1.
NHS 111
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NHS111 is a free-to-call single non-emergency number medical helpline operating in England and Scotland. The service is part of each countrys National Health Service and has replaced the telephone triage and advice provided by NHS Direct, NHS24. The transition was completed in England during February 2014 with Scotland following during April 2014, NHS Direct Wales started a phased roll-out of a similar 111 service in late 2016. NHS Direct Wales has continued to operate via 08454647, the health service of Northern Ireland will be able to introduce its own similar service using the 111 number if it chooses to do so. Arrangements to identify and secure a suitable number for England began in July 2009. In late August 2010, the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government proposed that 111 could replace the existing NHS Direct telephone helpline in England. The first trial, in County Durham and Darlington, started on 23 August 2010, with Nottingham starting on 18 November 2010, Lincolnshire on 22 November 2010, and Luton on 3 December 2010. In July 2015 NHS England decided that what was required was an urgent care access, treatment. Clinical Commissioning Groups were told to stop any procurement exercises until revised commissioning standards, in England, the service is accountable at a Clinical Commissioning Group level but was originally commissioned on a regional basis, with a number of service providers. The lack of clarity as to accountability was criticised in a Deloitte report into the launch failure by NHS Direct. As of December 2013 all NHS Direct contracts are being serviced by stability partner organisations such as ambulance trusts or GP co-operative organisations, the service operates 24 hours a day. When GP surgeries are closed normally between 6. 30pm and 8am, at weekends and at Bank Holidays the service will refer many patients to an out-of-hours service and this can also happen if practices are closed for training purposes. The service uses a decision support system which structures the response to a call. Calls are initially assessed by a handler and may be passed to a clinician. The service has been criticised for being too cautious and directing too many patients to A&E departments, gPs have complained that the service has not been inspected by the Care Quality Commission and that it may jeopardise the safety of out-of-hours services. Between 2010 and 2015 the service has handled 24 million calls with an average length of 14 minutes. 97% of calls made have been answered within 60 seconds, 10% of calls trigger the dispatch of an ambulance -93,000 in the 12 months from April 2014 to April 2015. NHS111 was launched in a number of regions in March 2013 ahead of a planned national launch in April 2013
2.
Emergency telephone number
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In many countries the public switched telephone network has a single emergency telephone number that allows a caller to contact local emergency services for assistance. The emergency number differs from country to country, it is typically a number so that it can be easily remembered and dialed quickly. Some countries have a different emergency number for each of the different emergency services, see List of emergency telephone numbers. The emergency telephone number is a case in the countrys telephone number plan. In the past, calls to the telephone number were often routed over special dedicated circuits. Though with the advent of electronic exchanges these calls are now mixed with ordinary telephone traffic. Often the system is set up so that once a call is made to a telephone number. Should the caller abandon the call, the line may still be held until the emergency service answers, an emergency telephone number call may be answered by either a telephone operator or an emergency service dispatcher. The nature of the emergency is then determined, if the call has been answered by a telephone operator, they then connect the call to the appropriate emergency service, who then dispatches the appropriate help. In the case of services being needed on a call. Emergency dispatchers are trained to control the call in order to help in an appropriate manner. The emergency dispatcher may find it necessary to give urgent advice in life-threatening situations, some dispatchers have special training in telling people how to perform first aid or CPR. In many parts of the world, a service can identify the telephone number that a call has been placed from. This is normally done using the system that the company uses to bill calls. For an individual fixed landline telephone, the number can often be associated with the callers address. However, with phones and business telephones, the address may be a mailing address rather than the callers location. The latest enhanced systems, such as Enhanced 911, are able to provide the location of mobile telephones. This is often specifically mandated in a countrys legislation, when an emergency happened in the pre-dial telephone era, the user simply picked up the telephone receiver and waited for the operator to answer number, please
3.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
4.
Masterton
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Masterton is a large town and local government district in the Wellington Region of New Zealand. It is the largest town in the Wairarapa, a region separated from Wellington by the Rimutaka ranges and it is 100 kilometres north-east of Wellington,39.4 kilometres south of Eketahuna, on the Ruamahanga River. Masterton has an population of 21,200, and district population of 24,600. The Wairarapa Line railway allows access to Wellington, Lower Hutt, Masterton businesses include services for surrounding farmers. Three new industrial parks are being developed in Waingawa, Solway, the town is the headquarters of the annual Golden Shears sheep-shearing competition. The association was led by Joseph Masters – after whom the town was named – and aimed to settle working people in villages, at first Masterton grew slowly, but as its farming hinterland became more productive it began to prosper. In the 1870s it overtook Greytown as Wairarapa’s major town and it became a borough in 1877 and was reached by the railway line from Wellington in 1880. This cemented the position as the region’s main market and distribution centre. In the 20th century Masterton kept growing, but never enough to dominate the region, from the 1960s, people and businesses left for opportunities elsewhere. In the 1980s, with government deregulation and protective tariffs lifted, more businesses closed, in April 1965 one of the countrys worst industrial accidents occurred at the General Plastics Factory. It did not quite qualify to be a city by 1989 when the population requirement for that status was lifted from 20,000 to 50,000. At the 2013 census, Masterton District had a population of 23,352 and its population is ranked 40th in size out of the 67 districts in New Zealand. There were 9,600 occupied dwellings,1368 unoccupied dwellings, of the population,11,226 were male, and 12,123 female. The district had an age of 42.8 years,4.8 years above the national median age of 38 years. People aged 65 years and over made up 19. 1% of the population, compared to 14. 3% nationally, and people under 15 years made up 20. 0%, compared to 20. 4% nationally. Mastertons ethnicity was made up of,86. 6% European,18. 6% Maori,2. 4% Asian,3. 3% Pacific Islanders,0. 30% Middle Eastern/Latin American/African,2. 1% New Zealanders, and 0. 00% Other. Masterton had an unemployment rate of 7. 3% of people 15 years and over, the median annual income of all people 15 years and over was $23,500, compared to $28,500 nationally. Of those,39. 3% earned under $20,000, compared to 38. 2% nationally, while 19. 7% earned over $50,000, There has been job growth of 1. 9% since 2014 resulting in a net increase of 220 jobs
5.
Carterton, New Zealand
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Carterton is a small town in the Wellington Region of New Zealand and the seat of the Carterton District. It lies in a area of the Wairarapa in New Zealands North Island. It is located 14 kilometres southwest of Masterton and 80 kilometres northeast of Wellington, the town has a population of 5,130, out of a total district population of 8,900. Originally known as Three Mile Bush, it served as housing for workers building the road between Wellington and Masterton and it was later renamed after Charles Carter, who was in charge of the building of the Black Bridge over the Waiohine River south of the town. The town describes itself as New Zealands daffodil capital, holding a Daffodil Festival each year on the second Sunday in September, Carterton claimed to be the first place in the world with a transsexual mayor, Georgina Beyer. Beyer went on to become the MP for Wairarapa, on 7 January 2012, a hot air balloon crashed just north of the town, killing eleven people and making headlines around the world. The balloon came into contact with a power line supplying the town, resulting in the balloon catching fire. Cartertons town clock is located on High Street next to the post office, the existing tower was put into operation in September 1962, replacing the original clock tower atop the post office that was damaged in the 24 June 1942 Wairarapa earthquake. The Bank of New South Wales, showing confidence in Carterton, built a beautifully ornate bank building on the corner of Park Road and this building is listed in the historic buildings list found in the Wairarapa Combined District Plan. After an unfavourable engineers assessment the bank shifted out of the building approximately 150 metres south in High Street North, the building requires extensive earthquake strengthening in the near future. Historic Carterton Railway Station is located west of the town centre off Belvedere Road, the station building at the station is original, having been built when the railway opened in 1880, and has accepted passenger services ever since. It is currently leased from KiwiRail Network by the Wairarapa Railway Restoration Society, the Carterton District library on Holloway Street is New Zealands oldest purpose-built library that is still in use as a library today. The Carterton Events Centre is also on Holloway Street, opened in October 2011, this state-of-the-art, multi-purpose community facility is available for community and commercial use. Centrally located in the Wairarapa region, the Centre provides modern, flexible, spaces for all manner of events, shows, exhibitions, meetings, interconnection of spaces throughout the Centre allows for separation and opening up of spaces to cater for different needs. The Events Centre belongs to the Carterton community, through the Carterton District Council, Cartertons Memorial Square is on the corner of High Street and Park Road and holds Cartertons World War One memorial, positioned centrally. The red granite pillar, apparently broken off at the top, the memorial was unveiled on 13 February 1921 by Minister of Internal Affairs George Anderson. Since the 1930s Memorial Square has been administered under an act of parliament – the Carterton, on Sundays from 22 February 2015, the Square began to host Carterton Farmers Market. This weekly produce and craft event was born of the 2014 Place Making Carterton project, initiated by the Carterton District Business group and Carterton District Council
6.
Telephone exchange
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A telephone exchange is a telecommunications system used in the public switched telephone network or in large enterprises. In historical perspective, telecommunication terms have been used with different semantics over time, the term telephone exchange is often used synonymously with central office, a Bell System term. Often, an office is defined as a building used to house the inside plant equipment of potentially several telephone exchanges. Such an area has also referred to as the exchange. Central office locations may also be identified in North America as wire centers, All central offices within a larger region, typically aggregated by state, were assigned a common numbering plan area code. For corporate or enterprise use, a telephone exchange is often referred to as a private branch exchange. Smaller installations might deploy a PBX or key telephone system in the office of a receptionist and this made it possible for subscribers to call each other at homes, businesses, or public spaces. These made telephony an available and comfortable communication tool for everyday use, one of the first to propose a telephone exchange was Hungarian Tivadar Puskás in 1877 while he was working for Thomas Edison. The first experimental telephone exchange was based on the ideas of Puskás, the worlds first commercial telephone exchange opened on November 12,1877 in Friedrichsberg close to Berlin. George W. Coy designed and built the first commercial US telephone exchange opened in New Haven. The switchboard was built from carriage bolts, handles from teapot lids and bustle wire, Charles Glidden is also credited with establishing an exchange in Lowell, MA. with 50 subscribers in 1878. In Europe other early telephone exchanges were based in London and Manchester, Belgium had its first International Bell exchange a year later. In 1887 Puskás introduced the multiplex switchboard, later exchanges consisted of one to several hundred plug boards staffed by switchboard operators. Each operator sat in front of a panel containing banks of ¼-inch tip-ring-sleeve jacks. In front of the jack panel lay a horizontal panel containing two rows of patch cords, each connected to a cord circuit. When a calling party lifted the receiver, the loop current lit a signal lamp near the jack. The operator responded by inserting the rear cord into the jack and switched her headset into the circuit to ask, Number. For a local call, the operator inserted the front cord of the pair into the partys local jack
7.
