1.
9th United States Congress
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The Ninth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D. C. from March 4,1805 to March 4,1807, the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Second Census of the United States in 1800. Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority, june 1,1805, First Barbary War ends. November 7,1805, Lewis and Clark Expedition arrived at the Pacific Ocean, september 23,1806, Lewis and Clark Expedition returned to St. Louis, Missouri, thereby ending the exploration of the Louisiana Territory and the Pacific Northwest. February 19,1807, Former Vice President Aaron Burr was tried for conspiracy, March 29,1806 - Cumberland Road, ch. 19,2 Stat.357 March 2,1807 - Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves, Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the Changes in membership section. President, George Clinton President pro tempore, Samuel Smith Speaker, Nathaniel Macon This list is arranged by chamber, Senators are listed by class, and Representatives are listed by district. Skip to House of Representatives, below Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress, preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. The names of members of the House of Representatives are listed by their district numbers The count below reflects changes from the beginning of this Congress, lists of committees and their party leaders. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, the Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts
2.
11th United States Congress
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It met in Washington, D. C. from March 4,1809 to March 4,1811, during the first two years of James Madisons presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Second Census of the United States in 1800, both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority. March 4,1809, James Madison became President of the United States October 27,1810, Annexation of West Florida from Spain May 1,1810, Macons Bill Number 2, ch. 39,2 Stat.613 This amendment, commonly known as the Titles of Nobility Amendment, has not been ratified and is pending before the states. The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress, Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the Changes in membership section. President, George Clinton President pro tempore, John Milledge Andrew Gregg, from June 26,1809 John Gaillard, from February 28,1810 John Pope, from February 23,1811 Speaker, varnum This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed in order of seniority, and Representatives are listed by district, skip to House of Representatives, below Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, the names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their districts. The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress, there were 8 resignations,2 deaths,1 interim appointment, and 1 vacancy from before this Congress. Of the voting members, there were 12 resignations,1 death, lists of committees and their party leaders. Brown, from December 5,1809 Walter D. Addison, from December 12,1810 Secretary, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts
3.
United States Capitol
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The United States Capitol, often called the Capitol Building or Capitol Hill, is the home of the United States Congress, and the seat of the legislative branch of the U. S. federal government. It sits atop Capitol Hill at the end of the National Mall in Washington. Though not at the center of the Federal District, the Capitol forms the origin point for the Districts street-numbering system. The original building was completed in 1800 and was subsequently expanded, like the principal buildings of the executive and judicial branches, the Capitol is built in a distinctive neoclassical style and has a white exterior. Both its east and west elevations are referred to as fronts, though only the east front was intended for the reception of visitors. In 2014, scaffolding was erected around the dome for a project scheduled to be completed by early 2017. All exterior scaffolding was removed by the end of summer 2016, prior to establishing the nations capital in Washington, D. C. the United States Congress and its predecessors had met in Philadelphia, New York City, and a number of other locations. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress brought together delegates from the colonies in Philadelphia, followed by the Second Continental Congress, Congress requested that John Dickinson, the Governor of Pennsylvania, call up the militia to defend Congress from attacks by the protesters. In what became known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, Dickinson sympathized with the protesters and refused to remove them from Philadelphia. As a result, Congress was forced to flee to Princeton, New Jersey, on June 21,1783, and met in Annapolis, Maryland, the United States Congress was established upon ratification of the United States Constitution and formally began on March 4,1789. New York City remained home to Congress until July 1790, when the Residence Act was passed to pave the way for a permanent capital. As part of the legislation, Philadelphia was chosen as a capital for ten years, until the nations capital in Washington. Pierre Charles LEnfant was given the task of creating the city plan for the new capital city, in reviewing LEnfants plan, Thomas Jefferson insisted the legislative building be called the Capitol rather than Congress House. The word Capitol comes from Latin and is associated with the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on Capitoline Hill, the connection between the two is not, however, crystal clear. In spring 1792, United States Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed a competition to solicit designs for the Capitol and the Presidents House. The prize for the competition was $500 and a lot in the Federal City, the most promising of the submissions was by Stephen Hallet, a trained French architect. However, Hallets designs were overly fancy, with too much French influence, a late entry by amateur architect William Thornton was submitted on January 31,1793, to much praise for its Grandeur, Simplicity, and Beauty by Washington, along with praise from Thomas Jefferson. Thornton was inspired by the east front of the Louvre, as well as the Paris Pantheon for the portion of the design
4.
Vice President of the United States
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The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is elected, together with the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists, as the president of the United States Senate, the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College. Currently, the president is usually seen as an integral part of a presidents administration. The Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress. Mike Pence of Indiana is the 48th and current vice president and he assumed office on January 20,2017. The formation of the office of vice president resulted directly from the compromise reached at the Philadelphia Convention which created the Electoral College, the delegates at Philadelphia agreed that each state would receive a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that states allocation of Representatives and Senators. The delegates assumed that electors would typically choose to favor any candidate from their state over candidates from other states, under a plurality election process, this would tend to result in electing candidates solely from the largest states. Consequently, the delegates agreed that presidents must be elected by a majority of the number of electors. To guard against such stratagems, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the first runner-up presidential candidate would become vice president, the process for selecting the vice president was later modified in the Twelfth Amendment. Each elector still receives two votes, but now one of those votes is for president, while the other is for vice president. The requirement that one of those votes be cast for a candidate not from the electors own state remains in effect. S, other statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. As President of the Senate, the president has two primary duties, to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheneys tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority, as President of the Senate, the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast 29 tie-breaking votes that was surpassed by John C. Calhoun with 31. Adamss votes protected the presidents sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, on at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters
5.
George Clinton (vice president)
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George Clinton was an American soldier and statesman, considered one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He and John C. Calhoun are the people to have served as US Vice President under two different presidents. Clinton was born in Little Britain, Province of New York and his political interests were inspired by his father, who was a farmer, surveyor, and land speculator, and served as a member of the New York colonial assembly. George Clinton was the brother of General James Clinton and the uncle of New Yorks future governor, George was tutored by a local Scottish clergyman. During the French and Indian War he first served on the privateer Defiance operating in the Caribbean, before enlisting in the provincial militia and he and his brother James were instrumental in capturing a French vessel. His fathers survey of the New York frontier so impressed the governor that he was offered a position as sheriff of New York City. After the war, he read law in New York City under the attorney William Smith and he returned home and began his legal practice in 1764. He became district attorney the following year and he was a member of the New York Provincial Assembly for Ulster County from 1768 to 1776, aligned with the anti-British Livingston faction. His brother James was a member of the Provincial Convention that assembled in New York City on April 20,1775, James Clinton and Christopher Tappan, lifetime residents of the area, were sent to scout appropriate locations. In December 1775 the New York Provincial Congress commissioned him brigadier general in the militia tasked with defending the Highlands of the Hudson River from British attack. To this end he built two forts and stretched a giant chain across the river to keep the British forces in New York City from sailing northward, on March 25,1777, he was commissioned a brigadier general in the Continental Army. In June 1777, he was elected at the same time Governor and he formally resigned the Lieutenant Governors office and took the oath of office as Governor on July 30. He was re-elected five times, remaining in office until June 1795, although he had been elected governor, he retained his commission in the Continental Army and commanded forces at Fort Clinton and Fort Montgomery on October 6,1777. He remained in the Continental Army until it was disbanded on November 3,1783 and he was known for his hatred of Tories and used the seizure and sale of Tory estates to help keep taxes down. A supporter and friend of George Washington, he supplied food to the troops at Valley Forge, rode with Washington to the first inauguration, in 1783, Clinton became an original member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati and served as its president from 1794 to 1795. In 1783, at Dobbs Ferry, Clinton and Washington negotiated with General Sir Guy Carleton for the evacuation of the British troops from their posts in the United States. In 1787–88, Clinton publicly opposed adoption of the new United States Constitution, twentieth-century historian Herbert Storing identifies Clinton as Cato, the pseudonymous author of the Anti-Federalist essays which appeared in New York newspapers during the ratification debates. However, the authorship of the essays is disputed, Clinton withdrew his objections after the Bill of Rights was added
6.
President pro tempore of the United States Senate
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The president pro tempore of the United States Senate, also president pro tem, is the second-highest-ranking official of the United States Senate. Unlike the vice president, the president pro tempore is a member of the Senate. Selected by the Senate at large, the president pro tempore has enjoyed many privileges, during the vice presidents absence, the president pro tempore is empowered to preside over Senate sessions. Since 1890, the most senior senator in the majority party has generally chosen to be president pro tempore. This tradition has been observed without interruption since 1949, the current President pro tempore of the Senate is Utah Republican Orrin Hatch. Elected on January 6,2015, he is the 90th person to serve in this office, although the position is in some ways analogous to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the powers of the president pro tempore are far more limited. The president pro tempore is third in the line of succession, following the vice president. Additional duties include appointment of various officers, certain commissions, advisory boards. The officeholder is an ex member of various boards and commissions. With the secretary and sergeant at arms, the president pro tempore maintains order in Senate portions of the Capitol, the office of president pro tempore was established by the Constitution of the United States in 1789. The first president pro tempore, John Langdon, was elected on April 6 the same year, originally, the president pro tempore was appointed on an intermittent basis when the vice president was not present to preside over the Senate. Until the 1960s, it was practice for the vice president to preside over daily Senate sessions. Until 1891, the president pro tempore only served until the return of the president to the chair or the adjournment of a session of Congress. Between 1792 and 1886, the president pro tempore was second in the line of succession following the vice president. When President Andrew Johnson, who had no president, was impeached and tried in 1868. Wades radicalism is thought by historians to be a major reason why the Senate. The President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House were removed from the line of succession in 1886. Both were restored to it in 1947, though this time with the president pro tempore following the speaker, William P. Frye served as President pro tempore from 1896 to 1911 (54th–62nd Congress, a tenure longer than anyone else
7.
