and regroups in Verdun, from January 1963 it was stationed in Mont-de-Marsan, the old instruction base for Colonial Parachute Brigade. The regiment was dissolved 30 June 1998, the Archangel Saint Michael, patron of the French paratroopers is celebrated on 29 September. The prière du Para was written by André Zirnheld in 1938, just like the paratrooper Brevet of the French Army, the Insignia of French Paratroopers was created in 1946. The French Army Insignia of metropolitan Paratroopers represents a closed <<winged armed dextrochere>>, the Insignia makes reference to the Patron of Paratroopers. In fact, the Insignia represents <<the right Arm of Saint Michael>> and this Insignia is the symbol of righteous combat and fidelity to superior missions
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Troupes de marine
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The Troupe de marine are a corps of the French Army which regroups several specialties, infantry, artillery, armoured and airborne. Despite their designation, they are a part of the Army. The troupe de marine have been professionalized progressively since 1970, the Troupe de marine were formerly known as the Troupes Coloniales, with origin dating back to the Troupes de la marine. The French colonies were under the control of the Ministère de la Marine, accordingly and these companies were destined to embark on royal naval ships to service the naval artillery and participate to the boarding of naval ships engaged in combats at sea. Simultaneously, these companies were also in charge in guarding the sea ports. In the 18th century, they constituted the Compagnies Franches de la Marine who mainly swarmed essentially in Nouvelle France, an evolution was followed and which deemed more and more pronouncing vis-à-vis the ship boarding marines and their officers. A tentative close-up merger was attempted by two naval ship corps including their troops in 1786 with the companies of sailors, however the experience came to little conclusions. The Régiment Royal–La Marine and Régiment de lAmiral de France founded by Colbert dispersed their companies between Dunkerque, Le Havre, Brest, Rochefort and Toulon and they adorned for a first time the white and grey uniform with the blue vest. The four regiments of la marine were transferred from the secretariat of La Marine to that of the secretariat of La Guerre, such was put in effect to meet the successive military war demands of the reign of Louis XIV, wanting to control all French units. The regiments have left the French Navy conserved then, only that of a naval designation, the Marine Royale had proud allure in 1671, France was able to align 196 naval vessels. Colbert decided accordingly to create 100 companies of guardian-soldiers destined to defend the naval vessels, however, these men were redirected again towards the French Army by Louvois in 1673. Starting this date, the naval and marine officers were obliged to recruit themselves their crew, owing to the presence of « levées » on the war or commercial sea ports, similar to the « marine press », the officers garrisoned their naval ships with defenders. However, the system found its limits quickly, the recruits were often lacking discipline and experience. A vicious circle and a pride for the performing French naval, Compagnies franches de la Marine created in 1690. Each company was tasked to guard a military harbor and its immediate coastline, beginning in 1695, the Companies were organized in battalions around the major harbors. The Marine Companies and Battalions were suppressed in 1761, Corps dartillerie de Marine, created in 1692 to oversee the training and use of coastal artillery. The Corps was suppressed in 1761, the Infantry and Artillery Marine units were re-organized into a single marine corps by a short-lived merger in 1769. Some colonial units were created at the time, organized along the same lines of artillery and infantry units
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Pierre Jeanpierre
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Pierre Paul Jeanpierre was a Frenchman, a soldier of legend in the French Foreign Legion who initially served in the French Army. He fought during World War II, the First Indochina War, the Suez Crisis and the Algerian War, uncomparable prestigious commander, colonel Jeanpierre will always remain the symbol of the 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment. Pierre advanced and placed his foreign regiment within the best assault troops amongst the French Armed Forces elite, in French Algeria, the name Jeanpierre surpassed the reputation that of Bigeard, with this nuance however, Pierre never did anything to showcase nor claim the later. Pierre was born in 1912 at Belfort in a French family, Pierre was raised by the paternal sight of his mother and enlisted in the infantry at barely 18 years of age. Pierre endured the Phoney War Drôle de Guerre and was put at disposition and he was also deeply marked by the defeat of 1940. Pierre joined instead the French Resistance under the alias Jardin and integrated the ranks of the movement Ceux de la Libération, recruiting and arming over 60 volunteers. Pierre was arrested at Orléans on January 19,1944 and was deported to as a prisoner interred in the Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp after passing by the camp of de Compiègne. With forced labor, Pierre would be among only 2 survivors out 45 in his stalag when the camp was liberated by the Allies on May 5,1945, liberated and healed, Pierre was nominated as a Captain at the center of recruitment of the Legion in Kehl. In July 1948, learning that in Algeria would be created a foreign parachute battalion,3 month later, the battalion was in the high region of Indochina. 1er Bataillon Etranger de Parachutiste, 1er BEP - I, II, III Formations - Pierre sailed to Indochina as second-in-command to Pierre Segrétain in the of the 1st Foreign Parachute Battalion in 1948. During the evacuation of RC4, route de sang, he, on October 1950, tasked with taking Dong Khé during the disaster of Cao Bang, the mission was to save column Charton which was unfolding. From the hundreds of legionnaires that constituted the 1st Foreign Parachute Battalion, commandant Segrétain was killed during combat at arms and Lieutenant Faulque fell pierced with projectiles, none of which were mortal. Seriously wounded, he was made prisoner and liberated 4 years later, the 1st Foreign Parachute Battalion with the 3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment were annihilated in Coxa. Following, Pierre rejoined the Legion in Mascara where he retook his passion, the 1er BEP was recreated, however, the last combats in Indochina would take place without his leadership. A Para legionnaires legionnaire, Pierre returned to Indochina to command the of the reconstituted 1st Foreign Parachute Battalion after its second annihilation at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. Reconstituted in a on May 19,1954, Pierre took command of the 3rd reconstituted 1e BEP on November 1,1954, the 1er BEP left Indochina on February 8,1955. The 1er BEP totaled 5 citations at the orders of the armed forces, the 1er BEP became the 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment in Algeria on September 1,1955. This beautiful instrument of combat became a regiment didnt serve any worthy cause
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Marcel Bigeard