Police
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A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the use of force. Law enforcement, however, constitutes part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, in some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree, the police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes. Alternative names for police force include constabulary, gendarmerie, police department, police service, crime prevention, protective services, law enforcement agency, members may be referred to as police officers, troopers, sheriffs, constables, rangers, peace officers or civic/civil guards. As police are often interacting with individuals, slang terms are numerous, many slang terms for police officers are decades or centuries old with lost etymology. One of the oldest, cop, has largely lost its slang connotations and this is derived from πόλις, city. Law enforcement in ancient China was carried out by prefects for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period, in Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. Under each prefect were subprefects who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area, some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. The concept of the system spread to other cultures such as Korea. In ancient Greece, publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police, in Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control, and also assisted with dealing with criminals, handling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves, in the Roman empire, the army, rather than a dedicated police organization, provided security. Local watchmen were hired by cities to some extra security. Magistrates such as fiscal and quaestors investigated crimes. There was no concept of public prosecution, so victims of crime or their families had to organize and their duties included apprehending thieves and robbers and capturing runaway slaves. The vigiles were supported by the Urban Cohorts who acted as a heavy-duty anti-riot force, in medieval Spain, Santa Hermandades, or holy brotherhoods, peacekeeping associations of armed individuals, were a characteristic of municipal life, especially in Castile. These organizations were intended to be temporary, but became a fixture of Spain
8.
Ambulance
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The word is often associated with road going emergency ambulances which form part of an emergency medical service, administering emergency care to those with acute medical problems. The term ambulance does, however, extend to a range of vehicles other than those with flashing warning lights. The term ambulance comes from the Latin word ambulare as meaning to walk or move about which is a reference to medical care where patients were moved by lifting or wheeling. The word originally meant a hospital, which follows an army in its movements. Ambulances were first used for transport in 1487 by the Spanish forces during the siege of Málaga by the Catholic Monarchs against the Emirate of Granada. During the American Civil War vehicles for conveying the wounded off the field of battle were called ambulance wagons, there are other types of ambulance, with the most common being the patient transport ambulance. These vehicles are not usually equipped with equipment, and are usually crewed by staff with fewer qualifications than the crew of emergency ambulances. Their purpose is simply to transport patients to, from or between places of treatment, in most countries, these are not equipped with flashing lights or sirens. In some jurisdictions there is a form of the ambulance used, that only carries one member of ambulance crew to the scene to provide care. In these cases a patient who requires transportation to hospital will require an ambulance to attend in addition to the first responder. The history of the ambulance begins in ancient times, with the use of carts to transport incurable patients by force, Ambulances were first used for emergency transport in 1487 by the Spanish, and civilian variants were put into operation during the 1830s. Advances in technology throughout the 19th and 20th centuries led to the modern self-powered ambulances, Ambulances can be grouped into types depending on whether or not they transport patients, and under what conditions. In some cases, ambulances may fulfil more than one function, Emergency ambulance – The most common type of ambulance, which provide care to patients with an acute illness or injury. These can be road-going vans, boats, helicopters, fixed-wing aircraft or even converted vehicles such as golf carts. Patient transport ambulance – A vehicle, which has the job of transporting patients to and these can be vans, buses or other vehicles. Response units may be backed up by an ambulance which can transport the patient, or may deal with the problem on scene. These can be a variety of vehicles, from standard cars, to modified vans, motorcycles, pedal cycles. These units can function as a vehicle for officers or supervisors, Fire & Rescue services in North America often staff EMTs or Paramedics to their apparatuses to provide medical care without the need to wait for an ambulance
9.
Fire department
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Other life safety services, such as technical rescue, hazardous materials, and emergency medical services may also be provided by the agency. In the United States a fire brigade is the private firefighting organization of a company or enterprise, a fire department usually contains one or more fire stations within its boundaries, and may be staffed by career firefighters, volunteer firefighters, or a combination thereof. A fire department may provide fire protection or fire prevention services, whereby firefighters visit homes and give fire safety advice. In many countries fire protection or prevention is seen as an important role for the service, as preventing a fire from occurring in the first place can save lives. Fire departments are organized in a system of administration, services, training, and operations, for example, Administration is responsible for supervision, budgets, policy, Service offers protection, safety, and education to the public. Training prepares skilled people with the knowledge to perform their duties, operations performs the tasks to successfully save the public from harm. Larger departments have branches within themselves to increase efficiency, composed of volunteers, support, volunteers give advantages to the department in a state of emergency. Support organizing the resources within and outside of the department, research is to give advantages in new technologies for the department. A fire departments jurisdiction is organized by the body that controls the department. This comes from a municipality, county, prefecture, state, province, the most common type of government control is at the municipality level. The jurisdiction size and organisation would be set up by a department or the government in charge of these duties and this deals with the placement of fire stations, equipment, and personnel within the area of control. Fire departments periodically survey their areas and use the data for redeploying proper coverage. This data comes from time, range from station, and/or a population survey. This brings equal service to the community and gives the department efficient places to launch operations. The earliest known firefighting service was formed in Ancient Rome by Egnatius Rufus who used his slaves to provide a fire service. These men fought fires using bucket chains and also patrolled the streets with the authority to impose corporal punishment upon those who violated fire-prevention codes, the Emperor Augustus established a public fire department in 24 BCE, composed of 600 slaves distributed amongst seven fire stations in Rome. Fire departments were formed by property insurance companies beginning in the 17th century after the Great Fire of London in 1666. The first insurance brigades were established the following year, each company had its own fire mark, a durable plaque that would be affixed to the building exterior
10.
Auckland
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Auckland is a city in the North Island of New Zealand. It is the most populous area in the country. Auckland has a population of 1,495,000, which constitutes 32 percent of New Zealands population, a diverse and multicultural city, Auckland is home to the largest Polynesian population in the world. It has also been called Ākarana, the Māori pronunciation of Auckland, the Auckland urban area ranges to Waiwera in the north, Kumeu in the northwest, and Runciman in the south. It is not contiguous, the section from Waiwera to Whangaparāoa Peninsula is separate from its nearest neighbouring suburb of Long Bay, the surrounding hills are covered in rainforest and the landscape is dotted with dozens of dormant volcanic cones. The central part of the area occupies a narrow isthmus between the Manukau Harbour on the Tasman Sea and the Waitemata Harbour on the Pacific Ocean. It is one of the few cities in the world to have harbours on two major bodies of water. The isthmus on which Auckland resides was first settled around 1350 and was valued for its rich, Māori population in the area is estimated to have peaked at 20,000 before the arrival of Europeans. After a British colony was established in 1840, the new Governor of New Zealand, William Hobson and he named the area Auckland for George Eden, Earl of Auckland, British First Lord of the Admiralty. It was replaced as the capital in 1865, but immigration to the new city stayed strong, today, Aucklands Central Business District is the major financial centre of New Zealand. Auckland is classified as a Beta World City because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, education and tourism. Aucklands landmarks such as the Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, the Harbour Bridge, the Sky Tower, the isthmus was settled by Māori around 1350, and was valued for its rich and fertile land. Many pā were created, mainly on the volcanic peaks, Māori population in the area is estimated to have been about 20,000 people before the arrival of Europeans. As a result, the region had relatively low numbers of Māori when European settlement of New Zealand began, there is, however, nothing to suggest that this was the result of a deliberate European policy. Auckland was officially declared New Zealands capital in 1841 and the transfer of the administration from Russell in the Bay of Islands was completed in 1842. However, even in 1840 Port Nicholson was seen as a choice for an administrative capital because of its proximity to the South Island. After losing its status as capital, Auckland remained the city of the Auckland Province until the provincial system was abolished in 1876. Each of the four settlements had about 800 settlers, the men being fully armed in case of emergency but spent nearly all their time breaking in the land and establishing roads
11.
Ballantyne's fire
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On 18 November 1947, a fire engulfed Ballantynes department store in central Christchurch, New Zealand. 41 people died in the blaze, all were employees who found themselves trapped by the fire or were overcome by smoke while evacuating the store complex without an alarm or evacuation plan. It remains the deadliest fire in New Zealand history, Ballantynes is a Christchurch department store that traces its origins back to a millinery and drapery business that began in the front room of a Cashel Street residence in 1854. After being named Dunstable House and going through a couple of owners, the business was managed as a series of partnerships involving Ballantyne family members until formed as the company J. Ballantyne & Co. in 1920. From its humble beginnings the Ballantynes business expanded until, by 1947, it occupied 80 m of street front in Cashel Street,50 m in Colombo Street, Ballantynes by the time of the fire was widely known as the queen of department stores in the city. The showrooms, fitting rooms, art gallery and sumptuous tearooms catered to the elite of Canterbury, the business was owned and managed by two brothers and who were of the Ballantyne family. Yet a dignified Italianate facade concealed dangerous secrets, the stores interior partitions had untreated soft wood-fibre linings that had been permitted by the Christchurch City Council contrary to its own bylaws. Due to the quantity of clothes made on the premises, the buildings were classified as factory buildings, Fire protection was provided by manual fire extinguishers, although staff were not formally trained in their use. There were manually operated doors that could be closed across the openings between buildings. Klaxons that had installed during the Second World War and the Vigilant sprinkler fire alarm in one building had not been maintained. Although the store had held evacuation drills during wartime these had ended when hostilities ceased, there was no emergency evacuation plan and evacuation was left to the initiative of individual department heads. Many staff only knew the layout of their own workrooms and were unaware of alternative egress routes, at the time of the fire Ballantynes employed 458 people, over 300 of whom were women. Many of these workers worked on the floors in various back-office departments. It started in the basement of the department, which was located at southern end of the Colombo Street frontage of the complex. The cause of the fire was never established, although an electrical fault or a discarded cigarette butt were both suggested as possibilities, the former could not be excluded by the commission of enquiry. The latter was considered unlikely as Keith Smith, the employee who was last working in the cellar, had left at about 3,30 pm for his afternoon tea break. He had gone across the street to smoke a cigarette with a friend, just after 3,30 pm, smoke from the fire was first noticed coming up the cellar stairs. The staff had no access to a formal fire evacuation plan, staff discovering the fire informed their floor manager upon their own initiative
12.