Samuel Smith (Maryland)
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Samuel Smith was a United States Senator and Representative from Maryland, a mayor of Baltimore, Maryland, and a general in the Maryland militia. He was the brother of cabinet secretary Robert Smith, born in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, Smith moved with his family to Baltimore, Maryland, in 1759. He attended an academy, and engaged in mercantile pursuits until the American Revolutionary War, at which time he served as captain, major. Prior to the war, as a captain, he was sent to Annapolis to arrest Governor Eden. Smiths force numbered 200 soldiers plus Major Robert Ballard of Virginia, Major Simeon Thayer of Rhode Island, however, another account stated that Thayer did not reach Fort Mifflin until October 19. With the British army closing in on Philadelphia, the force had to reach Fort Mifflin by a circuitous route. The fort was overwhelmed by weeks of British bombardment and was abandoned. After the war, Smith engaged in the shipping business, from 1790 to 1792, Smith was a member of the Maryland House of Delegates. At the time of the war with France in 1794, he was appointed brigadier general of the Maryland militia. Smith served as a general of Maryland militia during the War of 1812. The American victory there can largely be attributed to Smiths preparation for the British invasion, Smith entered into national politics when he was elected to the Third United States Congress, serving from March 4,1793, until March 4,1803. As a Congressman, Smith served as chairman of the U. S. House Committee on Commerce, Smith entered into the Senate election in 1802, and was elected as a Democratic-Republican to the United States Senate. He was re-elected in 1808 and served from March 4,1803 until March 4,1815, while senator, Smith served as President pro tempore of the Senate during the Ninth and Tenth Congresses. In the House, Smith served as chairman of the U. S. House Committee on Expenditures in the Department of the Treasury, and as a member of the Committee on Ways and Means. On December 17,1822, Smith resigned as congressman, having been elected as a Democratic Republican to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the death of William Pinkney. In March–April 1824, Samuel Smith was honored with a vote at the Democratic-Republican Party Caucus to be the partys candidate for U. S. Vice President at the later that year. Smith served as President pro tempore of the Senate again during the Twentieth and Twenty-first Congresses and he was re-elected in 1826 and served until March 4,1833
8.
Stephen R. Bradley
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Stephen Row Bradley was an American lawyer, judge and politician. He served as a United States Senator from the state of Vermont, Bradley was born on February 20,1754, in the part of Wallingford, Connecticut that is now Cheshire. He was the son of Moses and Mary Bradley and he was the grandson of Stephen Bradley, a New Haven silversmith who was one of six brothers who served in Cromwells Ironsides before emigrating to America. Bradley graduated from Yale College in 1775, after his graduation, Bradley was commissioned as captain in the Connecticut Militia and rose to the rank of major. He commanded the Cheshire Volunteers and in December 1776, he served as adjutant and he was promoted to vendue master and quartermaster, and then served as aide-de-camp to General Wooster during the British attack on Danbury on April 27,1777 when Wooster was fatally wounded. Bradley resigned his commission after the battle and he received a Master of Arts degree from Yale in 1778. In 1779, he moved to Westminster, Vermont and studied law, directed by Tapping Reeve, Bradley was admitted to the bar in 1779 and began the practice of law in Westminster, becoming an important citizen of the town. In October 1779, the Legislature selected him as one of five agents to the U. S, in June 1780, Bradley was appointed states attorney for Cumberland County, Vermont. He held the positions of register of probate and town clerk and he also served for seven years in the Vermont House of Representatives in the 1780s. He was speaker of the Vermont House of Representatives during 1785, Bradley continued to be given additional responsibility in the militia. Appointed a first lieutenant in August 1780, he was promoted to colonel as commander of the 1st Regiment in October and he was later promoted to brigadier general as commander of the 8th Brigade, and served until 1791. He served as judge of the Vermont Superior Court during the 1780s, Bradley was instrumental in settling Vermonts boundary disputes with New Hampshire. Vermont became part of the United States on March 4,1791, Bradley and Moses Robinson were elected by the state legislature to be the first to fill Vermonts two senate seats. In 1791, he entered the United States Senate and supported the anti-administration faction, defeated for reelection in 1794, he returned to Westminster and was active in law and local politics, serving on the town council. Reelected as a Jeffersonian candidate to the United States Senate in 1800, after he was reelected in 1807, he served as the presiding officer again for a couple of weeks in the 1808-1809 period. Bradley is credited with writing the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution, although a Democratic-Republican, he was opposed to the War of 1812. After retiring from the Senate in 1813, he retired from politics and he lived there for five years, and in 1818 he moved to Walpole, New Hampshire where he lived for the rest of his life. His Walpole house is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, Bradley died in Walpole, Cheshire County, New Hampshire, on December 9,1830
9.
John Milledge
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John Milledge was an American politician. He fought in the American Revolution and later served as United States Representative, 26th Governor of Georgia, Milledge was a founder of Athens, Georgia, and the University of Georgia. John Milledge was born in Savannah, the grandson of a settler of Georgia. He was tutored privately and studied law, after being admitted to the bar, he opened a law practice in Savannah. At the onset of the Revolutionary War, Milledge was part of a group that took colonial governor Sir James Wright as a prisoner in 1775 and he also took part in a raid of Savannahs royal armory to procure gunpowder for the revolutionary cause. When the British captured Savannah, Milledge escaped to South Carolina and he participated in the Siege of Savannah in an attempt to drive the British forces out. In 1778, he served as an aide to Governor John Houstoun in a campaign against the British in East Florida. In 1781, as a colonel in the Georgia militia, he helped to recapture Augusta, milledges political career began in 1779, when he was elected to the patriot general assembly. After serving as the general of Georgia, Milledge was member of the Georgia General Assembly. While in the General Assembly, he spoke out forcefully against the Yazoo Land Acts, in 1792, the House of Representatives declared the seat of Anthony Wayne vacant due to disputes over his residency. Milledge was elected to the Second Congress to fill this vacancy and served from November 22,1792, later, Milledge would be elected to the Fourth and Fifth Congresses, serving from March 4,1795 to March 3,1799. In 1801, he was elected to Congress, this time as a Democratic-Republican. Milledge was Governor of Georgia from 1802 to 1806, as governor, he created Georgias first land lottery, to combat corruption in the distribution of former Creek lands to settlers. He also reorganized the militia, and built a road from Georgia to Tennessee passing through Cherokee lands. In 1803, Milledgeville, Georgia, state capital from 1804 to 1868, was named in his honor, in 1806, he was elected as a Democratic-Republican to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the death of James Jackson. He was a loyal and enthusiastic supporter of the policies of President Thomas Jefferson, in the 10th United States Congress, he was named President pro tempore of the Senate. He served as a Senator from June 19,1806, until November 14,1809, while serving in the U. S. House of Representatives, Milledge was named to a commission to establish a site for the state University of Georgia. On July 25,1801 Milledge bought with his own some land on the Oconee River for the school
10.
Joseph Bradley Varnum
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Joseph Bradley Varnum was a U. S. politician of the Democratic-Republican Party from Massachusetts. Joseph Bradley Varnum was born in Dracut, Massachusetts, Middlesex County, January 29,1750 or 1751, at the age of eighteen, he was commissioned captain by the committee of Massachusetts Bay Colony, and in 1787 colonel by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. He was made general in 1802, and in 1805 major general of the state militia. He also served as a Justice of the Massachusetts Court of Common Pleas and as Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Court of General Sessions. In 1794, Varnum was elected to the U. S. House of Representatives, during his last four years in the House, he served as its Speaker. Varnum was elected to the U. S. Senate in 1811 to fill the vacancy in the term, Varnum died in Dracut, and his body is interred in Varnum Cemetery. His brother was James Mitchell Varnum, on March 3,1805, Varnum submitted a Massachusetts Proposition to amend the Constitution and Abolish the Slave Trade. This proposition was tabled until 1807, when under Varnums leadership the amendment moved through Congress, president Thomas Jefferson signed it into law on March 3,1807. Magazine of American History 20, 405–14, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Attribution, This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Varnum
11.
Party leaders of the United States Senate
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The Senate Majority and Minority Leaders are two United States Senators and members of the party leadership of the United States Senate. They are elected to their positions in the Senate by their party caucuses, the Senate Democratic Caucus. By rule, the Presiding Officer gives the Majority Leader priority in obtaining recognition to speak on the floor of the Senate, the Assistant Majority and Minority Leaders of the United States Senate are the second-ranking members of each partys leadership. The main function of the Majority and Minority Whips is to gather votes on major issues, because they are the second ranking member of the Senate, if there is no floor leader present, the whip may become acting floor leader. Before 1969, the titles were Majority Whip and Minority Whip. The Senate is currently composed of 52 Republicans,46 Democrats, the current leaders are Republican Majority Leader Mitch McConnell of Kentucky and Democratic Minority Leader Chuck Schumer of New York. The current Assistant Majority Leader is Republican John Cornyn of Texas, the current Assistant Minority Leader/Whip is Democrat Dick Durbin of Illinois. The Democrats began the practice of electing floor leaders in 1920 while they were in the minority, John W. Kern was a Democratic Senator from Indiana. While the title was not official, he is considered to be the first Senate party leader from 1913 through 1917, the Constitution designates the Vice President of the United States as President of the United States Senate. The Constitution also calls for a President pro tempore to serve as the leader of the body when the President of the Senate is absent, for these reasons, it is the Majority Leader who, in practice, manages the Senate. This is in contrast to the House of Representatives where the elected Speaker of the House has a deal of discretionary power. The Democratic Party first selected a leader in 1920, the Republican Party first formally designated a leader in 1925. gov Republican Majority Democratic Minority
12.