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Marcel Bruno Bigeard was a French military officer who fought in World War II, Indochina and Algeria. He was one of the commanders in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu and is thought by many to have been an influence on French unconventional warfare thinking from that time onwards. A former resistant, he is associated mainly with the war of Indochina, Marcel Bigeard was born in Toul, Meurthe-et-Moselle on 14 February 1916, the son of Charles Bigeard, a railway worker, and Sophie Bigeard, a domineering housewife. He also had a sister, Charlotte Bigeard, fours years his senior. Lorraine instilled a strong patriotism in him and his mother a will to win, at fourteen, Bigeard quit school to help his parents financially by taking a position in the local Société Générale bank, where he did well. Following a 6-year career in Société générale, Marcel Bigeard conducted his military service in France at Haguenau at the corps of the 23rd Fortress Infantry Regiment. Incorporated in the regiment as a soldat de deuxième classe in September 1936, caporal-chef, he was relieved of duty, volunteer for the franc corps, he led a combat group at Trimbach in Alsace and became quickly a sergent-chef then adjudant at the age of 24. On June 25,1940, he was captured and made prisoner of war spending 18 months in captivity in a stalag. Following his third attempt to escape on November 11,1941, he managed to make his way to the zone in France. Volunteering for the French Occidental Africa, he was assigned in February 1942 to a camp in Senegal, promoted to sous-lieutenant in October 1943, he was directed with his regiment to Morocco. One of these audacious ambushes against superior German forces gained him a British decoration and his nickname of Bruno has its origins in his radio call sign. Decorated with the Légion dhonneur and the British Distinguished Service Order for his actions in Ariège, Bigeard was first sent to Indo-China in October 1945 to assist with French efforts to reassert their influence over the former French colonies. He commanded the 23rd Colonial Infantry and then volunteered to train Thai auxiliaries in their interdiction of Viet Minh incursions around the Laos border along the road R. C. In the middle of 1945, captain Bigeard was entrusted with the command of the 6th company of the 23rd Colonial Infantry Regiment. Designated to participate to the corps in Indochina, the regiment dismebarked in Saigon on October 25,1945. During this epoque, the Bruno surname started to circulate, on March 8,1946, a detachment of the 2nd Armored Brigade 2e DB and 9th Colonial Infantry Division, which the 23rd Colonial Infantry Regiment 23e RIC was part of, disembarked in Tonkin. On July 1,1946, Bigeard left the 23e RIC and formed south-east of Dien Bien Phu, at the return of his men in metropole, mid-October 1946, he assumed command of the 3rd company, constituted of almost 40 men. He then left Indochina on September 17,1947 and reached France three days later, volunteer for another séjour in Indochina, Bigeard was assigned on February 1,1948 to the 3rd Colonial Parachute Commando Battalion 3e BCCP
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Operation Musketeer (1956)
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Operation Musketeer was the Anglo-French plan for the invasion of the Suez canal zone to capture the Suez Canal during the Suez Crisis in 1956. Israel, which invaded the Sinai peninsula, had the objectives of opening the Straits of Tiran. The Anglo-French military operation was planned for early September. Headed by British Army General Charles Keightley, it was conducted in November 1956 in close coordination with the Israeli armored thrust into the Sinai, egypts government, led by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser, was seeking political control over the canal, an effort resisted by the Europeans. Furthermore, a bombardment of a densely populated area would have involved tens of thousands of civilian casualties. The naval bombardment of Port Said was rendered less effective by the decision to only use 4. 5-inch guns instead of large caliber guns, the final land order of battle involved the Royal Marine Commando Brigade, the 16th Parachute Brigade, and the 3rd Infantry Division. To bring these formations to war establishment, the army reserve. Most of the latter were sent to units in home stations to replace regulars posted to the Musketeer force, lieutenant General Sir Hugh Stockwell was appointed to command the landing force. A French parachute brigade joined 16th Parachute Brigade as it returned to Cyprus, the Commando Brigade completed refresher training in shore landings from helicopters, in association with the Mediterranean fleet, which was preparing to support the amphibious operation. Over the summer the Royal Air Force selected a range of targets whose loss would cripple Egyptian resistance, details of the secret plan for Israeli forces to invade the Sinai desert were revealed to the Chiefs of the Defence staff in October. On 29 October Israeli armour, preceded by parachute drops on two key passes, thrust south into the Sinai, routing local Egyptian forces within five days. Affecting to be alarmed by the threat of fighting along the Suez Canal, the UK and France issued an ultimatum on 30 October to the Israelis. When, as expected, no response was given, Operation Musketeer was launched, the 3rd Division, minus the Guards Brigade, embarked on 1 November. The 45th Commando and 16th Parachute Brigade landed by sea and air on 5 November, although landing forces quickly established control over major canal facilities, the Egyptians were able to sink obstacles in the canal, rendering it unusable. The Anglo-French air offensive suppressed Egyptian airfields not already attacked by the Israelis, the 3rd Battalion Parachute group captured El Cap airfield by airborne assault. The remaining units, held initially for deep airborne targets. The Commando Brigade captured all its objectives, the French parachutists took Port Fuad, opposite Port Said. Elements of the 16th Parachute Brigade led by Brigadier M. A. H, Butler and a contingent of the Royal Tank Regiment set off south along the canal bank on 6 November to capture Ismailia
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Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
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2nd Foreign Cavalry Regiment
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The 2nd Foreign Cavalry Regiment was a foreign cavalry regiment of the Foreign Legion. While the regiment was dissolved twice in 1946 and 1962, the colors have been entrusted by the Foreign Legion Detachment in Mayotte since 1984. The 2nd Foreign Cavalry Regiment was created on July 1939 on the substance of the groups of Morocco issued from the 1st Foreign Cavalry Regiment 1er REC. The 2nd Foreign Cavalry Regiment was officially dissolved on June 1,1946 at Sidi Bel Abbès, however, in January 1962, the 2nd Foreign Cavalry Regiment made way on Biskra before being dissolved again following the accords of Evian. The 2nd Squadron was attached to the 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment when deployed to take part in the operations of the Suez Canal Crisis, in 1984, the Foreign Legion Detachment in Mayotte received the honor guard regimental colors of the 2nd Foreign Cavalry Regiment. Regimental Colors of the 2nd Foreign Cavalry Regiment entrusted to the Foreign Legion Detachment in Mayotte as of 1984, decorations of the 2nd Foreign Cavalry Regiment with cited decorations of the Foreign Legion Detachment in Mayotte as of 1984. As inscribed on the colors of the 2nd Foreign Cavalry Regiment, Camerone 1863 AFN 1952–1962 1st Foreign Cavalry Regiment Boyd. 2e REC – History & images of the 2e REC
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AMX-13