Christchurch
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Christchurch is the largest city in the South Island of New Zealand and the seat of the Canterbury Region. The Christchurch urban area lies on the South Islands east coast, just north of Banks Peninsula and it is home to 389,700 residents, making it New Zealands third most-populous urban area behind Auckland and Wellington. The city was named by the Canterbury Association, which settled the province of Canterbury. The name of Christchurch was agreed on at the first meeting of the association on 27 March 1848 and it was suggested by John Robert Godley, who had attended Christ Church, Oxford. Some early writers called the town Christ Church, but it was recorded as Christchurch in the minutes of the management committee of the association, Christchurch became a city by Royal Charter on 31 July 1856, making it officially the oldest established city in New Zealand. The Avon River flows through the centre of the city, with a park located along its banks. At the request of the Deans brothers, the river was named after the River Avon in Scotland, the usual Māori name for Christchurch is Ōtautahi. This was originally the name of a site by the Avon River near present-day Kilmore Street. The site was a dwelling of Ngāi Tahu chief Te Potiki Tautahi. The Ōtautahi name was adopted in the 1930s, prior to that the Ngāi Tahu generally referred to the Christchurch area as Karaitiana, a transliteration of the English word Christian. The citys name is abbreviated by New Zealanders to Chch. In New Zealand Sign Language, the name is the fingerspelled letter C signed twice, with the second to the right of the first. Archaeological evidence found in a cave at Redcliffs in 1876 has indicated that the Christchurch area was first settled by moa-hunting tribes about 1250 CE. These first inhabitants were thought to have followed by the Waitaha tribe. Following tribal warfare, the Waitaha were dispossessed by the Ngati Mamoe tribe and they were in turn subjugated by the Ngāi Tahu tribe, who remained in control until the arrival of European settlers. Their abandoned holdings were taken over by the Deans brothers in 1843 who stayed, the First Four Ships were chartered by the Canterbury Association and brought the first 792 of the Canterbury Pilgrims to Lyttelton Harbour. These sailing vessels were the Randolph, Charlotte Jane, Sir George Seymour, the Charlotte Jane was the first to arrive on 16 December 1850. The Canterbury Pilgrims had aspirations of building a city around a cathedral and college, the name Christ Church was decided prior to the ships arrival, at the Associations first meeting, on 27 March 1848
13.
999 (emergency telephone number)
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999 is an official emergency telephone number in a number of countries which allows the caller to contact emergency services for urgent assistance. 999 is the emergency number for the United Kingdom. All calls are answered by 999 operators, the system was introduced following a fire on 10 November 1935 in a house on Wimpole Street in which five women were killed. The first arrest – for burglary – took place a week later,9 or 99, reaching at least an operator. This enables all users including the visually impaired to easily dial the emergency number, hoax calls and improper use are an issue. For these reasons, there are frequent public information campaigns in the UK on the use of the 999 system. Alternative three-digit numbers for non-emergency calls have also introduced in recent years. 101 was introduced for non-urgent calls in England and Wales The scheme was extended to Scotland, trials of 111 as a number to access health services in the UK for urgent but not life-threatening cases began in England in 2010. The main roll-out occurred from 2011 to 2013, with a number of delays, in Scotland, the NHS24 service moved from 08454242424 to 111 on 29 April 2014. NHS Direct Wales continues to use 08454647 and those registered on the database are issued with a personal identification number that can be used in two ways. By phone – either 999 or the forces non-emergency 101 number can be used – once a person is put through to the room, they only need to say Pegasus. Their details can then be retrieved from the database and the caller can quickly get on with explaining why they have called, in person – the Pegasus PIN can be told or shown to a police officer. Pegasus is also used by the City of London Police, Dyfed Powys Police, the pan-European 112 code was introduced in the UK in April 1995 with little publicity. It connects to existing 999 circuits, the GSM standard mandates that the user of a GSM phone can dial 112 without unlocking the keypad, a feature that can save time in emergencies but that also causes some accidental calls. All mobile telephones will make emergency calls with the keypad locked, originally a valid SIM card was not required to make a 999/112 emergency call in the UK. However, as a result of numbers of untraceable hoax calls being made. Most UK mobile telephone handsets will dial 999/112 without a SIM inserted, following the blocking of SIM-less calls, in 2009 the UK networks introduced emergency call roaming. This allows a user with a valid SIM of a UK network to make calls on any network for which they have coverage
14.
New Zealand Police
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The New Zealand Police is the national police force of New Zealand, responsible for enforcing criminal law, enhancing public safety, maintaining order and keeping the peace throughout New Zealand. With over 11,000 staff it is the largest law enforcement agency in New Zealand and, the current Minister of Police is Paula Bennett. Policing in New Zealand started in 1840 with the arrival of six constables accompanying Lt, Governor Hobsons official landing party to form the colony of New Zealand. Early policing arrangements were along similar lines to the UK and British colonial police forces, in particular the Royal Irish Constabulary, many of its first officers had seen prior service in either Ireland or Australia. The early Force was initially part police and part militia, by 1846, the emerging organisation of a police force was recognised with the passage of the Armed Constabulary Ordinance. The Armed Constabulary took part in actions against Māori opponents Riwha Titokowaru in Taranaki. From the police forces beginnings in 1840 through the next forty years and this led to a separate Provincial Police Force Act being passed by the Parliament. However, provincial policing models lasted only two decades as economic depression in the 1870s saw some provinces stop paying their police as they ran out of money, eventually, the government decided a single nationally organised police would be the best and most efficient policing arrangement. The New Zealand Police Force was established as a national force under the Police Force Act of 1886. The change in name was significant, and provincial policing arrangements were dis-established, just a decade later, policing in New Zealand was given a significant overhaul. In 1898 there was a very constructive Royal Commission of Enquiry into New Zealand Police, a complete review of Polices legislation in 1908 built significantly off the Royal Commissions work. A further Police Force Act in 1947 reflected some changes of a growing New Zealand, in 1958, the word Force was removed from the name when legislation was significantly revised. On 1 July 1992, the Traffic Safety Service of the Ministry of Transport was merged with the Police, up until that time, the Ministry of Transport and local councils had been responsible for traffic law enforcement. In 2001, the Police re-established a specialist road policing branch known as the Highway Patrol, today the Police are responsible for enforcing traffic law, while local councils enforce parking regulations. The Police Act 1958 was extensively reviewed starting in 2006, after a two and a half year consultative process the Policing Act 2008 came into effect on 1 October 2008, the process included the worlds first use of a wiki to allow the public to submit or propose amendments. The wiki was open for less than two weeks, but drew international attention and they have also been involved in Community Police training in Bougainville, in conjunction with Australian Federal Police. New Zealand Police maintains an international policing support network in eight foreign capitals, although headed by a Commissioner, the New Zealand Police is a decentralised organisation divided into twelve districts. Each district has a station from which subsidiary and suburban stations are managed
15.
New Zealand Fire Service
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The New Zealand Fire Service is New Zealands main firefighting body, primarily responsible for providing fire protection to urban and peri-urban areas of the country. It is one of the few fire brigades worldwide to have jurisdiction over an entire country. The New Zealand Fire Service employs 1,700 career firefighters who man 79 fire stations in the major towns, the remainder of the country is served by 8,300 volunteer firefighters and 360 volunteer fire brigades. In addition, it employs 585 management and support staff, and 76 communications centre staff based in three centres, in 2012/13, the Fire Service attended just over 70,900 incidents, of which 5,430 were structural fires and 16,510 were non-structural fires. While being a firefighting service first and foremost, the New Zealand Fire Service has also taken responsibility for other roles. These include hazardous material incidents, vehicle extrication, urban rescue, the NZFS is somewhat unusual, internationally, in that it has jurisdiction over the entire country with no division by region or city. It is the result of the New Zealand Fire Service Act which nationalised the various District-level brigades which had developed across the country, the New Zealand Fire Service is predominantly configured as an Urban Fire & Rescue Service. The Fire Service Act places responsibility on the NZFS for firefighting in gazetted Urban Fire Districts, totalling about 3% of New Zealands land area, the remainder of the land covered by Rural Fire Authorities that act under the Forest and Rural Fires Act. Fire Service brigades respond outside their Districts to deal with structure and rescue incidents, the entire organisation reports to the Minister of Internal Affairs, by way of the New Zealand Fire Service Commission. The Commission is composed of five members, and the Minister is required by law to appoint at least one person who is either an engineer or has experience as a senior operational fire fighter. The New Zealand Fire Service Commission is also the National Rural Fire Authority, beneath the Commission are the positions of Chief Executive and National Commander. Currently both positions are filled by Paul Baxter, mike Hall, who was formerly the chief of the Queensland Fire Brigades, held these positions up to the end of 2011. Where the Chief Executive does not have fire fighting experience. The National Commander may take control at a serious incident. The Chief Executive has a number of reports, though these are concerned with matters such as human resources. The country is broken into five regions, Region 1, Region 2, Region 3, Region 4. Each region is in the charge of a Fire Region Commander, all FRCs report directly to the National Commander, and are promoted from the ranks of operational staff. An FRC may take control of an incident, and is ultimately responsible for any incident at which they are present even if they are not the Officer-in-Charge
16.
Postmaster
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A postmaster is the head of an individual post office. When a postmaster is responsible for an entire mail distribution organization, in the United States, women have served as postmasters since the Revolutionary War and even earlier, under British rule. In Canada, many places are named after the first postmaster. In the days of horse-drawn carriages, a postmaster was an individual from whom horses and/or riders could be hired, the postmaster would reside in a post house. In the United States, many postmasters are members of a management organization which consults with the United States Postal Service for compensation, the level of pay is based on deliveries and revenue of the post office. Levels are from EAS18 through 26, smaller remotely managed post offices no longer have Postmasters and report to a nearby larger office. Larger metropolitan post offices are PCES
17.