Democratic-Republican Party
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The new party controlled the presidency and Congress, as well as most states, from 1801 to 1825, during the First Party System. It began in 1791 as one faction in Congress, and included many politicians who had opposed to the new constitution. They called themselves Republicans after their ideology Republicanism and they distrusted the Federalist commitment to republicanism. The party splintered in 1824 into the Jacksonian movement and the short-lived National Republican Party, the term Democratic-Republican is used especially by modern political scientists for the first Republican Party. It is also known as the Jeffersonian Republicans, historians typically use the title Republican Party. An Anti-Administration faction met secretly in the capital to oppose Hamiltons financial programs. Jefferson denounced the programs as leading to monarchy and subversive of republicanism, Jefferson needed to have a nationwide party to challenge the Federalists, which Hamilton was building up with allies in major cities. Foreign affairs took a role in 1794–95 as the Republicans vigorously opposed the Jay Treaty with Britain. Republicans saw France as more democratic after its revolution, while Britain represented the hated monarchy, the party denounced many of Hamiltons measures as unconstitutional, especially the national bank. The party was strongest in the South and weakest in the Northeast and it demanded states rights as expressed by the Principles of 1798 articulated in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions that would allow states to nullify a federal law. Above all, the party stood for the primacy of the yeoman farmers, Republicans were deeply committed to the principles of republicanism, which they feared were threatened by the supposed monarchical tendencies of the Hamiltonian Federalists. The party came to power in 1801 with the election of Jefferson in the 1800 presidential election, the Federalists—too elitist to appeal to most people—faded away, and totally collapsed after 1815. The Republicans dominated the First Party System, despite internal divisions, the party selected its presidential candidates in a caucus of members of Congress. They included Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe, by 1824, the caucus system had practically collapsed. After 1800, the party dominated Congress and most state governments outside New England, by 1824, the party was split four ways and lacked a center, as the First Party System collapsed. The emergence of the Second Party System in the 1830s realigned the old factions, one remnant followed Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren into the new Democratic Party by 1828. Another remnant led by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay formed the National Republicans in 1828, the precise date of founding is disputed, but 1791 is a reasonable estimate, some time by 1792 is certain. The elections of 1792 were the first ones to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis, in most states the congressional elections were recognized, as Jefferson strategist John Beckley put it, as a struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest
13.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
14.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
15.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
16.
Thomas Jefferson
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Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21
17.
Presidency of Thomas Jefferson
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The presidency of Thomas Jefferson began on March 4,1801, when he was inaugurated as the 3rd President of the United States, and ended on March 4,1809. Jefferson assumed the office after defeating incumbent President John Adams in the 1800 presidential election and it also exposed a serious flaw in the original procedure established in the Constitution of the United States for electing the president and vice president. Under it, members of the Electoral College were authorized to vote for two names for president, the candidate with the most electoral votes would become president and the candidate with the second most would become vice president. In the 1800 election however, Jefferson and Aaron Burr received the number of votes. The election was then put into the hands of the outgoing House of Representatives, in domestic affairs Jefferson sought to put the principles of republicanism into action. He succeeded in limiting the size of government by reducing taxes, the wars effects reached throughout the Atlantic. He also called for the Lewis and Clark expedition, Jefferson rejected war and instead used economic threats and embargoes that hurt the U. S. more than Britain. With unrest in the Northeast escalating, the embargo was dropped as Jefferson left office, in 1806, he denounced the international slave trade as a violation of human rights and called upon Congress to criminalize it. Congress responded by approving the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves the following year, Jefferson is usually ranked by historians in the top five of all U. S. presidents. Jeffersons agenda was to implement his Democratic–Republican vision for the nation, in what historians later call Jeffersonian democracy, the new president set out an agenda that was marked by his belief in agrarianism and strict limits on the national government. The most powerful appointees were James Madison as Secretary of State, Jefferson worked smoothly at first with John Randolph of Roanoke and other leaders of his party in Congress, as the Federalist Party continued to weaken. Jeffersonian democracy brought about two revolutions in American political life and it increased the turnout percentages of eligible voters, and it increased the numbers enfranchised to vote. Prior to the 1790s, campaigning was considered interference with each citizen’s right to think, without competition for office, voter turnouts were often low, sometimes fewer than 5 percent of eligible men. By the 1790s and the emergence of the First Party System, with two party competition, turnout took on an importance it had never quite had before”, with turnout up to 80 percent of the enlarged white male electorate. Under pressure from Jeffersonian Republicans, states achieved universal white manhood suffrage by eliminating property requirements, by 1825 only three had not, Rhode Island, Virginia and Louisiana. Expanding suffrage and appeals to ordinary people meant that ordinary people became government officials. Wood says, by the standards of the nineteenth century America possessed the most popular electoral politics in the world. In reaction, even Federalists began to adopt partisan techniques such as party organization, newspapers and they created networks of caucuses and committees state by state reaching to county level, determined to mobilize public opinion to court popular favor
18.
1807 in the United States
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Events from the year 1807 in the United States. February 19 – Burr conspiracy, Former Vice President of the United States Aaron Burr is arrested on charges of treason and he is accused of plotting to annex parts of Louisiana and Mexico to become part of an independent republic. March 2 – The U. S. Congress passes an act to prohibit the importation of slaves into any port or place within the jurisdiction of the United States. from any foreign kingdom, place, may 22 – A grand jury indicts Aaron Burr for treason. June 22 – The Chesapeake–Leopard Affair, The British warship HMS Leopard captures, july 1 – Pike Expedition ends. August 17 – The Clermont, Robert Fultons first American steamboat, leaves New York City for Albany, New York, on the Hudson River, september 1 – Aaron Burr is acquitted of treason. December 22 – The U. S. Congress passes the Embargo Act, mineralogical Observations, Made in the Environs of Boston, in the Years 1807 and 1808. Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol.3,1, pp. 127–154 Benjamin Silliman, James L. Kingsley. James L. Kingsley, to Mr John Vaughan, Librarian of the American Philosophical Society, transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol.6, pp. 323–345 Herbert E. Bolton. Papers of Zebulon M. Pike, 1806-1807, the American Historical Review, Vol.13, No. 4, pp. 798–827 Thorp Lanier Wolford, democratic-Republican Reaction in Massachusetts to the Embargo of 1807. The New England Quarterly, Vol.15, No, impressment in the Monroe-Pinkney Negotiation, 1806-1807. The American Historical Review, Vol.57, No, proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol.110, No. 4, pp. 235–255 Henry A. Boorse, barralets The Dunlap House,1807, and Its Associations. Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol.99, No,2, pp. 131–155 William G. McLoughlin. Thomas Jefferson and the Beginning of Cherokee Nationalism,1806 to 1809, the William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, Vol.32, No. 4, pp. 548–580 Richard R. Beeman, Trade and Travel in Post-Revolutionary Virginia, A Diary of an Itinerant Peddler, 1807-1808. The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol.84,2, pp. 174–188 Jeffrey A. Frankel. The 1807-1809 Embargo Against Great Britain, the Journal of Economic History, Vol.42, No
19.
1808 in the United States
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Events from the year 1808 in the United States. February 6 – The ship Topaz rediscovers the Pitcairn Islands, only one HMS Bounty mutineer is still alive, Alexander Smith. February 11 – Anthracite coal is first burned as fuel by Jesse Fell in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, april 6 – John Jacob Astor founds the American Fur Company. November – James Madison defeats Charles C, pinckney in the U. S. presidential election. March 14 – Narcissa Whitman, pioneer missionary May 20 – Thomas D. Bingham, mineralogical Observations, Made in the Environs of Boston, in the Years 1807 and 1808. Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol.3,1, pp. 127–154 Recall of J. Q. Adams,1808, Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 3rd series,45, the American Historical Review, Vol.17, No. 2, pp. 332–354 Samuel E. Morison, the First National Nominating Convention,1808. The American Historical Review, Vol.17, No, concanens Election to the See of New York. The Catholic Historical Review, Vol.2, No,1, pp. 19–46 Amherst Petition on the Embargo,1808, David Robinson to William Preston, Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 3rd series,52, October 1918 – June 1919 Louis Martin Sears. Philadelphia and the Embargo of 1808, the Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol.35, No. 2, pp. 354–359 William D. Hoyt Jr. Self-Portrait, the Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol.53, No. 2, pp. 89–100 Richard R. Borneman, franzoni and Andrei, Italian Sculptors in Baltimore,1808. The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, Vol.10, the Diary of Frances Few, 1808-1809. The Journal of Southern History, Vol.29, No, James Monroe and the Election of 1808 in Virginia. The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, Vol.20,1, pp. 33–56 George L. Bilbe. A Digest of the Civil Laws Now in Force in the Territory of Orleans, Louisiana History, The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association, Vol.14, No. 1, pp. 104–108 William G. McLoughlin, Thomas Jefferson and the Beginning of Cherokee Nationalism,1806 to 1809
20.
1809 in the United States
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Events from the year 1809 in the United States. February 11 – Robert Fulton patents the steamboat, february 17 – Miami University is established on the township of land required to be set aside for it under the conditions of the Miami Purchase in 1794. February 20 – A decision by the Supreme Court of the United States states that the power of the government is greater than any individual state. March 1 – Illinois Territory is effective, march 4 – James Madison succeeds Thomas Jefferson as the President of the United States. May 5 – Mary Dixon Kies becomes the first recipient of a patent granted to a woman by the United States Patent and she invented a technique of weaving straw with silk and thread. October 11 – Along the Natchez Trace in Tennessee, explorer Meriwether Lewis dies under mysterious circumstances at an inn called Grinders Stand and it is considered an alleged suicide though some evidence suggests murder. December 30 – Wearing masks at balls is forbidden in Boston, following refitting, the USS Constitution is recommissioned as the flagship of the North Atlantic Squadron. T. Hunter, Virginian lawyer, politician, 14th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, 2nd Confederate States Secretary of State July 24 – Charles W. Appleton, proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Vol.11, Thomas H. Shoemaker. A List of the Inhabitants of Germantown and Chestnut Hill in 1809, the Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol.16, No. 1, pp. 42–63 An Itinerary to Niagara Falls in 1809, the Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol.24, No. Governor Harrison and the Treaty of Fort Wayne,1809, indiana Magazine of History, Vol.11, No. 4, pp. 352–367 Charles Lyon Chandler, United States Shipping in the La Plata Region, 1809-1810. The Hispanic American Historical Review, Vol.3, No, Journal of a Tour from Philadelphia Thro the Western Counties of Pennsylvania in the Months of September and October,1809. The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol.50,1, pp. 64–78 A trip from Fort Wayne to Fort Dearborn in 1809. Indiana Magazine of History, Vol.36, No,1, pp. 45–51 Edwin J. Hipkiss. Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts, Vol.45,259, pp. 12–14 Noble E. Cunningham Jr. The Diary of Frances Few, 1808-1809, the Journal of Southern History, Vol.29, No. 3, pp. 345–361 William G. McLoughlin, Thomas Jefferson and the Beginning of Cherokee Nationalism,1806 to 1809
21.