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The AMX-13 is a French light tank produced from 1953 to 1985. It served with the French Army, as the Char 13t-75 Modèle 51, including prototypes and export versions, there are over a hundred variants including self-propelled guns, anti-aircraft systems, APCs, and ATGM versions. The tank was designed at the Atelier de Construction dIssy-les-Moulineaux in 1946 to meet a requirement for a vehicle to support paratroopers. The first prototype ran from 1948, the compact chassis had torsion bar suspension with five road-wheels and two return rollers, the engine runs the length of the tank on the right side, with the driver on the left. It features an uncommon two-part oscillating turret, where the gun is fixed to the turret, the turret is set to the rear of the vehicle and holds the commander and gunner. The original 75 mm gun was loaded by a loading system fed by two six-round magazines located in on either side of the automatic loader in the turrets bustle. Production began at ARE in 1952, with the first tanks delivered the following year, in 1964, production was transferred to Creusot-Loire at Chalon-sur-Saône, as ARE switched to the production of the AMX30 MBT, and the numbers produced declined significantly. After 1966, AMX-13s in French service were up-gunned with a 90mm F3 medium pressure gun firing more effective high-explosive anti-tank munitions, this variant was designated AMX-13/90. The F3 was similar to the DEFA D921/F1 low pressure gun developed for the Panhard AML-90, by the late 1960s, an export model of the AMX-13 was also available with an even larger 105mm gun. Production halted with the AMX-13 Model 1987, after sales support and upgrades are still offered through GIAT Industries. The AMX-13 tank was phased out of service with the French Army in the 1980s, current French armoured vehicles with a similar role are the ERC90 Sagaie and the AMX10 RC. Ground clearance,370 mm Fording,600 mm Vertical obstacle 650 mm Trench,1, the AMX-13s also saw limited action in the Algerian War. AMX 13s saw service both the loyalists and the rebels during the Dominican Civil War of 1965. Two AMX 13s used by the forces were destroyed by M50 Ontos of the United States Marine Corps during the subsequent American intervention in the Dominican Republic. The AMX13 was Israel’s first modern tank and was purchased at a time when France was the country willing to openly sell arms to Israel. By 1956, Israel had received 180 AMX-13 light tanks as part of an agreement to reinforce Israels military, due to the shortage of tanks, the IDF used them as main battle tanks and employed them to form a tank battalion in the 7th Armored Brigade. IDF reconnaissance units did not use AMX 13s, by 1967, Israel had acquired about 400 AMX-13s and formed three AMX-13 battalions, all of which fought actively on all fronts during the Six Day War. The first moved south in the West Bank area through Taluzi and Tubas, the second captured the strongpoints protecting the Gaza Strip and the coastal road in the north of the Sinai Peninsula
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Landing Vehicle Tracked
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The Landing Vehicle Tracked is an amphibious warfare vehicle and amphibious landing craft, introduced by the United States Navy. The Marine Corps and Army used several LVT models during World War II, originally intended solely as cargo carriers for ship to shore operations, they evolved into assault troop and fire support vehicles. The types were known as amphtrack, amtrak, amtrac etc. being portmanteaus of amphibious tractor, the LVT had its origins in a civilian rescue vehicle called the Alligator. Developed by Donald Roebling in 1935, the Alligator was intended to operate in swampy areas, two years later, Roebling built a redesigned vehicle with improved water speed. The Bureau of Ships requested a prototype with a more powerful engine. Another 200 units were ordered even before the first production units were delivered, after more improvements to meet requirements of the Navy, made difficult by Roeblings lack of blueprints for the initial designs, the vehicle was adopted as Landing Vehicle Tracked or LVT. The contract to build the first 200 LVTs was awarded to the Food Machinery Corporation, a manufacturer of insecticide spray pumps and other farm equipment, the initial 200 LVTs were built at FMCs Dunedin, Florida factory, where most of the improvement work had been done as well. The first production LVT rolled out of the plant in July,1941, the LVT-1 could carry 18 fully equipped men or 4,500 pounds of cargo. Originally intended to carry replenishment from ships to shore, they lacked armor protection and their tracks, however, the Marines soon recognized the potential of the LVT as an assault vehicle. A battalion of LVTs was ready for 1st Marine Division by 16 February 1942, the LVTs saw their first operational use in Guadalcanal, where they were used exclusively for landing supplies. About 128 LVTs were available for the landings, as early as January 1940, Roebling had prepared preliminary sketches of an LVT with a gun turret to provide fire support to the landing waves. The concept languished until June 1941, when USMC recommended development of an LVT armed with a 37mm gun, Development was slow and ultimately involved a complete redesign of the LVT, the LVT-2 Buffalo. Armored versions were introduced as well as fire support versions, dubbed Amtanks, among other upgrades were a new powerpack, also borrowed from the Stuarts, and a rubber torsilastic suspension which improved performance on land. After Borg-Warner evaluated the LVT-1, Borg-Warner and FMC began work on new designs, FMC was assisted by faculty from Caltech and the University of California and developed the designs that became the LVT-2 and the LVT-1. Interest in the LVT was enough that the Secretary of the Navy formed the Continued Board for the Development of the Landing Vehicle Tracked on 30 October 1943, production continued throughout the war, resulting in 18,621 LVTs delivered. 23 US Army and 11 USMC battalions were equipped in 1945 with LVTS, British and Australian armies also used LVTs in combat during World War two. In the late 1940s a series of prototypes were built and tested, realizing that acquisition of new vehicles was unlikely, the Marines modernized some of the LVT-3s and LVT-5s and kept them in service until the late 1950s. USMC LVT-1s were mainly used for support at Guadalcanal
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Delahaye
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Delahaye automobile was an automotive manufacturing company founded by Émile Delahaye in 1894, in Tours, France, his home town. His first cars were belt-driven, with single- or twin-cylinder engines mounted at the rear and his Type One was an instant success, and he urgently needed investment capital and a larger manufacturing facility. All three worked with the workers to assemble the new machines, but middle-aged Émile was not in good health. In January 1901, he found himself unable to capably continue, Émile Delahaye died soon after, in 1905. Delahaye had hired two men, Charles Weiffenbach and Amédée Varlet in 1898, to assist the three partners. Both were graduate mechanical engineers, and they remained with Delahaye their entire working careers, Amédée Varlet was the companys design-engineer, with a number of innovative inventions to his credit, generated between 1905 and 1914, which Delahaye patented. These included the twin-cam multi-valve engine, and the V6 configuration, Varlet continued in this role until he eventually took over the Drawing Office, at 76 years of age, when much younger Jean François was hired in 1932 as chief design-engineer. In 1932, Varlet was instructed by Weiffenbach, under direction from majority shareholder Madame Desmarais, Leon Desmarais widow, to set up the companys Racing Department and those who knew him well at the factory affectionately referred to Charles