Pulse dialing
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This lends the method the often used name loop disconnect dialing. In the most common variant of pulse dialing, decadic dialing, the most common version decodes the digits 1 through 9, as one to nine pulses, respectively, and the digit 0 as ten pulses. Historically, the most common device to produce such pulse trains is the dial of the telephone, lending the technology another name. The pulse repetition rate was determined based on the response time needed for electromechanical switching systems to operate reliably. Most telephone systems used the nominal rate of ten pulses per second, automatic telephone exchange systems were developed in the late 19th and early 20th century. For identification, telephone subscribers were assigned a number unique to each circuit. Various methods evolved to signal the desired destination telephone number for a telephone call directly dialed by the subscriber, an automatic switch-hook was designed by Hilborne Roosevelt. But the use of keys with separate conductors to the exchange was not practical. Strowger also filed the first patent for a dial in 1891. The first dials worked by direct, forward action, the pulses were sent as the user rotated the dial to the finger stop starting at a different position for each digit transmitted. Operating the dial error-free required smooth rotary motion of the wheel by the user. This mechanism was soon refined to include a spring and a centrifugal governor to control the recoil speed. The user selected a digit to be dialed by inserting a finger into the corresponding hole, when released from this position, the dial pulsing contacts were opened and closed repeatedly, thus interrupting the loop current in a pattern on the return to the home position. The exchange switch decoded the pattern for each digit thus transmitted by stepping relays or by accumulation in digit registers. When electromechanical switching system were still in use, the current pulses generated by the dial on the local loop operated electrical relays in the switches at the central office. The mechanical nature of these relays and the capacitance, affecting pulse shape, generally limited the speed of operation. Exceptions to this are, Sweden, with one click for 0, two clicks for 1, and so on, and New Zealand with ten clicks for 0, nine clicks for 1, etc. Oslo, the city of Norway, used the New Zealand system
18.
Telephone switchboard
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The switchboard was an essential component of a manual telephone exchange, and was operated by switchboard operators who used electrical cords or switches to establish the connections. The electromechanical automatic telephone exchange, invented by Almon Strowger in 1888, in 1919, the Bell System in the United States also adopted automatic switching as its future technology, after years of reliance on manual systems. Nevertheless, many manual branch exchanges remained operational into the half of the 20th century in many enterprises. Later electronic devices and computer technology gave the access to an abundance of features. A private branch exchange in a business usually has an attendant console for the operator, or an auto-attendant, following the invention of the telephone in 1876, the first telephones were rented in pairs which were limited to conversation between the parties operating those two instruments. The use of an exchange was soon found to be even more advantageous than in telegraphy. In January 1878 the Boston Telephone Dispatch company had started hiring boys as telephone operators, thus, on September 1,1878, Boston Telephone Dispatch hired Emma Nutt as the first woman operator. Small towns typically had the switchboard installed in the home so that he or she could answer calls on a 24-hour basis. In 1894, New England Telephone and Telegraph Company installed the first battery-operated switchboard on January 9 in Lexington, Early switchboards in large cities usually were mounted floor to ceiling in order to allow the operators to reach all the lines in the exchange. The operators were boys who would use a ladder to connect to the higher jacks, late in the 1890s this measure failed to keep up with the increasing number of lines, and Milo G. Kellogg devised the Divided Multiple Switchboard for operators to work together, with a team on the A board and these operators were almost always women until the early 1970s, when men were once again hired. Cord switchboards were often referred to as cordboards by telephone company personnel, conversion to Panel switch and other automated switching systems first eliminated the B operator and then, usually years later, the A. Rural and suburban switchboards for the most part remained small and simple, in many cases, customers came to know their operator by name. As telephone exchanges converted to service, switchboards continued to serve specialized purposes. Before the advent of direct-dialed long distance calls, a subscriber would need to contact the operator in order to place a toll call. In large cities, there was often a number, such as 112. Elsewhere, the subscriber would ask the operator to ring the long-distance operator. The long distance operator would record the name and city of the person to be called, each toll center had only a limited number of trunks to distant cities, and if those circuits were busy, the operator would try alternate routings through intermediate cities
19.
Switchboard operator
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Each pair of plugs was part of a cord circuit with a switch associated that let the operator participate in the call. Each jack had a light above it that lit when the receiver was lifted. Lines from the office were usually arranged along the bottom row. Switchboard operators are required to have very strong communication skills. Before the advent of automatic exchanges, an operators assistance was required for anything other than calling telephones across a party line. Callers spoke to an operator at a Central Office who then connected a cord to the circuit in order to complete the call. Being in complete control of the call, the operator was in a position to listen to private conversations, automatic, or Dial systems were developed in the 1920s to reduce labor costs as usage increased, and to ensure privacy to the customer. As phone systems became more sophisticated, less direct intervention by the operator was necessary to complete calls. As well as the people that were employed by the networks, operators were required at private branch exchanges to answer incoming telephone calls. Today, most large organizations have direct-dial extensions, smaller workplaces may have an automated system which allows callers to enter the extension of the called party, or a receptionist who answers calls and performs operator duties. Operators employed in healthcare settings have other duties, such as entry, greeting patients and visitors, taking messages, triaging. Experienced, well trained operators generally command a higher salary, in January 1878 George Willard Croy became the worlds first telephone operator when he started working for the Boston Telephone Dispatch company. Emma was hired by Alexander Graham Bell, and reportedly, could remember every number in the directory of the New England Telephone Company. Emma Nutt became the first female telephone operator on 1 September 1878 when she started working for the Boston Telephone Dispatch company, more women began to replace men within this sector of the workforce for several reasons. The companies observed that women were generally more courteous to callers, however, a contributing factor to women entering this workforce was because womens labour was cheap in comparison to mens. Specifically, women were paid from one half to one quarter of a mans salary, attendant console Operator assistance Private branch exchange Telephone operator Telephone switchboard Media related to Telephone operators at Wikimedia Commons
20.
Sawmill
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A sawmill or lumber mill is a facility where logs are cut into lumber. Prior to the invention of the sawmill, boards were rived and planed, the earliest known mechanical mill is the Hierapolis sawmill, a Roman water-powered stone mill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor dating back to the 3rd century AD. Other water-powered mills followed and by the 11th century they were widespread in Spain and North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, the circular motion of the wheel was converted to a reciprocating motion at the saw blade. Generally, only the saw was powered, and the logs had to be loaded and moved by hand, an early improvement was the development of a movable carriage, also water powered, to move the log steadily through the saw blade. Scrap lumber from the mill provided a source of fuel for firing the boiler, the arrival of railroads meant that logs could be transported to mills rather than mills being built besides navigable waterways. Besides the sawn timber, use is made of all the by-products including sawdust, bark, wood chips, a sawmills basic operation is much like those of hundreds of years ago, a log enters on one end and dimensional lumber exits on the other end. After trees are selected for harvest, the step in logging is felling the trees. Branches are cut off the trunk, logs are taken by logging truck, rail or a log drive to the sawmill. Logs are scaled either on the way to the mill or upon arrival at the mill, debarking removes bark from the logs. Decking is the process for sorting the logs by species, size, a sawyer uses a head saw to break the log into cants and flitches. Trimming squares the ends at typical lumber lengths, drying removes naturally occurring moisture from the lumber. This can be done with kilns or air-dried, planing smooths the surface of the lumber leaving a uniform width and thickness. Shipping transports the lumber to market. The Hierapolis sawmill, a Roman water-powered stone saw mill at Hierapolis and it is also the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism. Water-powered stone sawmills working with cranks and connecting rods, but without gear train, are attested for the 6th century AD at the Eastern Roman cities Gerasa. The earliest literary reference to a working sawmill comes from a Roman poet, at one point in the poem he describes the shrieking sound of a watermill cutting marble. Marble sawmills also seem to be indicated by the Christian saint Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia around 370/390 AD, sawmills became widespread in medieval Europe again, as one was sketched by Villard de Honnecourt in c. They are claimed to have introduced to Madeira following its discovery in c.1420
21.
Rotary system
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The Rotary Machine Switching System, or most commonly known as the Rotary System, was a type of automatic telephone exchange manufactured and used primarily in Europe from the 1910s. The Rotary switches were smaller than the Panel system, and served only 200 rather than 500 stations, the initial version was the model 7A. It was succeeded by 7A1 and 7A2 and a system had the designation 7D. The Rotary system used 1st and 2nd linefinders, when a customer picked up the phone all free linefinders in the group drove until one picked that customer line, calls were switched over two, three or four group selection stages followed by a final selector. While the Panel system was chosen for American large cities, the Rotary system was selected for use in Europe and manufactured at the Bell Telephone Manufacturing factory in Antwerp, the first exchanges were installed in England at Darlington and Dudley. However the British Post Office standardised on the Step-by-Step system in 1922, six Rotary exchanges were installed in the city of Hull, between 1922 and 1929, where telephone service was supplied by Hull Corporation rather than by the BPO. The Rotary system was chosen for The Hague, and New Zealand in 1913-14, dies were moved to England, then to the Hawthorne Works of Western Electric in America. The first exchanges cutover were Masterton, New Zealand on 31 May 1919 and Scheveningen, the Hague was the first multi-office area served entirely by the No. 7-A machine system with the cutover of the new Centrum office on 15 February 1924, there were four offices equipped with 23,000 lines, Bezuidenhout, Centrum, Hague West, and Scheveningen. The system was owned by The Hague Municipality, initially only 5,000 lines were fully automatic, the Rotary semi-automatic system 7A was chosen for public experiment in 1912 by the French Administration Postes Télégraphes Téléphones. The first semi-automatic Rotary 7A was turned on in Angers in November 1915, only two Rotary 7A semi-automatic were installed in France. All the other Rotary exchanges in France were 7A1 fully automatic, in 1927, The semi-automatic Rotary 7A of Marseille-Colbert 1 was fully automated, maximum capacity lines 10,000. Angers stayed semi-automatic only, capacity approx 3,000 lines, Rotary fully automatic 7A1 was deployed in Nantes, Marseille-town and Paris and Region of Paris in large and exclusive proportion. All the French Rotary 7A and 7A1 were exclusively manufactured in France, with French workers, essentially by ITT-LMT company, in the 1930s, ITT grew through purchasing German electronic companies Standard Elektrizitaetsgesellschaft and Mix & Genest, both of which were internationally active companies. There was a total of 104,615 lines in service, subsequently, at Zurich, Switzerland, the mechanical registers were replaced by PDP-11 computers. In Kingston-upon-Hull which had the municipal telephone system in the United Kingdom, operated by the Hull City Council. In Christchurch, New Zealand at the Ferrymead Heritage Park, the Ferrymead Post & Telegraph Historical Society has an exhibit of the 7A Rotary Switching system. The display includes a bay of 7A1 Line Finders and a bay of 7A1 Registers, in Budapest, Hungary, at the Museum of Telephones there is a still workable 7A1 Rotary Switching system
22.