Aaron Burr
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Aaron Burr Jr. was an American politician. He was the vice president of the United States, serving during President Thomas Jeffersons first term. Burr served as a Continental Army officer in the Revolutionary War, after which he became a successful lawyer, the highlight of Burrs tenure as president of the senate was the Senates first impeachment trial, that of Supreme Court justice Samuel Chase. In 1804, the last full year of his term as vice president. Burr was never tried for the duel, and all charges against him were eventually dropped. After leaving Washington, Burr traveled west seeking new opportunities, both economic and political and his activities eventually led to his arrest on charges of treason in 1807. The subsequent trial resulted in acquittal, but Burrs western schemes left him with large debts, in a final quest for grand opportunities, he left the United States for Europe. He remained overseas until 1812, when he returned to the United States to practice law in New York City, there he spent the rest of his life in relative obscurity. Aaron Burr Jr. was born in Newark, New Jersey, in 1756 as the child of the Reverend Aaron Burr Sr. a Presbyterian minister. His mother Esther Burr was the daughter of Jonathan Edwards, the noted Calvinist theologian, Burr had an older sister Sarah, named for her maternal grandmother. She later married Tapping Reeve, founder of the Litchfield Law School in Litchfield, Burrs father died in 1757, and his mother the following year, leaving him and his sister orphans when he was two years old. He and his sister first lived with their grandparents, but Sarah Edwards also died in 1757. Young Aaron and Sally were placed with the William Shippen family in Philadelphia, in 1759, the childrens guardianship was assumed by their 21-year-old maternal uncle Timothy Edwards. The next year, Edwards married Rhoda Ogden and moved with the children to Elizabeth, New Jersey, rhodas younger brothers Aaron Ogden and Matthias Ogden became the boys playmates. The three boys, along with their neighbor Jonathan Dayton, formed a group of friends that lasted their lifetimes, Aaron Burr was admitted to the sophomore class of the College of New Jersey at the age of 13, after being rejected once at age 11. Aside from being occupied with studies, he was a part of the American Whig Society and Cliosophic Society. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1772 at age 16 and he studied theology for an additional year, before rigorous theological training with Joseph Bellamy, a Presbyterian. He changed his career two years later, at age 19, when he moved to Connecticut to study law with his brother-in-law Tapping Reeve
22.
Treason
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In law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more extreme acts against ones nation or sovereign. Historically, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, Treason against the king was known as high treason and treason against a lesser superior was petty treason. A person who commits treason is known in law as a traitor, orans Dictionary of the Law defines treason as a citizens actions to help a foreign government overthrow, make war against, or seriously injure the. In many nations, it is often considered treason to attempt or conspire to overthrow the government. At times, the term traitor has been used as a political epithet, in a civil war or insurrection, the winners may deem the losers to be traitors. In certain cases, as with the Dolchstoßlegende, the accusation of treason towards a group of people can be a unifying political message. Treason is considered to be different and on occasions a separate charge from treasonable felony in many parts of the world. In English law, high treason was punishable by being hanged, drawn and quartered or burnt at the stake and those penalties were abolished in 1814,1790 and 1973 respectively. The penalty was used by later monarchs against people who could reasonably be called traitors, many of them would now just be considered dissidents. His treachery is considered so notorious that his name has long been synonymous with traitor, christian theology and political thinking until after the Enlightenment considered treason and blasphemy as synonymous, as it challenged both the state and the will of God. Kings were considered chosen by God, and to ones country was to do the work of Satan. Many nations laws mention various types of treason, Crimes Related to Insurrection is the internal treason, and may include a coup detat. Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression is the treason of cooperating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside, Crimes Related to inducement of Foreign Aggression is the crime of communicating with aliens secretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. Depending on a country, conspiracy is added to these, in Japan, the application of Crimes Related to Insurrection was considered about Aum Shinrikyo cult which caused religious terrorism. A person is not guilty of treason under paragraphs, or if their assistance or intended assistance is purely humanitarian in nature, the only permissible penalty for treason is life imprisonment. Section 24AA of the Crimes Act 1914 creates the offence of treachery. The Treason Act 1351, the Treason Act 1795 and the Treason Act 1817 form part of the law of New South Wales, Section 16 provides that nothing in Part 2 repeals or affects anything enacted by the Treason Act 1351. This section reproduces section 6 of the Treason Felony Act 1848, the offence of treason was created by section 9A of the Crimes Act 1958
23.
HMS Leopard (1790)
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HMS Leopard was a 50-gun Portland-class fourth rate of the Royal Navy. She was first ordered on 16 October 1775, named on 13 November 1775 and she was reordered in May 1785, ten years after having first been laid down, and construction began at Sheerness Dockyard on 7 May 1785. Work was at first overseen by Master Shipwright Martin Ware until December 1785, and after that, by John Nelson until March 1786 and she was launched from Sheerness on 24 April 1790, and was completed by 26 May 1790. She was commissioned for service in June that year under her first commander, on 24 October 1798, Leopard captured the French privateer vessel Apollon, which was under the command of captain La Vaillant. On 22 August 1800 Leopard captured Clarice, in early 1807, a handful of British sailors—some of American birth—deserted their ships, which were then blockading French ships in Chesapeake Bay, and joined the crew of the USS Chesapeake. In an attempt to recover the British deserters, Captain Salusbury Pryce Humphreys, commanding Leopard, hailed Chesapeake, commodore James Barron of Chesapeake refused and Leopard opened fire. Caught unprepared, Barron surrendered and Humphreys sent boarders to search for the deserters, the boarding party seized four deserters from the Royal Navy–three Americans and one British-born sailor–and took them to Halifax, where the British sailor, Jenkin Ratford, was hanged for desertion. The Americans were initially sentenced to 500 lashes, but had their sentence commuted, the incident caused severe political repercussions in the United States, and nearly led to the two nations going to war. Leopard was part of the assigned to Josias Rowley in the Mauritius campaign of 1809–11 in the Indian Ocean. In 1812, Leopard had her guns removed and was converted to a troopship, on 28 June 1814 she was en route from Britain to Quebec, carrying a contingent of 475 Royal Scots Guardsmen, when she grounded on Anticosti Island in heavy fog. The ship was destroyed, but all hands on board survived, in the sixth book, The Fortune of War, the ship is left at a British station in the Dutch East Indies, unable to support her complement of guns
24.
USS Chesapeake (1799)
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Chesapeake was a 38-gun wooden-hulled, three-masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy. She was one of the six frigates whose construction was authorized by the Naval Act of 1794. Joshua Humphreys designed these frigates to be the young navys capital ships, Chesapeake was originally designed as a 44-gun frigate but construction delays, material shortages, and budget problems caused builder Josiah Fox to alter her design to 38 guns. Launched at the Gosport Navy Yard on 2 December 1799, Chesapeake began her career during the Quasi-War with France, on 22 June 1807 she was fired upon by HMS Leopard of the Royal Navy for refusing to comply with a search for deserters. The event, now known as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair, angered the American populace, as a result of the affair, Chesapeakes commanding officer, James Barron, was court-martialed and the United States instituted the Embargo Act of 1807 against Great Britain. Early in the War of 1812 she made one patrol and captured five British merchant ships before returning and she was captured by HMS Shannon shortly after sailing from Boston, Massachusetts, on 1 June 1813. The Royal Navy took her into their service as HMS Chesapeake, American merchant vessels began to fall prey to Barbary Pirates, most notably from Algiers, in the Mediterranean during the 1790s. Congress responded with the Naval Act of 1794, the Act provided funds for the construction of six frigates, and directed that the construction would continue unless and until the United States agreed to peace terms with Algiers. Joshua Humphreys design was long on keel and narrow of beam to allow for the mounting of heavy guns. The design incorporated a diagonal scantling scheme to limit hogging and included extremely heavy planking and this gave the hull greater strength than those of more lightly built frigates. Originally designated as Frigate D, the ship remained unnamed for several years and her keel was laid down in December 1795 at the Gosport Navy Yard in Norfolk, Virginia, where Josiah Fox had been appointed her naval constructor and Richard Dale as superintendent of construction. In March 1796 a peace accord was announced between the United States and Algiers and construction was suspended in accordance with the Naval Act of 1794, the keel remained on blocks in the navy yard for two years. The onset of the Quasi-War with France in 1798 prompted Congress to authorize completion of Frigate D, when Fox returned to Norfolk he discovered a shortage of timber caused by its diversion from Norfolk to Baltimore in order to finish Constellation. He corresponded with Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert, who indicated a desire to expedite construction of the ship, Foxs plans essentially proposed an entirely different design than originally planned by Humphreys. Secretary Stoddert approved the new design plans, when construction finished, she had the smallest dimensions of the six frigates. A length of 152.8 ft between perpendiculars and 41.3 ft of beam contrasted with her closest sisters, Congress and Constellation, the final cost of her construction was $220, 677—the second-least expensive frigate of the six. The least expensive was Congress at $197,246, during construction, a sloop named Chesapeake was launched on 20 June 1799 but was renamed Patapsco between 10 October and 14 November, apparently to free up the name Chesapeake for Frigate D. She was the one of the six frigates not named by President George Washington
25.