Weiffenbach as Monsieur Charles. Delahaye began experimenting with belt-driven cars while manager of the Brethon Foundry and Machine-works in Tours and these experiments encouraged an entry in the 1896 Paris–Marseille–Paris race, held between 24 September-3 October 1896, fielding one car for himself and one for sportsman Ernest Archdeacon. The winning Panhard averaged 15.7 mph, Archdeacon came sixth, averaging 14 mph, while Delahaye himself was eighth, for the 1897 Paris-Dieppe, the 6 hp four-cylinder Delahayes ran in four- and six-seater classes, with a full complement of passengers. Archdeacon was third in the four-seaters behind a De Dion-Bouton and a Panhard, Courtois winning the six-seater class, the July Paris-Amsterdam-Paris earned a satisfying class win for Giver in his Delahaye, the overall win went to Panhard. Soon after the new company was formed in 1898, the firm moved its manufacturing from Tours to Paris, Charles Weiffenbach was named Operations Manager. In 1899, Archdeacon piloted an 8 hp racer in the Nice-Castellane-Nice rally, coming eighth, founder Émile Delahaye retired in 1901, leaving Desmarais and Morane in control, Weiffenbach took over from them in 1906. Delahayes racing days were over with Émile Delahayes death, Charles Weiffenbach had no interest in racing, and focused his production on responsible motorized automotive chassis, heavy commercial vehicles, and early firetrucks for the French government. Race-cars had become a thing of the past for Delahaye, until 1933, when Madame Desmarais caused her company to change direction 180 degrees, the new 10B debuted in 1902. It had a 2,199 cc vertical twin rated 12/14 hp by RAC, mounted in front, with cylinder head, steering wheel. Delahaye also entered the Paris-Vienna rally with a 16 hp four, at the same years Ardennes event, Perrins 16 hp four came tenth. Also in 1902, the singles and twins ceased to be offered except as light vans, before production ceased in 1904, Delahayes first production four, the Type 13B, with 24/27 hp 4. 4-litre, appeared in 1903
26.
SS.10
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In American service the missile was called the MGM-21A. The missile entered service in 1955 with the French army and it was used briefly by the US army in the early 1960s. The missile ceased production in January 1962 after approximately 30,000 missiles had been built, development began in France in 1948, when the Arsenal de lAéronautique in Châtillon sous Bagneux began looking at the possibility of developing the German X-7 missile further. The missile was designed to be cheap, In 1955 the missile cost 340 Francs, the first rounds were test fired in 1952. Development was completed in 1955 and the missile entered service with the French Army under the designation SS.10. After development of the missile was completed, the US successfully re-evaluated the missile in mid-1958, in late 1955 Israel ordered 36 SS.10 launchers. They were received a later, too late for the IDF to use them in the 1956 Suez Crisis. Subsequently a self-propelled variant was developed, with four launchers carried by Dodge truck, in early 1960s SS.10 missiles were retired from the IDF service, replaced by SS.11. The US army was interested in the missile from an early stage, however, after the SSM-A-23 was cancelled in 1958, they began to consider procuring the SS.10 and SS.11 missiles. In February 1959, they decided to buy the SS.10 as a stopgap, the missile was delivered in January 1960 and was phased out in 1963 in favour of the MGM-32 Entac. The missile received the designation MGM-21A, since the missile spins in flight, a gyroscope is needed to determine which spoilers are currently up/down or left/right. Guiding the missile to the target is very demanding and requires a level of operator skill. SS.10 / MGM-21A France Israel United States Nord SS. 10/MGM-21 at Designation-Systems. Net Oleg Granovskiy, First Generation ATGMs in the IDF at Waronline. org
27.
Port Fuad
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Port Fouad is a city in north-eastern Egypt under the jurisdiction of Port Said Governorate, located across the Suez Canal from Port Said. It forms the northwesternmost part of Sinai Peninsula and has a population of 560,000, Port Fouad and Port Said are on opposite sides of the canal and face each other. Together they form a metropolitan area, Port Fouad was established in 1926, principally to relieve overcrowding in Port Said, and was named after King Fuad I, the first holder of the title King of Egypt in the modern era. The Suez Canal Authority forms the main employment of the city, residents of Port Fouad travel to Port Said by ferry. After the war of 1967 Port Fouad was the piece of Sinai held by the Egyptians. The Israeli army tried to capture Port Fouad during the War of Attrition, after the October War, the Camp David Accord in 1978 Israel agreed to return Sinai to Egypt peacefully, and later the two countries signed a peace treaty. Today Port Fouad is a major Air Defence Position for Egypt, despite its important location, as of 2006, Port Fouad was still considered a residential zone, with very few facilities and no major downtown or city center
28.
Port Said
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Port Said is a city that lies in north east Egypt extending about 30 kilometres along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, north of the Suez Canal, with an approximate population of 603,787. The city was established in 1859 during the building of the Suez Canal, Port Said is also an important harbour for exports of Egyptian products like cotton and rice, but also a fueling station for ships that pass through the Suez Canal. It thrives on being a port, as well as a tourist resort especially during summer. It is home to the Lighthouse of Port Said, there are numerous old houses with grand balconies on all floors, giving the city a distinctive look. Port Saids twin city is Port Fuad, which lies on the bank of the canal. The two cities coexist, to the extent that there is hardly any town centre in Port Fuad, the only other metropolitan area in the world that also spans two continents is Istanbul. Most of them were from Mediterranean countries, and they coexisted in tolerance, the name of Port Said first appeared in 1855, It was chosen by an International committee composed of Great Britain, France, the Russian Empire, Austria, Spain and Piedmont. It is a name which composed of two parts, Port and Said, who granted Ferdinand de Lesseps the concession to dig the Suez Canal. Port Said was founded by Said of Egypt on Easter Monday, April 25,1859, the first problem encountered was the difficulty for ships to drop anchor nearby. Luckily, a rocky outcrop flush with the shoreline was discovered a few hundred meters away. Equipped with a wharf, it served as a mooring berth for the boats. Soon after, a jetty was built, connecting the departure islet, as it quickly became known. This rock could be considered the heart of the city, and it was on this highly symbolic site, forty years later. There were no local resources here, everything Port Said needed had to be imported, wood, stone, supplies, machinery, equipment, housing, food and even water. Giant water storage containers were erected to supply fresh water until the Sweet Water Canal could be completed, one of the most pressing problems was the lack of stone. Early buildings were imported in kit form and made great use of wood. A newly developed technique was used to construct the jetties called conglomerate concrete or Beton Coignet, artificial blocks of concrete were sunk into the sea to be the foundations of the jetties. Still more innovative was the use of the concrete for the lighthouse of Port Said
29.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
30.