Disappearance of Iraena Asher
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Iraena Te Rama Awhina Asher was an Auckland trainee teacher and model who disappeared in controversial circumstances at Piha, a West Auckland beach, on 11 October 2004. At 9 p. m. on 10 October, Asher called the New Zealand Police using the 1-1-1 emergency telephone number, from Piha, expressing fears for her safety. Although a patrol car could have made available to attend this incident. Although a taxi was dispatched, it went to the street in Onehunga. Asher was later found wandering the streets by a Piha couple, Julia Woodhouse and Bobbie Carroll, at 1,10 a. m. she left their home and was subsequently seen by others, semi-clad, walking towards the beach. She ran off before she could be approached and this was the last known sighting of her. Ashers family told police that she suffered from bipolar disorder, in May 2005, Ashers family held a memorial service for her, telling mourners that if police had responded properly to her emergency call, she might be alive today. Her parents, Betty and Mike Asher, were said to be considering bringing a lawsuit against the New Zealand Police, no legal proceedings were ever commenced by her parents. An inquest into her disappearance began on 17 July 2012, the police investigation into her disappearance found that she most likely drowned. During the inquest, the coroner criticised Woodhouse and Carroll for not calling the police themselves, the High Court subsequently found that the suggestion that their failure to call the police had contributed to Ashers death was based on speculation
23.
Subscriber identity module
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It is also possible to store contact information on many SIM cards. SIM cards are used on GSM phones, for CDMA phones. SIM cards can also be used in satellite phones, the SIM circuit is part of the function of a Universal Integrated Circuit Card physical smart card, which is usually made of PVC with embedded contacts and semiconductors. SIM cards are transferable between different mobile devices, the SIM was initially specified by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute in the specification with the number TS11.11. This specification describes the physical and logical behaviour of the SIM, with the development of UMTS the specification work was partially transferred to 3GPP. 3GPP is now responsible for the development of applications like SIM and USIM. The first SIM card was developed in 1991 by Munich smart-card maker Giesecke & Devrient, many non-contractual pay-as-you-go arrangements require you to actively use credit at least once every three months lest your account expires. This is sometimes associated with the SIM card being made inactive by the network, there are three operating voltages for SIM cards,5 V,3 V and 1.8 V. The operating voltage of the majority of SIM cards launched before 1998 was 5 V. SIM cards produced subsequently are compatible with 3 V and 5 V, modern cards support 5 V,3 V and 1.8 V. Modern SIM cards allow applications to be loaded when the SIM is in use by the subscriber and these applications communicate with the handset or a server using SIM application toolkit, which was initially specified by 3GPP in TS11.14. ETSI and 3GPP maintain the SIM specifications, the specifications are, ETSI TS102223, ETSI TS102241, ETSI TS102588. SIM toolkit applications were written in native code using proprietary APIs. In order to allow interoperability of the applications, Java Card was taken as the solution of choice by ETSI, additional standards and specifications of interest are maintained by GlobalPlatform. SIM cards store network-specific information used to authenticate and identify subscribers on the network, the most important of these are the ICCID, IMSI, Authentication Key, Local Area Identity and Operator-Specific Emergency Number. The SIM also stores other carrier-specific data such as the SMSC number, Service Provider Name, Service Dialing Numbers, Advice-Of-Charge parameters, SIM cards can come in various data capacities, from 8 KB to at least 256 KB. All allow a maximum of 250 contacts to be stored on the SIM, but while the 32 KB has room for 33 Mobile Network Codes or network identifiers, the 64 KB version has room for 80 MNCs. This is used by operators to store information on preferred networks. Each SIM is internationally identified by its integrated circuit card identifier, ICCIDs are stored in the SIM cards and are also engraved or printed on the SIM card body during a process called personalisation
24.
Spark New Zealand
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Spark New Zealand is a New Zealand telecommunications company providing fixed line telephone services, a mobile network, an internet service provider, and a major ICT provider to NZ businesses. It has operated as a publicly traded company since 1990, Spark is one of the largest companies by value on the New Zealand Exchange. As of 2007, it was the 39th largest telecommunications company in the OECD, the company is part of New Zealand Telecommunications Forum. Telecom New Zealand was formed in 1987 from a division of the New Zealand Post Office and this separation effectively ended any remnants of monopoly that Telecom Retail once had in the market. In 2011 the demerger process was complete, with Telecom and Chorus becoming separate listed companies, on 8 August 2014, the company changed its name to Spark New Zealand. The selling price of Telecom was considered by some to be extremely low, in 1990, Telecom was sold to two United States-based telecommunications companies, Bell Atlantic and Ameritech, for NZ$4.25 billion. Around the same time, the Kiwi Share agreement was drawn up, also in 1990, Clear Communications entered the New Zealand telecommunications market and so was the first network to compete with Telecom. In 1991, Telecom listed on the New Zealand, Australian, the following year Telecom implemented a NZ$200 million fibre-optic cable connection between Australia and New Zealand. Also in this year, Roderick Deane was appointed CEO of the company, Clear Communications reached an agreement with Telecom in 1995 on local service interconnection. Also in 1995 Telecom created First Media Ltd to develop a television network across Auckland and Wellington. In 1996 Telecom established an exchange in the United States for international traffic, and launched Xtra. 1997 saw Telecom buy back NZ$1 Billion of its shares, in December 1997 Patricia Reddy was appointed to the Telecom board. She remained on it until 2008, in March 2016 as Dame Patsy Reddy she was appointed Governor General designate of New Zealand. In 1999, Telecom established a presence in Australia, buying 78% of AAPT, Telecom upgraded its nationwide payphone network to smart card technology. Telecoms broadband Internet service based on ADSL technology, called JetStream, was launched, also at this time, Telecom began charging customers who connected to the Internet using a local dial up number, forcing all ISPs in New Zealand to change to an 0867 dial up number. This resulted in complaints that this was in breach of Telecoms Kiwishare Agreement where residential customers are allowed free local calling, the decade was rounded off with Theresa Gattung being appointed new CEO of Telecom, with Rod Deane moving to the position of chairman. In 2000, Xtra signed up its 300, 000th customer, Telecom also raised its shareholding in AAPT to 100%. Evidence emerged in early 2002 of Telecom having exploited an ill-considered, or fraudulently made to order and this standard required holding companies to incorporate profits and losses of associate companies into their group accounts by way of equity accounting except when the associate is insolvent
25.
Google
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Google is an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products. These include online advertising technologies, search, cloud computing, software, Google was founded in 1996 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were Ph. D. students at Stanford University, in California. Together, they own about 14 percent of its shares, and they incorporated Google as a privately held company on September 4,1998. An initial public offering took place on August 19,2004, in August 2015, Google announced plans to reorganize its various interests as a conglomerate called Alphabet Inc. Google, Alphabets leading subsidiary, will continue to be the company for Alphabets Internet interests. Upon completion of the restructure, Sundar Pichai became CEO of Google, replacing Larry Page, rapid growth since incorporation has triggered a chain of products, acquisitions, and partnerships beyond Googles core search engine. The company leads the development of the Android mobile operating system, the Google Chrome web browser, and Chrome OS, the new hardware chief, Rick Osterloh, stated, a lot of the innovation that we want to do now ends up requiring controlling the end-to-end user experience. Google has also experimented with becoming an Internet carrier, alexa, a company that monitors commercial web traffic, lists Google. com as the most visited website in the world. Several other Google services also figure in the top 100 most visited websites, including YouTube, Googles mission statement, from the outset, was to organize the worlds information and make it universally accessible and useful, and its unofficial slogan was Dont be evil. In October 2015, the motto was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase Do the right thing, Google began in January 1996 as a research project by Larry Page and Sergey Brin when they were both PhD students at Stanford University in Stanford, California. They called this new technology PageRank, it determined a websites relevance by the number of pages, and the importance of those pages, Page and Brin originally nicknamed their new search engine BackRub, because the system checked backlinks to estimate the importance of a site. Originally, Google ran under Stanford Universitys website, with the domains google. stanford. edu, the domain name for Google was registered on September 15,1997, and the company was incorporated on September 4,1998. It was based in the garage of a friend in Menlo Park, craig Silverstein, a fellow PhD student at Stanford, was hired as the first employee. The first funding for Google was an August 1998 contribution of $100,000 from Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, given before Google was incorporated. At least three other investors invested in 1998, Amazon. com founder Jeff Bezos, Stanford University computer science professor David Cheriton. Author Ken Auletta claims that each invested $250,000, early in 1999, Brin and Page decided they wanted to sell Google to Excite. They went to Excite CEO George Bell and offered to sell it to him for $1 million, vinod Khosla, one of Excites venture capitalists, talked the duo down to $750,000, but Bell still rejected it. Googles initial public offering took place five years later, on August 19,2004, at that time Larry Page, Sergey Brin, and Eric Schmidt agreed to work together at Google for 20 years, until the year 2024
26.