North River Steamboat
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The North River Steamboat or North River is widely regarded as the worlds first vessel to demonstrate the viability of using steam propulsion for commercial water transportation. Built in 1807, the North River Steamboat operated on the Hudson River between New York and Albany and she was built by the wealthy investor and politician Robert Livingston and inventor and entrepreneur Robert Fulton. Livingston had obtained from the New York legislature the right to steam navigation on the Hudson River. In 1803, while Livingston was Minister to France, Fulton built a small steamboat, with this success, Livingston then contracted with Fulton to take advantage of his Hudson River monopoly and build a larger version for commercial service. Before she was later widened, the original dimensions were 150 feet long ×12 feet wide ×7 feet deep. The steamer was equipped with two wheels, one each to a side, each paddle wheel assembly was equipped with two sets of eight spokes. In the Nautical Gazette the editor, Mr. Samuel Ward Stanton, gives the additional details. Thick, tongued and grooved, and set together with white lead and this bottom or platform was laid in a transverse platform and molded out with batten and nails. The shape of the bottom being thus formed, the floors of oak and spruce were placed across the bottom, the oak floors were reserved for the ends, and were both sided and molded 8 inches. Her top timbers were sided 6 inches and molded at heel and she had no guards when first built and was steered by a tiller. Her draft of water was 28 inches, the boat had three cabins with 54 berths, kitchen, larder, pantry, bar, and stewards room. The steamers inaugural run was helmed by Captain Andrew Brink, and left New York on August 17,1807 and they arrived in Albany two days later, after 32 hours of travel time and a 20-hour stop at Livingstons estate, Clermont Manor. The return trip was completed in 30 hours with only a stop at Clermont. Fulton wrote to a friend, Joel Barlow, I had a light breeze against me the whole way, I overtook many sloops and schooners, beating to the windward, and parted with them as if they had been at anchor. The power of propelling boats by steam is now fully proved and this is the way in which ignorant men compliment what they call philosophers and projectors. Having employed much time, money and zeal in accomplishing this work, it gives me, as it will you, some imagined it to be a sea-monster, while others did not hesitate to express their belief that it was a sign of the approaching judgment. The dense clouds of smoke, as they rose wave upon wave, scheduled passenger service began on September 4,1807. Steamboat left New York on Saturdays at 6,00 pm, stops were made at West Point, Newburgh, Poughkeepsie, Esopus, and Hudson, other stops were sometimes made, such as Red Hook and Catskill
26.
Robert Fulton
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Robert Fulton was an American engineer and inventor who is widely credited with developing a commercially successful steamboat called The North River Steamboat of Claremont. That steamboat went with passengers from New York City to Albany and back again, in 1800, he was commissioned by Napoleon Bonaparte to design the Nautilus, which was the first practical submarine in history. He is also credited with inventing some of the worlds earliest naval torpedoes for use by the British Royal Navy, Robert Fulton was born on a farm in Little Britain, Pennsylvania, on November 14,1765. He had three sisters – Isabella, Elizabeth, and Mary, and a brother, Abraham. He then married Harriet Livingston and had four children, Julia, Mary, Cornelia and his father, Robert, had been a close friend to the father of painter Benjamin West. Fulton later met West in England and they became friends, Fulton stayed in Philadelphia for six years, where he painted portraits and landscapes, drew houses and machinery, and was able to send money home to help support his mother. In 1785 he bought a farm at Hopewell Township in Washington County for £80 Sterling and moved his mother, while in Philadelphia, he met Benjamin Franklin, then known not only for his political and writing abilities but his scientific and inventing knowledge, and other prominent figures. At age 23 he decided to visit Europe, Fulton came to England in 1786, carrying several letters of introduction to Americans abroad from the individuals he had met in Philadelphia. He had already corresponded with Benjamin West, and West took Fulton into his home, Fulton gained many commissions painting portraits and landscapes, which allowed him to support himself, but he continually experimented with mechanical inventions. He became caught up in the enthusiasm of the Canal Mania and he obtained a patent for this idea in 1794 and also began working on ideas for the steam power of boats. He published a pamphlet about canals and patented a dredging machine, in 1794 he moved to Manchester to gain practical knowledge of English canal engineering. Whilst there he became friendly with Robert Owen, the cotton manufacturer, however, this practical experience was not a success and he gave up the contract after a short time. In 1797 he went to Paris where his fame as an inventor was well known, in Paris, then along with London, the scientific centers of the 18th Century world, Fulton studied languages French, and German, along with mathematics and chemistry. He began to design torpedoes and submarines, in Paris, Fulton met James Rumsey, who sat for a portrait in Wests studio, where Fulton was an apprentice. Rumsey was an inventor from Virginia who ran his own first steamboat up the Potomac River near Shepherdstown, Fulton became very enthusiastic about the canals and in 1796 wrote a treatise on canal construction, suggesting improvements to locks and other features. Working for the Duke of Bridgewater between 1796 and 1799, he had a constructed in the Dukes timber yard, under the supervision of Benjamin Powell. After installation of the machinery supplied by the engineers Bateman and Sherratt of Salford, after expensive trials, because of the configuration of the design, it was feared the paddles may damage the clay lining of the canal and the experiment was eventually abandoned. In 1801 the Duke, impressed by the Charlotte Dundas constructed by William Symington, decided to order eight of such vessels for his canal, but when he died in 1803, the order was cancelled
27.
Steamboat
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A steamboat is a boat that is propelled primarily by steam power, typically driving propellers or paddlewheels. Steamboats sometimes use the prefix designation SS, S. S. or S/S or PS, the term steamboat is used to refer to smaller, insular, steam-powered boats working on lakes and rivers, particularly riverboats. As using steam became more reliable, steam power became applied to larger, Early attempts at powering a boat by steam were made by the French inventor Denis Papin and the English inventor Thomas Newcomen. Papin invented the steam digester and experimented with closed cylinders and pistons pushed in by atmospheric pressure, Papin proposed applying this steam pump to the operation of a paddlewheel boat and tried to market his idea in Britain. He was unable to convert the piston motion into rotary motion. Newcomens design did solve the first problem, but remained shackled to the inherent limitations of the engines of the time, a steamboat was described and patented by English physician John Allen in 1729. In 1736, Jonathan Hulls was granted a patent in England for a Newcomen engine-powered steamboat, William Henry of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, having learned of Watts engine on a visit to England, made his own engine. In 1763 he put it in a boat, the boat sank, and while Henry made an improved model, he did not appear to have much success, though he may have inspired others. At its first demonstration on 15 July 1783, Pyroscaphe travelled upstream on the river Saône for some fifteen minutes before the engine failed, presumably this was easily repaired as the boat is said to have made several such journeys. Following this, De Jouffroy attempted to get the government interested in his work, De Jouffroy did not have the funds for this, and, following the events of the French revolution, work on the project was discontinued after he left the country. Similar boats were made in 1785 by John Fitch in Philadelphia and William Symington in Dumfries and this boat could typically make 7 to 8 miles per hour and traveled more than 2,000 miles during its short length of service. The Fitch steamboat was not a success, as this travel route was adequately covered by relatively good wagon roads. The following year, a boat made 30-mile excursions, and in 1790. Miller sent King Gustav III of Sweden an actual version,100 feet long. Miller then engaged engineer William Symington to build his patent steam engine drove a stern-mounted paddle wheel in a boat in 1785. The boat was successfully tried out on Dalswinton Loch in 1788 and was followed by a steamboat the next year. The boat was built by Alexander Hart at Grangemouth to Symingtons design with a cylinder engine. Trials on the River Carron in June 1801 were successful and included towing sloops from the river Forth up the Carron and thence along the Forth, in 1801, Symington patented a horizontal steam engine directly linked to a crank
28.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
29.
Albany, New York
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Albany is the capital of the U. S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County. Roughly 150 miles north of New York City, Albany developed on the west bank of the Hudson River, the population of the City of Albany was 97,856 according to the 2010 census. With a Census-estimated population of 98,4242013, the Capital District is the third-most populous metropolitan region in the state and 38th in the United States. Fortune 500 companies that have offices in Albany include American Express, J. P. Morgan and Chase, Merrill Lynch, General Electric, Verizon, Goldman Sachs, International Paper, and Key Bank. In the 21st century, the Capital District has emerged as an anchor of Tech Valley. This was the first European settlement in the state, settled by Dutch colonists who built Fort Nassau for fur trading in 1614 and they formed successful relations with both the Mahican and the Mohawk peoples, two major Native American nations in the region. The fur trade attracted settlers who founded a village called Beverwijck near Fort Orange, in 1664 the English took over the Dutch settlements, renaming the city as Albany, in honor of the then Duke of Albany, the future James II of England and James VII of Scotland. The city was chartered in 1686 under English rule. It became the capital of New York State in 1797, following the United States gaining independence in the American Revolutionary War, Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies, and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. Its charter is possibly the longest-running instrument of government in the Western Hemisphere. During the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th, Albany was a center of trade, Albanys main exports at the time were beer, lumber, published works, and ironworks. Beginning in 1810, Albany was one of the ten most populous cities in the United States, in the 20th century, the city opened one of the first commercial airports in the world, the precursor of todays Albany International Airport. During the 1920s a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in the state capital and it marshalled the power of immigrants and their descendants in both cities. In the early 21st century, Albany has experienced growth in the high-technology industry, Albany has been a center of higher education for over a century, with much of the remainder of its economy dependent on state government and health care services. The city has rebounded from the decline of the 1970s and 1980s. Albany is known for its history, commerce, culture, architecture. Albany won the All-America City Award in both 1991 and 2009, Albany is one of the oldest surviving European settlements from the original thirteen colonies and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. The Hudson River area was inhabited by Algonquian-speaking Mohican, who called it Pempotowwuthut-Muhhcanneuw
30.