National Liberation Front (Algeria)
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The National Liberation Front is a socialist political party in Algeria. It was the principal nationalist movement during the Algerian War and the sole legal and it succeeded the Revolutionary Committee of Unity and Action, which had been formed earlier in the year. It initially had a five-man leadership consisting of Mostefa Ben Boulaïd, Larbi Ben Mhidi, Rabah Bitat, Mohamed Boudiaf and they were joined by Krim Belkacem in August, and Hocine Aït Ahmed, Ahmed Ben Bella and Mohamed Khider later in the summer. On 1 November 1954 the FLN launched the Algerian War, Didouche was killed on 18 January 1955, whilst both Ben Boulaïd and Bitat were captured by the French. Abane Ramdane was recruited to take control of the FLNs Algiers campaign, the FLNs armed wing during the war was called the National Liberation Army. It was divided into guerrilla units fighting France and the MNA in Algeria, FLN is considered responsible for over 16,000 Algerian civilians killed and over 13,000 disappeared between 1954 and 1962. Notorious examples of FLN massacres include the Oran massacre of 1962, an estimated 4,300 people were also killed in France in FLN-related violence. The war for independence continued until March 1962, when the French government finally signed the Évian Accords, in July the same year, the Algerian people approved the cease-fire agreement with France in a referendum, supporting economic and social cooperation between the two countries as well. Full independence followed, and the FLN seized control of the country, Political opposition in the form of the MNA and communist organizations was outlawed, and Algeria was constituted as a one-party state. The FLN became its legal and ruling party. Immediately after independence, the party experienced an internal power struggle. In building his one-party regime, Ben Bella purged remaining dissidents, in 1965, tension between Boumédiène and Ben Bella culminated in a coup détat, after Ben Bella had tried to sack one of the Colonels closest collaborators, Foreign Minister Abdelaziz Bouteflika. Boumédiène held tight control over party leadership until his death in 1978, at time the party reorganized again under the leadership of the militarys next candidate. The military remained well represented on the FLN Central Committee, and is held to have been the real power-broker in the country. During the 1980s the FLN toned down the socialist content of its programme, enacting some free-market reforms and it was not until 1988 that massive demonstrations and riots jolted the country towards major political reform. The riots led to the constitution being amended to allow a multi-party system, parliamentary elections the following year saw the ISF win a landslide victory, taking 188 of the 231 seats, whilst the FLN won only 15, finishing in third place behind the Socialist Forces Front. After internal power struggles and a change, it returned to supporting the presidency. However, it won a victory in the 2002 elections
31.
Robert Lacoste
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Robert Lacoste was a French politician. He was a socialist MP of the Dordogne from 1945 to 1958 and from 1962 to 1967, robert Lacoste was born at Azerat. He studied at the law school in Paris, and became a civil servant, a member of both houses of parliament, and socialist MP for the Dordogne, he was Minister of Industry until 1950. He was Minister of Finance and the Economy in 1956, after Guy Mollets visit to Algeria, greeted by colons throwing tomatoes at him, Lacoste replaced general Catroux in February 1956, becoming resident minister and governor general of Algeria. He remained the minister of Algeria until May 1958, a proponent of forceful action, he played a principal role in the Algerian War. He also promoted accelerated social and economic programmes, highlighted by his efforts to Algerianise the administration and he increased Algerias départements to twelve and drafted the Loi Cadre designed to enhance internal autonomy and Muslim representation. He sat in the National Assembly once more from 1962 to 1967, from 1971 to 1980, he was elected socialist senator of the Dordogne, assuming from 1974 to 1979 the vice-presidency of the regional council of Aquitaine. President of the council of electricity and gas of France in 1950. He died, aged 90, at Périgueux and he was then Minister of Industry and Commerce from 11 August 1947 to 7 February 1950. He served as Minister of Economic and Financial Affairs from 1 to 9 February 1956 and he was Resident Minister in Algeria from 9 February 1956 to 13 June 1957 then Minister of Algeria from 13 June 1957 to 14 May 1958
32.
Tunisia
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Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia is the northernmost country in Africa, covering 165,000 square kilometres. Its northernmost point, Cape Angela, is the northernmost point on the African continent and it is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisias population was estimated to be just under 11 million in 2014, Tunisias name is derived from its capital city, Tunis, which is located on Tunisias northeast coast. Geographically, Tunisia contains the end of the Atlas Mountains. Much of the rest of the land is fertile soil. Tunisia is a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic and it is considered to be the only full democracy in the Arab World. It has a human development index. In addition, Tunisia is also a state of the United Nations. Close relations with Europe – in particular with France and with Italy – have been forged through economic cooperation, privatisation, in ancient times, Tunisia was primarily inhabited by Berbers. Phoenician immigration began in the 12th century BC, these immigrants founded Carthage, a major mercantile power and a military rival of the Roman Republic, Carthage was defeated by the Romans in 146 BC. The Romans, who would occupy Tunisia for most of the eight hundred years, introduced Christianity. After several attempts starting in 647, the Arabs conquered the whole of Tunisia by 697, the Ottomans held sway for over three hundred years. The French colonization of Tunisia occurred in 1881, Tunisia gained independence with Habib Bourguiba and declared the Tunisian Republic in 1957. In 2011, the Tunisian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, the country voted for parliament again on 26 October 2014, and for President on 23 November 2014. The word Tunisia is derived from Tunis, an urban hub. The present form of the name, with its Latinate suffix -ia, the French derivative Tunisie was adopted in some European languages with slight modifications, introducing a distinctive name to designate the country. Other languages remained untouched, such as the Russian Туни́с and Spanish Túnez, in this case, the same name is used for both country and city, as with the Arabic تونس, and only by context can one tell the difference. The name Tunis can be attributed to different origins and it is generally associated with the Berber root ⵜⵏⵙ, transcribed tns, which means to lay down or encampment
33.