Android (operating system)
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Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google, based on the Linux kernel and designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. In addition to devices, Google has further developed Android TV for televisions, Android Auto for cars. Variants of Android are also used on notebooks, game consoles, digital cameras, beginning with the first commercial Android device in September 2008, the operating system has gone through multiple major releases, with the current version being 7.0 Nougat, released in August 2016. Android applications can be downloaded from the Google Play store, which features over 2.7 million apps as of February 2017, Android has been the best-selling OS on tablets since 2013, and runs on the vast majority of smartphones. In September 2015, Android had 1.4 billion monthly active users, Android is popular with technology companies that require a ready-made, low-cost and customizable operating system for high-tech devices. The success of Android has made it a target for patent, Android Inc. was founded in Palo Alto, California in October 2003 by Andy Rubin, Rich Miner, Nick Sears, and Chris White. Rubin described the Android project as tremendous potential in developing smarter mobile devices that are aware of its owners location. The early intentions of the company were to develop an operating system for digital cameras. Despite the past accomplishments of the founders and early employees, Android Inc. operated secretly and that same year, Rubin ran out of money. Steve Perlman, a friend of Rubin, brought him $10,000 in cash in an envelope. In July 2005, Google acquired Android Inc. for at least $50 million and its key employees, including Rubin, Miner and White, joined Google as part of the acquisition. Not much was known about Android at the time, with Rubin having only stated that they were making software for mobile phones, at Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device platform powered by the Linux kernel. Google marketed the platform to handset makers and carriers on the promise of providing a flexible, upgradeable system, Google had lined up a series of hardware components and software partners and signaled to carriers that it was open to various degrees of cooperation. Speculation about Googles intention to enter the communications market continued to build through December 2006. In September 2007, InformationWeek covered an Evalueserve study reporting that Google had filed several patent applications in the area of mobile telephony, the first commercially available smartphone running Android was the HTC Dream, also known as T-Mobile G1, announced on September 23,2008. Since 2008, Android has seen numerous updates which have improved the operating system, adding new features. Each major release is named in order after a dessert or sugary treat, with the first few Android versions being called Cupcake, Donut, Eclair. In 2010, Google launched its Nexus series of devices, a lineup in which Google partnered with different device manufacturers to produce new devices and introduce new Android versions
27.
Apple Inc.
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Apple is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and online services. Apples consumer software includes the macOS and iOS operating systems, the media player, the Safari web browser. Its online services include the iTunes Store, the iOS App Store and Mac App Store, Apple Music, Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne in April 1976 to develop and sell personal computers. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc. in January 1977, Apple joined the Dow Jones Industrial Average in March 2015. In November 2014, Apple became the first U. S. company to be valued at over US$700 billion in addition to being the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization. The company employs 115,000 full-time employees as of July 2015 and it operates the online Apple Store and iTunes Store, the latter of which is the worlds largest music retailer. Consumers use more than one billion Apple products worldwide as of March 2016, Apples worldwide annual revenue totaled $233 billion for the fiscal year ending in September 2015. This revenue accounts for approximately 1. 25% of the total United States GDP.1 billion, the corporation receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors and its environmental and business practices, including the origins of source materials. Apple was founded on April 1,1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, the Apple I kits were computers single-handedly designed and hand-built by Wozniak and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. The Apple I was sold as a motherboard, which was less than what is now considered a personal computer. The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66, Apple was incorporated January 3,1977, without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800. Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple, during the first five years of operations revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980 yearly sales grew from $775,000 to $118m, the Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was introduced on April 16,1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cell-based color graphics. While early Apple II models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 1/4 inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II. The Apple II was chosen to be the platform for the first killer app of the business world, VisiCalc. VisiCalc created a market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II. Before VisiCalc, Apple had been a distant third place competitor to Commodore, by the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line
28.
IOS
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IOS is a mobile operating system created and developed by Apple Inc. exclusively for its hardware. It is the system that presently powers many of the companys mobile devices, including the iPhone, iPad. It is the second most popular operating system globally after Android. IPad tablets are also the second most popular, by sales, originally unveiled in 2007 for the iPhone, iOS has been extended to support other Apple devices such as the iPod Touch and the iPad. As of January 2017, Apples App Store contains more than 2.2 million iOS applications,1 million of which are native for iPads and these mobile apps have collectively been downloaded more than 130 billion times. The iOS user interface is based upon direct manipulation, using multi-touch gestures, interface control elements consist of sliders, switches, and buttons. Internal accelerometers are used by applications to respond to shaking the device or rotating it in three dimensions. Apple has been praised for incorporating thorough accessibility functions into iOS, enabling users with vision. Major versions of iOS are released annually, the current version, iOS10, was released on September 13,2016. In iOS, there are four layers, the Core OS, Core Services, Media. In 2005, when Steve Jobs began planning the iPhone, he had a choice to either shrink the Mac, forstall was also responsible for creating a software development kit for programmers to build iPhone apps, as well as an App Store within iTunes. The operating system was unveiled with the iPhone at the Macworld Conference & Expo on January 9,2007, and released in June of that year. At the time of its unveiling in January, Steve Jobs claimed, iPhone runs OS X and runs applications, but at the time of the iPhones release. Initially, third-party native applications were not supported, Steve Jobs reasoning was that developers could build web applications through the Safari web browser that would behave like native apps on the iPhone. In October 2007, Apple announced that a native Software Development Kit was under development, on March 6,2008, Apple held a press event, announcing the iPhone SDK. The iOS App Store was opened on July 10,2008 with an initial 500 applications available.2 million in January 2017, as of March 2016,1 million apps are natively compatible with the iPad tablet computer. These apps have collectively been downloaded more than 130 billion times, App intelligence firm Sensor Tower has estimated that the App Store will reach 5 million apps by the year 2020. On September 5,2007, Apple released the iPod Touch, Apple also sold more than one million iPhones during the 2007 holiday season
29.
Cell site
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In Global System for Mobile Communications networks, the correct term is Base Transceiver Station, and colloquial synonyms are mobile phone mast or base station. The term base station site might better reflect the increasing co-location of multiple mobile operators, depending on an operators technology, even a site hosting just a single mobile operator may house multiple base stations, each to serve a different air interface technology. Some cities require that sites be inconspicuous, they can be blended with the surrounding area or mounted on buildings or advertising towers. Preserved treescapes can often hide cell towers inside a tree or preserved tree. These installations are generally referred to as concealed cell sites or stealth cell sites, the working range of a cell site is not a fixed figure. It will depend on a number of factors, including, but not limited to, the frequency of signal in use. Timing limitations in some technologies The transmitters rated power, the required uplink/downlink data rate of the subscribers device The directional characteristics of the site antenna array. Reflection and absorption of energy by buildings or vegetation. It may also be limited by geographical or regulatory factors. Generally, in areas where there are enough cell sites to cover a wide area, Ensure that the overlap area is not too large, to minimize interference problems with other sites. In practice, cell sites are grouped in areas of population density. Cell phone traffic through a site is limited by the base stations capacity. This limitation is another factor affecting the spacing of cell mast sites, in suburban areas, masts are commonly spaced 1–2 miles apart and in dense urban areas, masts may be as close as ¼-½ mile apart. The maximum range of a mast depends on the same circumstances, some technologies, such as GSM, normally have a fixed maximum range of 35 kilometres, which is imposed by technical limitations. CDMA and IDEN have no limit, but the limiting factor is the ability of a low-powered personal cell phone to transmit back to the mast. As a rough guide, based on a tall mast and flat terrain, when the terrain is hilly, the maximum distance can vary from as little as 5 kilometres to 8 kilometres due to encroachment of intermediate objects into the wide center fresnel zone of the signal. Depending on terrain and other circumstances, a GSM Tower can replace between 2 and 50 miles of cabling for fixed wireless networks, the concept of maximum range is misleading, however, in a cellular network. Cellular networks are designed to support many conversations with a number of radio channels that are licensed to an operator of a cellular service
30.
KiwiRail
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KiwiRail Holdings Limited is a New Zealand State-owned enterprise responsible for rail operations, which trades as KiwiRail. Headquartered in Wellington, New Zealand, KiwiRail is the largest rail operator in New Zealand. Since July 2010 John Spencer has been the chairman, KiwiRail Freight, KiwiRail Scenic Journeys and the Interisland Line are all subsidiaries of KiwiRail. KiwiRail was created from a number of entities that date back to the 19th century, prior to KiwiRail, rail transport in New Zealand has been under both public and private ownership. Government operators included the Public Works Department, New Zealand Railways Department, New Zealand Rail Limited was split off from the Railways Corporation in 1990, privatised in 1993 and then renamed in 1995 to Tranz Rail. After several years of negotiations the two parties could not come to an agreement on the amount that Toll should pay for access to the rail network, in July 2008, the government announced the purchase of Toll Rail from Toll, renaming it KiwiRail. Toll retained ownership of its trucking operation, for 13 years during private ownership, infrastructure investment outside of Wellington dropped to an average of just over $25m a year. Since then it has ranged between $100 and $200m a year, in the 2010 New Zealand budget KiwiRail received a capital injection of $250 million, and a further $500 million in principle to make it sustainable within a decade. The $4.6 billion would come from business itself, the plan aims to increase rail traffic volumes and revenue, increase productivity, modernise assets and separate out the commercial elements of the business from the non-commercial. Currently, a freight train journey between Auckland and Wellington takes thirteen and a half hours – similar to transit times in the late 1970s. A truck on the route takes nine hours. KiwiRail aims to reduce times to 11 hours. Enabling investment, Improved IT systems and processes, equipment and facilities at terminals Forty new locomotives and 3,000 new wagons. Improved track infrastructure The minor lines, KiwiRail will review business on, North Auckland Line Stratford - Okahukura Line Napier – Gisborne Line and North Wairarapa line. As a result, the Tranz Metro assets were transferred to the Greater Wellington Regional Council, two of KiwiRails major customers, Mainfreight and Fonterra, have invested heavily in rail-related infrastructure. Mainfreight has allocated $60 million for investment in new railhead depots, while Fonterra has invested $130 million in a new rail hub complex in Hamilton and another in Mosgiel. In 2013, company Chairman John Spencer stated that over the last three years of the plan, rail freight revenue has increased by over 25%, KiwiRails South Island operations were disrupted by the 2010 Canterbury earthquake, but KiwiRail also participated in disaster relief efforts. Their operations were again disrupted by the 2011 Canterbury earthquake, resulting in the cancellation of the TranzAlpine
31.