Hudson River
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The Hudson River is a 315-mile river that flows from north to south primarily through eastern New York in the United States. The river originates in the Adirondack Mountains of Upstate New York, flows through the Hudson Valley, the river serves as a political boundary between the states of New Jersey and New York, and further north between New York counties. The lower half of the river is a tidal estuary occupying the Hudson Fjord, tidal waters influence the Hudsons flow from as far north as Troy. The river is named after Henry Hudson, an Englishman sailing for the Dutch East India Company, who explored it in 1609, and after whom Canadas Hudson Bay is also named. The Dutch called the river the North River – with the Delaware River called the South River –, during the eighteenth century, the river valley and its inhabitants were the subject and inspiration of Washington Irving, the first internationally acclaimed American author. In the nineteenth century, the area inspired the Hudson River School of landscape painting, the Hudson was also the eastern outlet for the Erie Canal, which, when completed in 1825, became an important transportation artery for the early-19th-century United States. The source of the Hudson River is Lake Tear of the Clouds in the Adirondack Park at an altitude of 4,322 feet, the river is not cartographically called the Hudson River until miles downstream. From that point on, the stream is known as the Hudson River. Popular culture and convention, however, more often cite the photogenic Lake Tear of the Clouds as the source, South of the confluence of Indian Pass Brook and Calamity Brook, the Hudson River flows south into Sanford Lake. South of the outlet of the lake, the Opalescent River flows into the Hudson, the Hudson then flows south, taking in Beaver Brook and the outlet of Lake Harris. After its confluence with the Indian River, the Hudson forms the boundary between Essex and Hamilton counties, in the hamlet of North River, the Hudson flows entirely in Warren County and takes in the Schroon River. Further south, the forms the boundary between Warren and Saratoga Counties. The river then takes in the Sacandaga River from the Great Sacandaga Lake, shortly thereafter, the river leaves the Adirondack Park, flows under Interstate 87, and through Glens Falls, just south of Lake George although receiving no streamflow from the lake. It next goes through Hudson Falls, at this point the river forms the boundary between Washington and Saratoga Counties. At this point the river has an altitude of 200 feet, further south the Hudson takes in water from the Batten Kill River and Fish Creek near Schuylerville. The river then forms the boundary between Saratoga and Rensselaer counties, the river then enters the heart of the Capital District. It takes in water from the Hoosic River, which extends into Massachusetts, shortly thereafter the river has its confluence with the Mohawk River, the largest tributary of the Hudson River, in Waterford. Shortly thereafter, the river reaches the Federal Dam in Troy, at an elevation of 2 feet, the bottom of the dam marks the beginning of the tidal influence in the Hudson as well as the beginning of the lower Hudson River
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Slavery
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A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced by the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
32.
Embargo Act of 1807
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The Embargo Act of 1807 was a general embargo enacted by the United States Congress against Great Britain and France during the Napoleonic Wars. The embargo was imposed in response to violations of the United States neutrality, in which American merchantmen, the British Royal Navy, in particular, resorted to impressment, forcing thousands of American seamen into service on their warships. Britain and France, engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, rationalized the plunder of U. S. shipping as incidental to war, Americans saw the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair as a particularly egregious example of a British violation of American neutrality. Perceived diplomatic insults and unwarranted official orders issued in support of actions by European powers were widely recognized as grounds for a U. S. declaration of war. President Thomas Jefferson acted with restraint as these antagonisms mounted, weighing public support for retaliation and he recommended that Congress respond with commercial warfare, rather than with military mobilization. The Embargo Act was signed into law on December 22,1807. S, neutrality, and cease the policy of impressment. British merchant marine appropriated the lucrative trade routes relinquished by U. S. shippers due to the embargo, demand for English goods rose in South America, offsetting losses suffered as a result of Non-Importation Acts. The embargo undermined national unity in the U. S. provoking bitter protests, the issue vastly increased support for the Federalist Party and led to huge gains in their representation in Congress and in the electoral college in 1808. Thomas Jeffersons doctrinaire approach to enforcing the embargo violated a key Democratic-Republican precept, at the end of 15 months, the embargo was revoked on March 1,1809, in the last days of Jeffersons presidency. After the short truce in 1802–1803 the European wars resumed and continued until the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, the war caused American relations with both Britain and France to deteriorate rapidly. There was grave risk of war with one or the other, with Britain supreme on the sea, and France on the land, the war developed into a struggle of blockade and counterblockade. This commercial war peaked in 1806 and 1807, britains Royal Navy shut down most European harbors to American ships unless they first traded through British ports. France declared a blockade of Britain and seized American ships that obeyed British regulations. The Royal Navy needed large numbers of sailors, and saw the U. S. merchant fleet as a haven for British sailors, the British system of impressment humiliated and dishonored the U. S. because it was unable to protect its ships and their sailors. On June 21,1807 the American warship USS Chesapeake was attacked and boarded on the seas off the coast of Norfolk. Three Americans were dead and 18 wounded, the British impressed four seamen with American papers as alleged deserters, the outraged nation demanded action, President Jefferson ordered all British ships out of American waters. Passed on December 22,1807, the Act, laid an embargo on all ships, Ports, and exempted warships from the embargo provisions. The Embargo Act of 1807 is codified at 2 Stat.451 and formally titled An Embargo laid on Ships and Vessels in the Ports and Harbours of the United States
33.
United States Statutes at Large
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Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law or private law, and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws are compiled into Statutes at Large and they are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws, and codification. Today, large portions of slip laws denominated as public laws are now drafted as amendments to the United States Code. Once enacted into law, an Act will be published in the Statutes at Large and will add to, modify, provisions of a public law that contains only enacting clauses, effective dates, and similar matters are not generally codified. Private laws also are not generally codified, some portions of the United States Code have been enacted as positive law and other portions have not been so enacted. Publication of the United States Statutes at Large began in 1845 by the firm of Little, Brown. During Little, Brown and Companys time as publisher, Richard Peters, George Minot, in 1874, Congress transferred the authority to publish the Statutes at Large to the Government Printing Office under the direction of the Secretary of State. 633, was enacted July 30,1947 and directed the Secretary of State to compile, edit, index,980, was enacted September 23,1950 and directed the Administrator of General Services to compile, edit, index, and publish the Statutes at Large. Since 1985 the Statutes at Large have been prepared and published by the Office of the Federal Register of the National Archives, sometimes very large or long Acts of Congress are published as their own volume of the Statutes at Large. For example, the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was published as volume 68A of the Statutes at Large. Volumes 1 to 18 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Library of Congress Volumes 1 to 64 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Congressional Data Coalition via LEGISWORKS
34.
Nonintercourse Act
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The Nonintercourse Act is the collective name given to six statutes passed by the Congress in 1790,1793,1796,1799,1802, and 1834 to set Amerindian boundaries of reservations. The various Acts also regulate commerce between Americans and Native Americans, the most notable provisions of the Act regulate the inalienability of aboriginal title in the United States, a continuing source of litigation for almost 200 years. The prohibition on purchases of Indian lands without the approval of the government has its origins in the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The first four Acts expired after 4 years, the 1802 and 1834 Acts had no expiration, the version of the Act in force at the time of the illicit conveyance determines the law that applies. The courts have found few differences between the five versions of the Act. But the case is now entirely altered, the general Government only has the power, to treat with the Indian Nations, and any treaty formed and held without its authority will not be binding. Here then is the security for the remainder of your lands, no State nor person can purchase your lands, unless at some public treaty held under the authority of the United States. The general government will never consent to your being defrauded, but it will protect you in all your just rights. A similar argument was made in the Bill filed by Wirt in the Supreme Court, after Cherokee Nation, the next such case to reach the Court was Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy. The court held the Act inapplicable, but noted, It is certain that if is applicable … the mere expressed consent of Congress would be vain, for §177 at the very least contemplates the assent of the Indian nation or tribe. … t follows that the consent of Congress, however express and specific. Therefore, if §177 is applicable … the result would be that the Tuscarora lands, however imperative for the project and this dicta inspired Oneida Indian Nation of N. Y. State v. Oneida Cnty. where the Supreme Court held that there was federal jurisdiction for Indian land claims based upon aboriginal title. In Oneida Cnty. v. Oneida Indian Nation of N. Y, while Oneida II remains the only final judgement entered by a court in favor of a tribe bringing a Nonintercourse Act land claim, Oneida I inspired dozens of other land claims. After tribes won initial judgements in some of these claims, Congress reacted by extinguishing the aboriginal title. These Indian Land Claims Settlements are collected in 25 U. S. C. tit, similarly, in Mohegan Tribe v. Connecticut, Congress approved the creation of the Mohegan Sun after the court struck the defendants affirmative defenses. With the Mashantucket Pequot Tribe and Wampanoag, Congress enacted a settlement before the courts had a chance to enter any rulings, as stated in Narragansett, there are four elements to a Nonintercourse Act claim. Tribal status The Passamaquoddy and Narragansett cases, supra, are examples where the plaintiff has prevailed despite not being federally recognized tribes, although federal tribal status is prima facie evidence of the first element, the Act also applies to unrecognized tribes
35.
Illinois Territory
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Its capital was the former French village of Kaskakia. The area was known as Illinois Country while under French control, first as part of French Canada. The British gained authority over the region east of the Mississippi River with the 1763 Treaty of Paris, marking the end of the French and Indian War. During the American Revolutionary War, Colonel George Rogers Clark took possession of the region for Virginia, Virginia later ceded nearly all of its land claims north of the Ohio River to the Federal government of the United States, in order to satisfy objections of land-locked states. The area became part of the United States Northwest Territory, the Illinois Territory originally included lands that became the states of Illinois, Wisconsin, the eastern portion of Minnesota, and the western portion of the upper peninsula of Michigan. As Illinois was preparing to become a state, the area of the territory was attached to the Michigan Territory. The original boundaries of the Territory were defined as follows, “. ”The 1810 census showed a population of 12,282, ninian Edwards served as governor of the territory during its entire existence. Its secretaries were, Nathaniel Pope Joseph Phillips In 1818, the half of the territory was admitted to the United States as the State of Illinois. The northern half, modern Wisconsin and parts of modern Minnesota, buck, Illinois in 1818 Animated Map, Boundaries of the United States and the Several States
36.