Charles de Gaulle
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Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was a French general and statesman. He was the leader of Free France and the head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic, in 1958, he founded the Fifth Republic and was elected as the 18th President of France, a position he held until his resignation in 1969. He was the dominant figure of France during the Cold War era, born in Lille, he graduated from Saint-Cyr in 1912. He was an officer of the First World War, wounded several times. During the interwar period, he advocated mobile armoured divisions, during the German invasion of May 1940, he led an armoured division which counterattacked the invaders, he was then appointed Under-Secretary for War. Refusing to accept his governments armistice with Nazi Germany, de Gaulle exhorted the French population to resist occupation and he led a government in exile and the Free French Forces against the Axis. Despite frosty relations with Britain and especially the United States, he emerged as the leader of the French resistance. He became Head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic in June 1944, frustrated by the return of petty partisanship in the new Fourth Republic, he resigned in early 1946 but continued to be politically active as founder of the RPF party. He retired in the early 1950s and wrote his War Memoirs, when the Algerian War was ripping apart the unstable Fourth Republic, the National Assembly brought him back to power during the May 1958 crisis. De Gaulle founded the Fifth Republic with a presidency. He granted independence to Algeria and progressively to other French colonies and he restored cordial Franco-German relations to create a European counterweight between the Anglo-American and Soviet spheres of influence. However, he opposed any development of a supranational Europe, favouring a Europe of sovereign nations, De Gaulle openly criticised the US intervention in Vietnam and the exorbitant privilege of the US dollar. In his later years, his support for an independent Quebec, De Gaulle resigned in 1969 after losing a referendum in which he proposed more decentralization. He died a year later at his residence in Colombey-les-Deux-Églises, leaving his Presidential memoirs unfinished, many French political parties and figures claim the Gaullist legacy. De Gaulle was ranked as Le Plus Grand Français de tous les temps, De Gaulle was born in the industrial region of Lille in the Nord departement, the third of five children. He was raised in a devoutly Catholic and traditional family and his father, Henri de Gaulle, was a professor of history and literature at a Jesuit college who eventually founded his own school. Henri de Gaulle came from a line of parliamentary gentry from Normandy and Burgundy. De Gaulles mother, Jeanne, descended from a family of entrepreneurs from Lille
34.
Prime Minister of France
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The French Prime Minister in the Fifth Republic is the head of government and of the Council of Ministers of France. During the Third and Fourth Republics, the head of government position was called President of the Council of Ministers, the Prime Minister proposes a list of ministers to the President of the Republic. Decrees and decisions of the Prime Minister, like almost all decisions, are subject to the oversight of the administrative court system. Few decrees are taken after advice from the Council of State, all prime ministers defend the programs of their ministry, and make budgetary choices. The extent to which those decisions lie with the Prime Minister or President depends upon whether they are of the same party, manuel Valls was appointed to lead the government in a cabinet reshuffle in March 2014, after the ruling Socialists suffered a bruising defeat in local elections. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Republic, the President can choose whomever they want. On the other hand, because the National Assembly does have the power to force the resignation of the government, for example, right after the legislative election of 1986, President François Mitterrand appointed Jacques Chirac prime minister. Chirac was a member of the RPR and an opponent of Mitterrand. Despite the fact that Mitterrands own Socialist Party was the largest party in the Assembly, the RPR had an alliance with the UDF, which gave them a majority. Such a situation, where the President is forced to work with a minister who is an opponent, is called a cohabitation. So far, Édith Cresson is the woman to have ever held the position of prime minister. Aristide Briand holds the record for most nomination as Prime Minister with 11 between 1909 and 1929 with some terms as short as 26 days, other members of Government are appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister can engage the responsibility of his or her Government before the National Assembly and this process consists of placing a bill before the Assembly, and either the Assembly overthrows the Government, or the bill is passed automatically. In addition to ensuring that the Government still has support in the House, the Prime Minister may also submit a bill that has not been yet signed into law to the Constitutional Council. Before he is allowed to dissolve the Assembly, the President has to consult the Prime Minister, the office of the prime minister, in its current form, dates from the formation of the French Third Republic. Under the French Constitutional Laws of 1875, he was imbued with the powers as his British counterpart. In practice, however, the minister was a fairly weak figure. Most notably, the legislature had the power to force the cabinet out of office by a vote of censure
35.
25th Parachute Division (France)
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The 25th Parachute Division was an airborne division of the French Army, part of the French Airborne Units. Consisting mainly of air infantry specialized in combat, air assault and established in 1956. On June 1,1956, the 25th Parachute Division was created in the 5th military region from the 25e DIAP, on April 1,1960, the 9th Parachute Chasseur Regiment relieved the 1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment part of the 10th Parachute Division. On December 1,1958, the Colonial Parachute Regiments underwent a designation renomination to the Marine Infantry Parachute Regiments while conserving their number regimental designation. Accordingly, General Raoul Salan, superior commander in Algeria, delegated all five airborne infantry regiments to General Paul Vanuxem, the battle took place at both the Morice Line and Challe Line and lasted for about 5 months. Except for the Legionnaires of the 2e REP that conserve the Green Beret, the Archangel Saint Michael, patron of the French paratroopers is celebrated on September 29. The prière du Para was written by André Zirnheld in 1938, just like the paratrooper Brevet of the French Army, the Insignia of French Paratroopers was created in 1946. The French Army Insignia of metropolitan Paratroopers represents a closed <<winged armed dextrochere>>, the Insignia makes reference to the Patron of Paratroopers. In fact, the Insignia represents <<the right Arm of Saint Michael>> and this Insignia is the symbol of righteous combat and fidelity to superior missions. The French Army Insignia of Marine Infantry Paratroopers is backgrounded by a Marine Anchor, J. Baltzer & E. Micheletti, Insignes et brevets parachutistes de larmée française, Histoires et collections,2001, ISBN 2-913-903-118. History of the 1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment, 9th Parachute Chasseur Regiment, 14th Parachute Chasseur Regiment and 18th Parachute Chasseur Regiment
36.