Corps of Royal New Zealand Military Police
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The Corps of Royal New Zealand Military Police provides military police services to the New Zealand Army, performing a variety of roles including criminal investigations. It consists of one unit, the 1st Military Police Company. The corps is a support element responsible for the policing, investigation, custodial, security. Personnel within the corps include commissioned officers and non-commissioned officers of both the Regular Force and Territorial Force, as a Corps, RNZMP date from 1915. However, there are links to earlier military policing, as the executive representatives of the Provost Marshal of the New Zealand Army, the RNZMP can claim the same ancient lineage as the Royal Military Police. The first record of a person conducting the duties of a provost marshal stem from 28 May 1241 and he and his under-provosts were the ancestors of the modern Royal Military Police. The first recorded provost marshal in English history of whom there is a record is Sir Henry Guldeford. The assistants were also authorised to hang offenders and eventually each division had its own assistant provost marshal, New Zealand became a colony of Britain in 1840. Policing within NZ started the year with the arrival of six constables accompanying Lieutenant Governor Hobsons official landing party. Early policing was undertaken by a police force, who were part police. With many of its first officers having seen service in either Ireland or Australia. The New Zealand Armed Constabulary Act of 1867 established a structure for a group that operated along gendermarie lines. The Armed Constabulary took part in the New Zealand Land Wars against Māori opposed to colonial expansion, still part police and part militia, this organisation is considered the predecessor of military policing within New Zealand. The Police Force Act of 1886 established a centralised police force. At the same time, the government moved the functions of the old Armed Constabulary to the forerunner of the New Zealand Defence Force called the New Zealand Permanent Militia. The New Zealand Permanent Militia, and later the New Zealand Military Forces, however, during the Second Boer War individual NZ soldiers served with the British Mounted Military Police in South Africa. During World War I New Zealand military police served on all fronts where New Zealand soldiers fought as part of 1 NZEF, after the Armistice, the NZ Military Police were disbanded. During World War II, the NZ Military Police were re-established, the first detachment sailed for the Middle East in January 1940, where they served on all fronts and in all engagements with 2NZEF
32.
Telephone directory
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Its purpose is to allow the telephone number of a subscriber identified by name and address to be found. The advent of the Internet and smart phones in the 21st century greatly reduced the need for a phone book. Some communities, such as Seattle and San Francisco, sought to ban their unsolicited distribution as wasteful, unwanted, subscriber names are generally listed in alphabetical order, together with their postal or street address and telephone number. It may also have civil defense or emergency management information, there may be transit maps, postal code/zip code guides, international dialing codes or stadium seating charts, as well as advertising. In the US, under current rules and practices, mobile phone, efforts to create cellular directories have met stiff opposition from several fronts, including those who seek to avoid telemarketers. A telephone directory and its content may be known by the color of the paper it is printed on, white pages generally indicates personal or alphabetic listings. Grey pages, sometimes called a telephone directory, allowing subscriber details to be found for a given number. Other colors may have meanings, for example, information on government agencies is often printed on blue pages or green pages. Telephone directories can be published in hard copy or in electronic form, in the latter case, the directory can be provided as an online service through proprietary terminals or over the Internet, or on physical media such as CD-ROM. In many countries directories are published in book form and also available over the Internet. Printed directories were usually supplied free of charge, Telephone directories are a type of city directory. Books listing the inhabitants of a city were widely published starting in the 18th century. The first British telephone directory was published on 15 January 1880 by The Telephone Company and it contained 248 names and addresses of individuals and businesses in London, telephone numbers were not used at the time as subscribers were asked for by name at the exchange. The directory is preserved as part of the British phone book collection by BT Archives, in 1981 France was the first country to have an electronic directory on a system called Minitel. The directory is called 11 after its telephone access number,1996 is the year the first telephone directories go online in the USA. Yellowpages. com and Whitepages. com both see their start in April, in 1999, the first online telephone directories and people finding sites such as LookupUK. com go online in the UK. In 2003, more advanced UK searching including Electoral Roll become available on LocateFirst. com, in the 21st century, printed telephone directories are increasingly criticized as waste. In 2012, after some North American cities passed laws banning the distribution of telephone books, manufacture and distribution of telephone directories produces over 1,400,000 metric tons of greenhouse gases and consumes over 600,000 tons of paper annually
33.
South Korea
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South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula
34.
National Intelligence Service (South Korea)
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The National Intelligence Service is the chief intelligence agency of South Korea. The agencys broad powers allowed it to intervene in politics. The agency took on the name Agency for National Security Planning in 1981, the ANSP is colloquially known as 안기부 Angibu in South Korea. In 1999, the agency assumed its current name, the advent of democracy in the Sixth Republic of South Korea has seen many of the duties and powers of the NIS curtailed, in response to public criticisms about past abuses. The agencys origins can be traced back to the Korean Counterintelligence Corps, the KCIA was founded on June 13,1961 by Kim Jong-pil, who drew much of the organizations initial 3, 000-strong membership from the KCIC. Kim, a Korean Military Academy graduate and nephew of Park Chung-hee by marriage, is credited for masterminding the 1961 coup detat that installed Park before he was elected president of Korea. The KCIA developed a reputation for interfering in politics and international affairs that were beyond its jurisdiction. In 1968 KCIA agents kidnapped seventeen Koreans living abroad in West Germany and they were transported back to Seoul, where they were tortured and brought up on charges of having violated the National Security Law by engaging in pro-Northern activities. The victims became a cause célèbre as the created a firestorm of international criticism that almost brought the Bonn government to break off diplomatic relations with South Korea. On the other hand, it is almost certain that West German authorities had been involved in the kidnappings, the KCIAs virtually unlimited and completely unchecked power to arrest and detain any person on any charge, created a climate of extreme fear and repression. Domestically, the KCIA made itself the philanthropical arm of the government by being a supporter of the arts, promoter of tourism. In 1979, Kim Jae-kyu, the director of many years, assassinated President Park Chung Hee, in the aftermath. The new director, Chun Doo-hwan, used his tenure from April to July 1980 to expand his power base beyond the military, the organization was renamed the Agency for National Security Planning in 1981, and its powers were redefined in presidential orders and legislation. The ANSP, like its predecessor, was a cabinet-level agency directly accountable to the president, the director of the ANSP continued to have direct presidential access. In March 1981, the ANSP was redesignated as the agency for collecting and processing all intelligence. The requirement for all agencies with intelligence-gathering and analysis functions in their charters to coordinate their activities with the ANSP was reaffirmed. By 1983 the ANSP had rebounded and again was the preeminent foreign, nevertheless, the ANSPs domestic powers were indeed curtailed under the Sixth Republic. Prior to the change, the ANSP had free access to all government offices and files, in May 1988, however, overt ANSP agents, along with agents of other intelligence agencies, were withdrawn from the National Assembly building
35.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
36.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
37.
National Health Service
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The National Health Service is the name of the public health services of England, Scotland and Wales, and is commonly used to refer to those of Northern Ireland. They were established together as one of the social reforms following the Second World War on the founding principles of being comprehensive, universal. Today, each provides a range of health services, the vast majority of which are free for people ordinarily resident in the United Kingdom. Taken together, the four National Health Services in 2015-16 employed around 1.6 million people with a budget of £136.7 billion. For non-residents, the NHS is free at the time of use, for general practitioner, the NHS began on the Appointed Day of 5 July 1948. This put into practice Westminster legislation for England and Wales from 1946 and Scotland from 1947, when Clement Attlees Labour Party won the 1945 election he appointed Aneurin Bevan as Health Minister. Bevan then embarked upon what the historian of the NHS, Charles Webster. Three years after the founding of the NHS, Bevan resigned from the Labour government in opposition to the introduction of charges for the provision of dentures and glasses, the following year, Winston Churchills Conservative government introduced prescription charges. These charges were the first of many controversies over reforms to the NHS throughout its history, each of the UKs four nations have their own separate NHS, each with its own history. From its earliest days, the history of the NHS has shown its place in British society reflected and debated in film, TV, cartoons. However, some functions might be performed by one health service on behalf of another. There have been issues about cross-border payments, taken together, the four National Health Services in 2015-16 employed around 1.6 million people with a combined budget of £136.7 billion. In 2014 the total health sector workforce across the UK was 2,165,043 and this broke down into 1,789,586 in England,198,368 in Scotland,110,292 in Wales and 66,797 in Northern Ireland. The NHS is free at the time of use, for general practitioner and emergency treatment not including admission to hospital, people with the right to medical care in European Economic Area nations are also entitled to free treatment by using the European Health Insurance Card. Those from other countries with which the UK has reciprocal arrangements also qualify for free treatment, people not ordinarily resident in the UK are in general not entitled to free hospital treatment, with some exceptions such as refugees. People not ordinarily resident may be subject to an interview to establish their eligibility, patients who do not qualify for free treatment are asked to pay in advance, or to sign a written undertaking to pay, except for emergency treatment. The provision of treatment to non-UK-residents, formerly interpreted liberally, has been increasingly restricted. As of 2016 the surcharge was £200 per year, with exemptions and reductions in some cases, the systems are 98. 8% funded from general taxation and National Insurance contributions, plus small amounts from patient charges for some services
38.
Emergency telephone
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The newspaper article mentioned that assistance had been difficult to provide to those involved in the pile-up. The system Harman envisaged was a series of units in a box on a short post. Picking up the handset would trigger an alarm in the Main Roads control centre and police, Emergency telephones are commonly found alongside major roads throughout the world. In the United Kingdom, orange SOS call boxes are spaced every 1.6 kilometres on all motorways as well as some major A roads, with roadside markers indicating the nearer phone. Emergency telephones were installed every 0.25 miles on all limited-access highways throughout Southern California in the United States as far back as the 1970s. In Melbourne, Australia, emergency telephones were introduced on metropolitan freeways in 1976, originally on the Tullamarine, South Eastern, on Italian Autostrade, SOS emergency phones, generally coloured in yellow, are found spaced every 2 kilometres. As cell phone use continues to increase, the need for emergency telephones declines, in California, freeway call boxes were used about 98,000 times in 2001. That number dropped by 80% to 20,100 times in 2010, the cost of freeway call boxes for the Service Authority for Freeways and Expressways program in the San Francisco Bay area is $1.7 million annually. Some phones are equipped with the equivalent of caller id and the agent receiving the call can identify the location if the caller cannot. In most U. S. states with roadside call boxes, in California, call boxes are identified by their mileage through individual counties using postmiles for reference. Each box has a 2-letter identifier for the county, followed by the route number, Emergency phones can also be found at the ends of bridges or near cliffs which have a history of suicides. These are generally routed directly to support agencies such as The Samaritans in the UK. They are also found along the coastline where members of the public may wish to report swimmers or boats in danger at sea. In the UK such phones connect directly to the Coastguard, Emergency phones are also found in elevators where entrapment is very common. These connect to an operator who can help people escape the stopped elevator, some car models have an SOS button that connects them to the car companys emergency center. If the car crashes, and the airbags inflate, then the phone inside the car activates. In some countries, they are found in places where people may feel vulnerable or unsafe at night. They are commonly found on university campuses and these are generally linked to security companies who patrol the streets where the phones are located
39.