Indiana Territory
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The Indiana Territory was created by an Act of Congress and signed into law by President John Adams on May 7,1800, effective on July 4. It was the first new territory created from lands of the Northwest Territory, the territory originally contained approximately 259,824 square miles of land, but twice decreased in size as it was further subdivided into new territories. The territory was first governed by William Henry Harrison who oversaw the negotiation with the inhabitants to open large parts of the territory to settlement. In 1810 a popularly elected government was established as the continued to grow in population and develop a very basic road network, government. In June 1816, a convention was held and a state government was formed. The territory was dissolved on December 11,1816, by an act of Congress granting statehood to Indiana and this latter parcel became part of the state of Ohio when it was admitted to the Union in 1803. At the same time in 1803, the southeast boundary shifted to the mouth of the Great Miami River from its location at the point opposite the mouth of the Kentucky River. The eastern part of Michigan was added to the Indiana Territory at that time, the area of the Indiana Territory was reduced in 1805 by the creation of the Michigan Territory, and in 1809 by the creation of the Illinois Territory. When the Indiana Territory was first created, no provision was allowed for the creation of elected government. Congress granted the President power to appoint a General Court to serve as a legislative, the court consisted of five members, and the President delegated the task of choosing the members to the Governor of the territory. This remained the form of government until 1805 when Congress granted the territory the right to slavery if they so choose. In doing so, they removed the legislative powers, leaving it with only judicial authority. The formation of a new council was approved and each county in the territory was granted the right to elect one representative to it. The council had the authority to pass laws, but they all had to be approved by the Governor before they could be enacted, in 1809, the makeup of the legislature was altered again by Congress to a bicameral body. A House of Representatives was created and the representation was apportioned by population, the House was then to choose ten candidates from whom the President, through the governor, would choose five to form a council which served as the upper house of the legislature. Thereafter, the structure of the legislature remained unchanged for the remainder of the territorys existence, the delegate from the Indiana Territory was elected at large in a territory-wide election. The delegate attended Congress with the right to debate, submit legislation, and serve on committees, the federal government paid the salaries of the governor, legislature, and judicial council, but did not provide funds for any additional governmental offices. At first, the territory had very limited revenue and could not afford to fund a large government, as the population increased, and revenues grew, so did the size and scope of the government with new offices being created at different times
37.
Federalist Party
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The Federalist Party was the first American political party. It existed from the early 1790s to 1816, its remnants lasted into the 1820s, the Federalists called for a strong national government that promoted economic growth and fostered friendly relationships with Great Britain, as well as opposition to revolutionary France. The party controlled the government until 1801, when it was overwhelmed by the Democratic-Republican opposition led by Thomas Jefferson. The Federalist Party came into being between 1792 and 1794 as a coalition of bankers and businessmen in support of Alexander Hamiltons fiscal policies. These supporters developed into the organized Federalist Party, which was committed to a fiscally sound, the only Federalist president was John Adams, although George Washington was broadly sympathetic to the Federalist program, he remained officially non-partisan during his entire presidency. Federalist policies called for a bank, tariffs, and good relations with Great Britain as expressed in the Jay Treaty negotiated in 1794. Hamilton developed the concept of implied powers and successfully argued the adoption of that interpretation of the United States Constitution, the Jay Treaty passed, and the Federalists won most of the major legislative battles in the 1790s. They held a strong base in the cities and in New England. After the Democratic-Republicans, whose base was in the rural South, won the election of 1800. They recovered some strength by their opposition to the War of 1812. On taking office in 1789, President Washington nominated New York lawyer Alexander Hamilton to the office of Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton wanted a strong national government with financial credibility. James Madison was Hamiltons ally in the fight to ratify the new Constitution, Political parties had not been anticipated when the Constitution was drafted in 1787 and ratified in 1788, even though both Hamilton and Madison played major roles. Parties were considered to be divisive and harmful to republicanism, No similar parties existed anywhere in the world. By 1790 Hamilton started building a nationwide coalition and his attempts to manage politics in the national capital to get his plans through Congress, then, brought strong responses across the country. In the process, what began as a capital faction soon assumed status as a faction and then, finally. The Federalist Party supported Hamiltons vision of a centralized government. In foreign affairs, they supported neutrality in the war between France and Great Britain, the majority of the Founding Fathers were originally Federalists. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and many others can all be considered Federalists and these Federalists felt that the Articles of Confederation had been too weak to sustain a working government and had decided that a new form of government was needed
38.
Classes of United States Senators
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The three classes of United States Senators are made up of 33 or 34 Senate seats each. The purpose of the classes is to determine which Senate seats will be up for election in a given year, the three groups are staggered so that one of them is up for election every two years, rather than having all 100 seats up for election at once. For example, the 33 Senate seats of Class 1 were elected in 2012, the 33 seats of Class 2 were up for election in 2014, the three classes were established by Article I, Section 3, Clause 2 of the U. S. Constitution. The actual division was performed by the Senate in May 1789 by lot. A senators description as junior or senior senator is not related to his or her class, rather, a states senior senator is the one with the greater seniority in the Senate. This is mostly based on length of service, when the Founding Fathers agreed to give six-year terms to Senators, they also decided to stagger the elections, so that a third of the Senate was up for election every two years. At the same time, they wanted more frequent elections, as opposed to waiting every six years and this was achieved in May 1789, several weeks after the first Senate assembled. To decide on how to implement this, on May 11 the Senate appointed a committee consisting of Senators Ellsworth, Carroll, in accordance with their recommendation, on May 14 the Senate divided the members into three classes, Thursday, May 14,1789. That three papers of a size, numbered 1,2, and 3, be, by the Secretary, rolled up and put into a box, and drawn by Mr. Langdon, Mr. Wingate. On the following day, May 15, the expiration of each class was determined by drawing lots. Upon the expiration of a term of any length, someone starts a new six-year term as senator. Because each state is represented by two Senators, regardless of population, each Senate class collectively represents a different number of people than each other Senate class. When a new state is admitted to the Union, its two senators have terms that correspond to those of two different classes, among the three classes defined below, a coin toss determines which new senator enters which of the classes selected to be expanded. This means at least one of any new states first pair of senators has a term of less than six years, when the last state, Hawaii, was admitted in 1959, candidates for the Senate ran either for seat A or seat B. The new Senators, in a process managed by the Secretary of the Senate, should a 51st state be admitted, it would receive senators in Classes 1 and 2, at which point all three Classes would have 34 senators. US Senate class page Current Class 1, Current Class 2, Current Class 3, A2013 analysis of the partisan leanings of each class
39.
James Hillhouse
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James Hillhouse was an American lawyer, real estate developer, and politician from New Haven, Connecticut. He represented Connecticut in both the U. S. House and Senate, Hillhouse was born in Montville, Connecticut, the son of William Hillhouse and Sarah Hillhouse. At the age of seven, he was adopted by his childless uncle and aunt, James Abraham and he attended the Hopkins Grammar School in New Haven, Connecticut and graduated from Yale College in 1773. At Yale he was a member of the Linonian Society and he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1775 and practiced law in New Haven. During the Revolutionary War, Hillhouse served as captain of the Second Company of the Governors Foot Guard, during the successful British invasion of New Haven on July 5,1779, he commanded troops alongside Aaron Burr with Yale student volunteers. Hillhouse was a member of the Connecticut House of Representatives from 1780 to 1785, during the Sixth Congress he was President pro tempore of the Senate. Hillhouse was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1813, in 1814-10 he was a Connecticut delegate to the Hartford Convention, and treasurer of Yale College from 1782 to 1832. Hillhouse made major contributions to the beautification of New Haven and he was active in the drive to plant the elm trees that gave New Haven the nickname of the Elm City. Hillhouse Avenue and James Hillhouse High School in New Haven are named for him and he died in New Haven on December 29,1832 and is interred at the Grove Street Cemetery, New Haven, Connecticut. He was a nephew of Matthew Griswold, and uncle of Thomas Hillhouse, biographical Directory of the United States Congress
40.
Uriah Tracy
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Uriah Tracy was an eighteenth-century American lawyer and politician from Connecticut. He served in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, Tracy was born in Franklin, Connecticut. In his youth he received a liberal education and his name is listed as amongst those in a company from Roxbury responding to the Lexington Alarm at the beginning of the American Revolutionary War. He later served in the Roxbury Company as a clerk Tracy subsequently graduated from Yale University where his contemporaries included Noah Webster in 1778 and he was admitted to the bar in 1781 after which he practiced law in Litchfield for many years. He served in the legislature in 1788–1793, and in the United States House of Representatives from April 8, 1793– October 13,1796. He resigned his seat when he was elected to the United States Senate in place of Jonathan Trumbull, Tracy served until the time of his death in Washington, D. C. He has the distinction of being the first member of Congress interred in the Congressional Cemetery and his descendants include the mathematician Curtis Tracy McMullen and the author Jeanie Gould. His portrait, painted by Ralph Earl, is in the collection of the Litchfield Historical Society in Litchfield, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Portrait at the Litchfield Historical Society Find A Grave The Political Graveyard Govtrack. us
41.
Chauncey Goodrich
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Chauncey Goodrich was an American lawyer and politician from Connecticut who represented that state in the United States Congress as both a senator and a representative. Goodrich was born in Durham, Connecticut, the son of Elizur Goodrich and he was graduated from Yale in 1776 and taught school afterward. From 1779 to 1781 he taught at Yale, after studying law, he was admitted to the Connecticut bar in 1781, practicing in Hartford. He served in the Connecticut House of Representatives from 1793 to 1794 and he was re-elected to the Fifth and Sixth Congresses, serving from March 4,1795 to March 3,1801. In the Sixth Congress, he served with his brother Elizur Goodrich, returning to Connecticut, he resumed his law practice and was on the Governors Council from 1802 to 1807. The Connecticut General Assembly elected him to the United States Senate to complete the term of Uriah Tracy, who died, on June 17,1812, he voted against war with Britain, but the vote for war was 19 to 13. He served in the Senate in the Tenth, Eleventh, Twelfth and he was elected to that office in 1813, having also been elected Mayor of Hartford in 1812. He served as both Mayor and Lieutenant Governor until his death in Hartford, in 1814-15 he was a Connecticut delegate to the Hartford Convention. Goodrich was married to Mary Ann Wolcott, daughter of Oliver Wolcott and his nephew Chauncey Allen Goodrich was the son-in-law of Noah Webster and edited his Dictionary after Websters death. Chauncey Allen Goodrichs sister Nancy was married to Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, lawyer, patent Commissioner and son of Founding Father and Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth. William Wolcott Ellsworth, twin brother of Henry Leavitt, was married to another of Noah Websters daughters, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Connecticut election results for U. S. Senate,1807 Goodrich, Elizur
42.