Archangel
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An archangel /ˌɑːrkˈeɪndʒəl/ is an angel of high rank. The word archangel itself is associated with the Abrahamic religions. The word archangel is derived from the Greek ἀρχάγγελος, Michael and Gabriel are recognized as archangels in Judaism, Islam and by most Christians. Protestants recognize Gabriel as an angel but consider Michael to be the only archangel, raphael—mentioned in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit—is also recognized in the Catholic and Orthodox churches. Gabriel, Michael, and Raphael are venerated in the Roman Catholic Church with a feast on September 29, the named archangels in Islam are Gabriel, Michael, Israfil and Azrael. Jewish literature, such as the Book of Enoch, mentions Metatron as an archangel, called the highest of the angels, some branches of the faiths mentioned have identified a group of seven Archangels, but the actual angels vary, depending on the source. Gabriel, Michael, and Raphael are always mentioned, the other archangels vary, but most commonly include Uriel, in Zoroastrianism, sacred texts allude to the six great Amesha Spenta of Ahura Mazda. An increasing number of experts in anthropology, theology and philosophy, the Amesha Spentas of Zoroastrianism are likened to archangels. They individually inhabit immortal bodies that operate in the world to protect, guide, and inspire humanity. The Avesta explains the origin and nature of archangels or Amesha Spentas, to maintain equilibrium, Ahura Mazda engaged in the first act of creation, distinguishing his Holy Spirit Spenta Mainyu, the Archangel of righteousness. Ahura Mazda also distinguished from himself six more Amesha Spentas, who, along with Spenta Mainyu, then he oversaw the development of sixteen lands, each imbued with a unique cultural catalyst calculated to encourage the formation of distinct human populations. The Amesha Spentas were charged with protecting these holy lands and through their emanation, the Amesha Spentas as attributes of God are, Spenta Mainyu, lit. Immortality The Hebrew Bible uses the ter. מלאכי אלוהים, The Hebrew word for angel is malach, מלאכי י י, בני אלוהים and הקדושים to refer to beings traditionally interpreted as angelic messengers. Other terms are used in texts, such as העליונים. References to angels are uncommon in Jewish literature except in works such as the Book of Daniel, though they are mentioned briefly in the stories of Jacob. Daniel is the first biblical figure to refer to individual angels by name and it is therefore widely speculated that Jewish interest in angels developed during the Babylonian captivity. According to Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish of Tiberias, specific names for the angels were brought back by the Jews from Babylon, there are no explicit references to archangels in the canonical texts of the Hebrew Bible. In post-Biblical Judaism, certain angels came to take on a particular significance, though these archangels were believed to have rank amongst the heavenly host, no systematic hierarchy ever developed
37.
Michael (archangel)
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Michael is an archangel in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheran traditions, he is called Saint Michael the Archangel, in the Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox traditions, he is called Taxiarch Archangel Michael or simply Archangel Michael. Michael is mentioned three times in the Book of Daniel, in the New Testament Michael leads Gods armies against Satans forces in the Book of Revelation, where during the war in heaven he defeats Satan. In the Epistle of Jude Michael is specifically referred to as the archangel Michael, by the 6th century, devotions to Archangel Michael were widespread both in the Eastern and Western Churches. Over time, teachings on Michael began to vary among Christian denominations, Michael is mentioned three times in the Hebrew Scriptures, all in the book of Daniel. The prophet Daniel experiences a vision after having undergone a period of fasting, Daniel 10, 13-21 describes Daniels vision of an angel who identifies Michael as the protector of Israel. At Daniel 12,1, Daniel is informed that Michael will arise during the time of the end, the Book of Revelation describes a war in heaven in which Michael, being stronger, defeats Satan. After the conflict, Satan is thrown to earth along with the fallen angels, in the Epistle of Jude 1,9, Michael is referred to as an archangel when he again confronts Satan. A reference to an archangel also appears in the First Epistle to the Thessalonians 4,16 and this archangel who heralds the second coming of Christ is not named, but is often associated with Michael. Michael, is one of the two mentioned in the Quran, alongside Jibreel. In the Quran, Michael is mentioned only, in Sura 2,98, Whoever is an enemy to God, and His angels and His messengers. Then, God is an enemy to the disbelievers, some Muslims believe that the reference in Sura 11,69 is Michael, one of the three angels who visited Abraham. Michaels enmity with Samael dates from the time when the latter was thrown down from heaven, Samael took hold of the wings of Michael, whom he wished to bring down with him in his fall, but Michael was saved by God. But appeal to Michael seems to have more common in ancient times. Thus Jeremiah is said to have addressed a prayer to him, the rabbis declare that Michael entered upon his role of defender at the time of the biblical patriarchs. Thus, according to Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob, it was Michael who rescued Abraham from the furnace into which he had been thrown by Nimrod. It was Michael, the one that had escaped, who told Abraham that Lot had been taken captive, and he announced to Sarah that she would bear a son and he rescued Lot at the destruction of Sodom. It is said that Michael prevented Isaac from being sacrificed by his father by substituting a ram in his place, later Michael prevented Laban from harming Jacob
38.
Mont Saint-Michel
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Le Mont-Saint-Michel is an island commune in Normandy, France. It is located one kilometre off the countrys northwestern coast. As of 2009, the island has a population of 44, the island has held strategic fortifications since ancient times and since the 8th century AD has been the seat of the monastery from which it draws its name. The Mont remained unconquered during the Hundred Years War, a small garrison fended off an attack by the English in 1433. The reverse benefits of its defence were not lost on Louis XI. Thereafter the abbey began to be used regularly as a jail during the Ancien Régime. One of Frances most recognizable landmarks, visited by more than 3 million people each year, Mont Saint-Michel, over 60 buildings within the commune are protected in France as monuments historiques. Now a rocky island, the Mont occupied dry land in prehistoric times. As sea levels rose, erosion reshaped the landscape, and several outcrops of granite emerged in the bay. These included Lillemer, the Mont-Dol, Tombelaine, and Mont Tombe, the Mont has a circumference of about 960 metres and its highest point is 92 metres above sea level. The tides can vary greatly, at roughly 14 metres between high and low water marks, popularly nicknamed St. Polderisation and occasional flooding have created salt marsh meadows that were found to be ideally suited to grazing sheep. The connection between Mont Saint-Michel and the mainland has changed over the centuries, previously connected by a tidal causeway, this was converted into a raised causeway in 1879, preventing the tide from scouring the silt around the mount. These factors all encouraged silting-up of the bay, the construction of the dam began in 2009. The project also includes the removal of the causeway and its car park. Since 28 April 2012 the new car park on the mainland has been located 2.5 kilometres from the island, visitors can walk or use shuttles to cross the causeway. On 22 July 2014 the new bridge by architect Dietmar Feichtinger was opened to the public, the light bridge allows the waters to flow freely around the island and improves the efficiency of the now operational dam. The project which cost €209 million was opened by President François Hollande. On rare occasions tidal circumstances produce an extremely high supertide, the new bridge was completely submerged on 21 March 2015, by the highest sea level for at least 18 years, as crowds gathered to snap photos
39.