Library of Congress
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The Library of Congress is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the de facto national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States, the Library is housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. it also maintains the Packard Campus in Culpeper, Virginia, which houses the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center. The Library of Congress claims to be the largest library in the world and its collections are universal, not limited by subject, format, or national boundary, and include research materials from all parts of the world and in more than 450 languages. Two-thirds of the books it acquires each year are in other than English. The Library of Congress moved to Washington in 1800, after sitting for years in the temporary national capitals of New York. John J. Beckley, who became the first Librarian of Congress, was two dollars per day and was required to also serve as the Clerk of the House of Representatives. The small Congressional Library was housed in the United States Capitol for most of the 19th century until the early 1890s, most of the original collection had been destroyed by the British in 1814, during the War of 1812. To restore its collection in 1815, the bought from former president Thomas Jefferson his entire personal collection of 6,487 books. After a period of growth, another fire struck the Library in its Capitol chambers in 1851, again destroying a large amount of the collection. The Library received the right of transference of all copyrighted works to have two copies deposited of books, maps, illustrations and diagrams printed in the United States. It also began to build its collections of British and other European works and it included several stories built underground of steel and cast iron stacks. Although the Library is open to the public, only high-ranking government officials may check out books, the Library promotes literacy and American literature through projects such as the American Folklife Center, American Memory, Center for the Book, and Poet Laureate. James Madison is credited with the idea for creating a congressional library, part of the legislation appropriated $5,000 for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress. And for fitting up an apartment for containing them. Books were ordered from London and the collection, consisting of 740 books and 3 maps, was housed in the new Capitol, as president, Thomas Jefferson played an important role in establishing the structure of the Library of Congress. The new law also extended to the president and vice president the ability to borrow books and these volumes had been left in the Senate wing of the Capitol. One of the only congressional volumes to have survived was a government account book of receipts and it was taken as a souvenir by a British Commander whose family later returned it to the United States government in 1940. Within a month, former president Jefferson offered to sell his library as a replacement
40.
000 (emergency telephone number)
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Triple Zero is the primary national emergency number in Australia. The Emergency Call Service is operated by Telstra as a condition of its telecommunications licence, other emergency numbers in Australia are 112 for GSM mobile and satellite phones, which is answered by a Triple Zero operator and 106 for TDD textphones. Those numbers changed in 1994 to 110,112 and 113 respectively, for calls to the State Emergency Service the Australia wide number 132500 can be used. This number should only be used for non–life-threatening situations, prior to 1969, Australia did not have a national number for emergency services, the police, fire and ambulance services possessed many phone numbers, one for each local unit. In 1961, the office of the Postmaster General introduced the Triple Zero number in major population centres, the number Triple Zero was chosen for several reasons, technically, it suited the dialling system for the most remote automatic exchanges, particularly outback Queensland. These communities used the digit 0 to select an automatic trunk line to a centre, in the most remote communities, two 0s had to be used to reach a main centre, thus dialling 0+0, plus another 0 would call an operator. Zero is closest to the stall on Australian rotary dial phones. 911 was previously considered as an emergency number, though existing numbering arrangements make this unfeasible due to homes and businesses being assigned numbers beginning with 911. Calling Triple Zero connects the caller to a Telstra operator who will then connect the caller to the emergency service organisation calltaker, Telstra operators will ask the caller if they require the Police, Fire, Ambulance. and their location if calling from a mobile phone or nomadic service. The caller is then connected to the relevant emergency service answer point as requested by the caller, the callers address is usually available to Telstra operators for fixed services in Australia even if the number is private. When calling from a telephone, callers should always attempt to provide accurate location details. This will assist emergency calltakers, and will expedite emergency service dispatch, within Australia, Triple Zero is a free call from any telephone. Simcards are not required to connect mobile phones to Emergency Services, interpreter services may also be available once connected to Emergency Services. Due to special configuration in their firmware, some 3G or GSM mobile phones sold in Australia will redirect other emergency numbers, such as 9-1-1 and 9-9-9, to Triple Zero. These calls are sent out by the handset as a flag to the network. ESTA operates three State Emergency Communications Centres, located in the Melbourne CBD, East Burwood, and Ballarat, using this information, a dispatcher will identify and dispatch the appropriate emergency services or resources. Calls for SES should be made to 132500, however if you have already called police or another service they will have notified SES if appropriate, many ESTA practices and protocols are standardised across all emergency services agencies, and all agencies use the same computer network. The result is complete and instantaneous information sharing between emergency services, on 7 February 2009, catastrophic bushfires occurred in Victoria, otherwise known as Black Saturday bushfires
41.
108 (emergency telephone number)
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108 is a free telephone number for emergency services in India. It is currently operational in 20 states and two Union Territories The 108 Emergency Response Service is an emergency service providing integrated medical, police. The service is a partnership between state governments and private EMS providers. This 108 service is rolled out initially by Ramalinga Raju. Dr. Y. S Rajashekar Reddy who was then the Chief minister of Andhra Pradesh, was the chief minister to sign an agreement with EMRI to roll out services in the state of Andhra Pradesh. This system was introduced by Central government of India, and the system was designed by Satyam Infotech. As of November 2014, this service had handled over 540,000 emergency cases in India. Telling Siri on an iOS device will call emergency services, when an emergency is reported through 108, the call taker gathers the needed basic information and dispatches appropriate services. Basic information obtained includes, Where the call is placed from, number of people injured and the condition of the injured. The callers name and contact number – for location guidance if required, Emergency help dispatched through this process is expected to reach the site of the emergency in an average of 18 minutes. Pre-hospital care will be given to patients being transported to the nearest hospital, GVK EMRI operates Dial 108 in Emergency in public private partnership with state governments. The service is free to patients. Call 108 and save a life,108 Emergency Ambulance Services at Tamil Nadu Health Systems Project
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Rescue 1122
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Rescue 1122 is an emergency service that serves Punjab Province in Pakistan. The service is accessed by calling 1122 from any phone and it was established under the 2006 Punjab Emergency Service Act to provide management of emergencies such as fire, rescue and emergency medical services. Dr Rizwan Naseer is the current Director General of Rescue 1122 Pakistan, Rescue 1122 includes Emergency Ambulance, Rescue & Fire services and a Community Safety program. The District Emergency Officer is responsible for the operational management. The management is working to improve its services. In March 2013, Emergency Rescue Service Rawalpindi received 14 new fully equipped ambulances, presently, Rescue 1122 is representing a model of integrated emergency services in the world. It is offering emergency, fire, rescue, disaster management, water rescue, animal rescue, the Academy has been established in vacant Government premises and the construction of a purpose built campus is underway. It consists of a Training Manikins lab, Rescue Simulation Building, Hazmat Incident Training, Urban Search, Emergency management training uses a variety of incident scenarios which have been simulated for hands on training for the personnel of Emergency Services. Fires, building collapse, hazardous material incidents and emergencies involving mass casualties are created routinely whilst standards of safety are maintained at all levels, Training material developed by Punjab Emergency Service supports the practical training. The Academy is in the process of obtaining international accreditation, bilateral collaboration between PES and emergency services of the United Kingdom have trained emergency officers in the UK. Moreover, Rescue 1122 is now also training Pakistan Armys Medical Corp, in more advanced developing countries, establishing ambulance transport systems is more feasible, but still requires considerable expertise and planning. Prior to 2004, Pakistan did not have an emergency medical system. In that year, Rescue 1122 was launched as a professional pre-hospital emergency service, and it has managed to achieve an average response time of 7 minutes, comparable to that of developed nations
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112 (emergency telephone number)
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112 is the common emergency telephone number that can be dialed free of charge from most mobile telephones and, in some countries, fixed telephones in order to reach emergency services. 112 is a part of the GSM standard and all GSM-compatible telephone handsets are able to dial 112 even when locked or, in some countries, with no SIM card present. It is also the emergency number in all member states of the European Union as well as several other countries of Europe. 112 is often alongside other numbers traditionally used in the given country to access emergency services. In some countries, calls to 112 are not connected directly,112 is not always supported by VoIP operators or on non-GSM networks. Accidental calls to emergency centres from mobile phones, which can dial emergency numbers even with locked keypad, are a problem with same-digit numbers. The same choice also maximised dialling speed, for this reason, Germanys police emergency number was changed from 111 to 110. With numeric keypads, pressing only the first and second button on the keypad is marginally easier in a situation than other keys. Dominican Republic East Timor Egypt Estonia Finland France Germany Gibraltar Georgia Single emergency number in Georgia 112 Greece Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran Ireland Israel. g,061 and 112 in Spain,999 and 112 both function in Ireland and the UK. In the United States, only some carriers, including AT&T will map the number 112 to its emergency number 9-1-1,112 is managed and financed in the European Union by each member state which also decide on the organization of the emergency call centres. The number is also adopted in the candidates for EU accession, the International Telecommunications Union recommends that member states that are selecting a primary or secondary emergency number choose either 911,112 or both. 112 is one of two numbers that can be dialed on most GSM phones even if the phone is locked, E112 is a location-enhanced version of 112. The telecom operator transmits the information to the emergency centre. The EU Directive E112 requires mobile phone networks to provide emergency services with whatever information they have about the location a mobile call was made and this directive is based on the FCCs Enhanced 911 ruling in 2001. The new eCall project for automated emergency calls from cars is based on E1000, since 2009 and a tripartite convention signed by the European Commission, the European Parliament and the Council of the EU,11 February is the European 112 Day. At this occasion, events take place to promote the existence, the European Emergency Number Association has published some of the actions that were taken in European countries on their website. Getting 112 to work across the EU is a complex task and it requires in particular coordination between civil protection administrations and electronic communications administrations. That is why the Commission decided to act at European level, the objective of the group is to deal with practical issues Member States are facing to provide an efficient and effective 112 service to citizens