Samuel White (U.S. politician)
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Samuel White was an American lawyer and politician from Wilmington, in New Castle County, Delaware. He was a member of the Federalist Party, who served as U. S, White was born December 1770, in Mispillion Hundred, Kent County, Delaware, near Harrington, close to Whitleysburg, the son of Judge Thomas White. The future Methodist Bishop, Francis Asbury, hid in this house during the Revolutionary War years of 1778–1780, methodists were generally suspected of being Loyalists, and Thomas White was arrested on this charge. While in the White home, Asbury, developed many of the ideas that would shape the future of American Methodism, converted by Asbury, the previously devout Anglican family became members of the Methodist Church. Samuel White was admitted to the Delaware Bar in 1793 after graduating from Cokesbury College in Maryland, White served two years as a captain in the United States Army, and was named adjutant general of Delaware in 1803. Upon the resignation of Dr. Henry Latimer in 1801, White was chosen as U. S. Senator. He was then elected for terms of his own in 1802 and 1808. White strongly opposed slavery, but was known for his opposition to the Louisiana Purchase. Upon the mere condition that no citizen of the United States should ever settle within its limits. During the U. S. Wilson Cary Nicholas, then congressman from Virginia, called out, whereupon White at once replied, It is a mock trial, and I am ready to give the gentleman, if he is offended, satisfaction at any time or place. The sentiment in favor of dueling was so strong at that time that it not appear on the records that the president of the senate administered any rebuke to the contestants. Mr. White had a reputation as a marksman. By the time of his last session in the U. S. Congress he was one of only a very few Federalists still in office, White died at Wilmington and is buried there in the Old Swedes Episcopal Church Cemetery. The General Assembly chose the U. S. Senators, who took office March 4 for a six-year term, in this case he was initially completing the existing term, the vacancy caused by the resignation of Henry Latimer
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James A. Bayard (elder)
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James Asheton Bayard Sr. was an American lawyer and politician from Wilmington, in New Castle County, Delaware. He was a member of the Federalist Party, who served as U. S, Bayard was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, son of Dr. James Asheton Bayard and Ann Hodge. The Bayards descended from a sister of Dutch Director-General Petrus Stuyvesant and came to Bohemia Manor, Cecil County, upon the premature death of his parents, the younger James went to live with his uncle, Colonel John Bubenheim Bayard, in Philadelphia. He graduated from Princeton College in 1784, studied law under General Joseph Reed and Jared Ingersoll, was admitted to the Delaware Bar in 1787, Bayard married February 11,1795, Ann or Nancy Bassett, the daughter of wealthy Delaware lawyer and U. S. They had six children, Richard, Caroline, James Jr. Edward, Mary, Bayard was first elected to the U. S. House of Representatives in 1796, and served there for three terms, from March 4,1797 until March 3,1803. While in the U. S. House he was distinguished as an orator and constitutional lawyer and he especially distinguished himself as one of the managers appointed in 1798 to conduct the impeachment proceedings against William Blount, a U. S. Blount was accused of inciting the Creeks and Cherokees to help the British take New Orleans from the Spanish. While the U. S. House impeached him, under Bayards leadership and this set an important precedent for the future with regard to the limitations on actions which could be taken by U. S. Congress against its members and former members. Bayard also played an important part in the U. S. presidential election of 1800. With the vote tied in the Electoral College, it was a group of Federalists led by Bayard who broke the deadlock by agreeing to allow the election of Thomas Jefferson by the House of Representatives. When it seemed the Federalists were about to vote for Aaron Burr, Bayard is believed to have followed the advice of Alexander Hamilton and it was also believed he struck a deal with the incoming Jefferson, to refrain from the wholesale removal of Federalists from appointed positions. The young Bayard enlisted Representative Samuel Smith to deal with Jefferson on Federalist control of the Philadelphia, while that was never proved, Jefferson allowed the Federalist office holders to remain employed. Just before John Adams left office as U. S. President he used the provisions of the Judiciary Act of 1801 to make many midnight judicial appointments, among those was Bayards father-in-law, Richard Bassett. Resigning as Governor of Delaware Bassett took a position as a federal judge, Bayard himself declined an appointment as Minister to France offered by President John Adams in 1801. So effective was Bayard in opposing Jeffersons government that all out effort was made by the Democratic-Republicans to unseat him in his attempt at a fourth term in 1802, Caesar A. Rodney, nephew of the Revolutionary President of Delaware Caesar Rodney, beat Bayard by 15 votes. However, two later, in 1804, the result was reversed with Bayard besting Rodney. In the best Delaware tradition, the two remained friends throughout and he began a term of his own the following March 1805, was reelected six years later, in 1810, and served until his resignation on March 3,1813. By his own admission, it mattered little who represented Delaware, if they were a Federalist, as the possibility of war became more likely, he urged caution, thinking of the lack of preparedness of the military and especially of the vulnerability of coastal Delaware
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Abraham Baldwin
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Abraham Baldwin was an American minister, Patriot, politician, and Founding Father. Born and raised in Connecticut, he was a graduate of Yale University Divinity School and he moved to the U. S. state of Georgia in the mid-1780s to work under the governor and develop its educational system. Baldwin is noted as the developer and founding president of the University of Georgia, after serving in the state Assembly, Baldwin was elected as a Georgia representative in the Continental Congress and one of two signatories from Georgia of the United States Constitution. He served in the United States House of Representatives for five terms and in the Senate from 1799 until his death in office in Washington, Abraham Baldwin was born in 1754 in Guilford, Connecticut into a large family. His half-brother, Henry Baldwin, was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, after attending a local village school, Abraham Baldwin attended Yale University in nearby New Haven, Connecticut, where he was a member of the Linonian Society. Three years later after theological study, he became a minister and he also served as a tutor at the college. He held that position until 1779, during the American Revolutionary War, he served as a chaplain in the Connecticut Contingent of the Continental Army. He did not see combat while with the Continental troops, two years later at the conclusion of the war, Baldwin declined an offer from Yale for a divinity professorship. Instead of resuming his ministerial or educational vocation after the war, in 1783 he was admitted to the bar. Baldwin was recruited by Governor Lyman Hall of Connecticut to work for the Georgia governor in developing an education plan. He moved to Georgia, where he became active in politics to support for a college. He was appointed as a delegate to the Confederation Congress and the Constitutional Convention, Abraham Baldwin was appointed in 1785 to serve as the first president of the University of Georgia during its initial planning phase to 1801. During this period, he worked with the legislature on the college charter. In 1801, Franklin College, UGAs initial college, opened to students, josiah Meigs was hired to succeed Baldwin as president and oversee the inaugural class of students. The first buildings of the college were architecturally modeled on Baldwins alma mater of Yale, Baldwin was elected to the Georgia Assembly, where he became very active, working to develop support for the college. He was able to mediate between the rougher frontiersmen, perhaps because of his childhood as the son of a blacksmith, and he became one of the most prominent legislators, pushing significant measures such as the education bill through the sometimes split Georgia Assembly. He was elected as representative to the U. S. Congress in 1788, the Georgia legislature elected him as U. S. Senator in 1799 He served as President pro tempore of the United States Senate from December 1801 to December 1802 and he was re-elected and served in office until his death
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George Jones (U.S. Senator)
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George Jones was a United States Senator from Georgia. Born in Savannah, he received a training, studied medicine with his father. He participated in the American Revolutionary War and he was captured by the British Army as a prisoner of war and during 1780 and 1781 was imprisoned upon an English ship. He was later a member of the Georgia House of Representatives and Georgia Senate and he was a member of the Savannah board of aldermen in 1793–1794, 1802–1803, and 1814–1815, and was mayor of Savannah from 1812 to 1814. Jones died in Savannah and was interred in Bonaventure Cemetery and his father, Noble Wimberly Jones, was a Georgia delegate to the Continental Congress, and his grandfather, Noble Jones, was one of Georgias first settlers. Wormsloe Historic Site This article incorporates public domain material from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress website http, Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
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William H. Crawford
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William Harris Crawford was an American politician and judge during the early 19th century. He served as United States Secretary of War from 1815 to 1816 and United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1816 to 1825 and he moved with his family to Edgefield County, South Carolina in 1779, and to Columbia County, Georgia in 1783. Crawford was educated at schools in Georgia and at Richmond Academy in Augusta. After his fathers death, Crawford became the main financial provider. He later studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1799, also in 1799, Crawford was appointed by the state legislature to prepare a digest of Georgias statutes. William H. Crawford influenced Georgia politics for decades, in 1803, Crawford was elected to the Georgia House of Representatives as a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, and he served until 1807. He allied himself with senator James Jackson and their enemies were the Clarkites, led by John Clark. In 1802, he shot and killed Peter Lawrence Van Alen, four years later on December 16,1806, Crawford faced Clark himself in a duel, resulting in Crawfords left wrist being shattered by a shot from Clark, but he eventually recovered. In 1807, Crawford joined the 10th United States Congress mid-term as the junior U. S, senator from Georgia when the Georgia legislature elected him to replace George Jones, an appointee who had held the office for a few months after the death of Abraham Baldwin. Crawford was elected President pro tempore in 1811, when Vice President George Clinton died on April 20,1812, Crawford, as President pro tempore, became the first Acting Vice President until March 4,1813. In 1811, Crawford declined to serve as Secretary of War in the Madison administration, in the Senate, he voted for several acts leading up to the War of 1812, and he supported the United States entry into the war, but was ready for peace. Crawford said, Let it then be the wisdom of this nation to remain at peace, upon Crawfords return, Madison appointed him as Secretary of War. After slightly more than a year of service in that post. He remained in position through the rest of Madisons term and Monroes entire administration. Crawford was again a candidate for the Democratic-Republican presidential nomination in 1824. However, Crawford was put out of the running because of a stroke he suffered in 1823 that was brought on by a prescription given to him by his physician. The Democratic-Republican Party split around this time and one of the splinter groups nominated Crawford, despite Crawfords improved health, he finished third in the electoral vote, behind New Orleans war hero Andrew Jackson and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams. Refusing Adamss request that he remain at the Treasury, Crawford then returned to Georgia, Crawford remained an active judge until his death a decade later