11th Parachute Brigade (France)
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The 11th Parachute Brigade is a unit of the French Army, dominantly infantry, part of the French Airborne Units and specialized in air combat and air assault. The Brigades primary vocation is to project in emergency in order to contribute a first response to a situational crisis, an elite unit of the French Army, the brigade is commanded by a général de brigade with headquarters based in Balma near Toulouse. The Brigades soldiers and airborne Marines wear the red beret except for the Legionnaires of the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment who wear Green beret of the French Foreign Legion. On May 1,1961, the 11th Light Intervention Division was created from dissolved airborne units of the 10th and 25th Parachute Division. On December 1,1963, the 11th Division was created by merging the 11th Light Intervention Division, on April 1,1971, the 11th Division became the 11th Parachute Division. On June 1999, the 11th Parachute Division became the 11th Parachute Brigade, the division commanded by General Marzloff rejoins the metropole on July 1,1961. On August 1,1963, the 13th Parachute Dragoon Regiment leaves the Division and takes garrison in Lorraine at Dieuze, on October 1,1963, the division integrated the BOMAP. On December 1,1963, the 11th Light Intervention Division merged with the 9th Colonial Infantry Division, a support battalion, the 61e BS was created on February 1,1964, at Auch. The 61e BS supervised health services and provisions in the Division, in March, the 61st Transmission Airborne Brigade steps in at Pau and regroups the existing transmission companies. On July 1966, the 11th Division reached 16,000 men and was composed of two brigades forming five parachute regiments. The 9th Outremer Brigade left the Division and the 20th Airborne Brigade, the three support regiments were reorganized in two interam regiments of intervention that conserved nevertheless their original nominations. The 17th Parachute Engineer Regiment disappeared, the following year in 1974, the 17th Parachute Engineer Regiment was recreated and the interarm regiments find their specialities. On August 1,1974, the 1st Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment was reattached to the Division, Units belonging to the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment and the 35th Parachute Artillery Regiment took part in Operation Tacaud starting from 1978 in Tchad. During this time, France was manned with a force of 20,000 strong composed of the 11th Parachute Division. In the aftermath of the Cold War, the French Army reorganised, the 11th Parachute Brigade was formed in 1999 at Balma on the base of the 11 Parachute Division on the occasion of the restructuring of the French Army. The brigade was engaged in Afghanistan and Africa, the 11th Parachute Brigade and mainly the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment 2e REP took part in Operation Licorne in the Ivory Coast. The parachute brigade intervened in Afghanistan starting 2006 within and part of the French Detachment of NATO International Force, the brigade was relieved in September 2007 by the mountain infantry Alpines Chasseurs of the 27th Mountain Infantry Brigade. On August 18,2008, a section of the 8th Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment lost eight men during the Ambush of Uzbin, the paratroopers of the 1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment made up the first rotation
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Liturgy
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Liturgy is the customary public worship performed by a religious group, according to its beliefs, customs and traditions. As a religious phenomenon, liturgy is a response to and participation in. Ritualization may be associated with events such as birth, coming of age, marriage. It thus forms the basis for establishing a relationship with a divine agency, methods of dress, preparation of food, application of cosmetics or other hygienic practices are all considered liturgical activities. Technically speaking, liturgy is a subset of ritual, when ritual is undertaken to participate in a divine act or assist a divine action, it is liturgy. If the ritual does not have this purpose it is not liturgy, a daily activity such as the Muslim salah and Jewish synagogue services would be ritual but not liturgy. If the Temple were re-established, the ritual undertaken by the Judaic priesthood within the Temple would be liturgy, for a simple definition, liturgy is basically the pattern/way of worship the worshippers, worship. So you could use orthodox liturgy which would have different aspects to the Eucharistic liturgy or the catholic liturgy. The word liturgy, derived from the term in ancient Greek, leitourgia. In origin it signified the often expensive offerings wealthy Greeks made in service to the people, and thus to the polis, through the leitourgia, the rich carried a financial burden and were correspondingly rewarded with honours and prestige. The leitourgia were assigned by the polis, the State and Roman Empire, the performance of such supported the patrons standing among the elite and the popular at large. The holder of a Hellenic leitourgia was not taxed a specific sum, but was entrusted with a particular ritual, however groups of rich citizens were assigned to pay for expenses such as civic amenities and even payment of warships. Eventually, under the Roman Empire, such obligations, known as munera, devolved into a competitive, Buddhist liturgy is a formalized service of veneration and worship performed within a Buddhist Sangha community in nearly every traditional denomination and sect in the Buddhist world. It is often done once or more times a day and can vary among the Theravada, Mahayana, the liturgy mainly consists of chanting or reciting a sutra or passages from a sutras, a mantra, and several gathas. Depending on what practice the practitioner wishes to undertake, it can be done at a temple or at home, the liturgy is almost always performed in front of an object or objects of veneration and accompanied by offerings of light, incense, water and food. Jewish liturgy are the prayer recitations that form part of the observance of Rabbinic Judaism and these prayers, often with instructions and commentary, are found in the siddur, the traditional Jewish prayer book. In general, Jewish men are obligated to pray three times a day within specific time ranges, while, according to the Talmud, women are only required to pray once daily, as they are generally exempted from obligations that are time dependent. Additional prayers, Musaf are recited by Orthodox and Conservative congregations on Shabbat, major Jewish holidays, a fifth prayer service, Neila, is recited only on Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement
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