1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
2.
1199SEIU United Healthcare Workers East
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1199SEIU United Healthcare Workers East is the largest healthcare union the United States. With a membership of 400,000 including retirees, its mission is to achieve quality healthcare, good jobs. It is the largest local union within the Service Employees International Union, Local 1199 was founded in 1932 as a local of the Drug, Hospital, and Health Care Employees Union by Leon J. Davis to organize pharmacists in New York City. The local also included pharmacists, pharmacy clerks and soda jerks, the union led pioneering pickets and strikes against racial segregation and racially discriminatory hiring in Harlem and elsewhere in New York City during the 1930s. The House Un-American Activities Committee investigated Local 1199s leadership in 1948 for Communist infiltration, Local 1199 first successfully organized nonprofessional hospital workers in 1958, mobilizing a heavily Black and Puerto Rican workforce in the first flush of the postwar Civil Rights Movement. On 8 May 1959 about 3500 hospital workers began a strike against seven large private hospitals in New York City that lasted forty-six days and this unprecedented action ended when both sides agreed that labor relations in the hospitals would be supervised by a quasi-public agency, the Permanent Administrative Committee. The committee was successfully challenged in 1962, the local began organizing professional and technical workers in 1963, and in the same year won the right to collective bargaining under provisions of the states labor relations act. The unions first campaign outside of New York City was the formation of District 1199B in Columbia, serious faction fights broke out within the flagship New York local and among other 1199 locals after the retirement of the unions original leadership. Most locals eventually merged with SEIU, but 1199C in Philadelphia, under the leadership of Henry Nicholas, internal disputes persisted until 1989, when Dennis Rivera became its president. Rivera oversaw the local’s 1998 incorporation into SEIU and a growth in membership as it integrated smaller SEIU chapters. Martin Luther King, Jr. famously described 1199 as my favorite union, and his widow Coretta Scott King became the honorary chairman of 1199s organizing campaigns as it sought to expand outside of New York City beginning the late 1960s. C. More recently, Patrick Gaspard, an executive vice president for politics. Gaspard was appointed White House Political Director during Obama’s first term in office, in addition to collective bargaining for its 400,000 members along the East Coast,1199 utilizes its substantial budget to lobby and make political endorsements across party lines. Milly Silva, current executive vice president of 1199SEIU, was the Democratic candidate for lieutenant governor of New Jersey in the 2013 election
3.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
4.
Industrial unionism
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In 1922, Marion Dutton Savage cataloged the disadvantages of craft unionism, as observed by industrial union advocates. Industrial unionists observe that craft union members are often required by their contracts to cross the picket lines established by workers in other unions. Likewise, in a strike of miners, unionized railroad workers may be required by their contracts to haul scab coal. Employers find it easier to enforce one bad contract, then use that as a precedent, employers could also show favoritism to a strategic group of workers. Employers also find it easier to outsource the work of a craft union. A craft union with critical skills may be able to shut down an entire industry, the disadvantage is the harsh feelings of those who may be forced out of work by such an action, yet receive none of the bargained-for benefits. Savage observed that industrial unionists criticized craft unionism not only for the ineffectiveness in dealing with a single employer, a union that challenges such a combination is most effective if its own structure reflects that of the company. Industrial unions likewise do not normally assess prohibitive dues rates common with craft unions, thus, the entire group of workers finds solidarity more elusive. Not only is loyalty to fellow-workers in the same industry emphasized, in the United States, the conception of industrial unionism in the 1920s certainly differed from that of the 1930s, for example. The Congress of Industrial Organizations primarily practiced a form of industrial unionism prior to its 1955 merger with the American Federation of Labor, Unions in the resulting federation, the AFL-CIO, sometimes have a mixture of tendencies. The most basic philosophy of the union movement observes that an individual cannot stand alone against the power of the company, having come to that understanding, the next question becomes, who is to be included in the union. The craft unionist advocates sorting workers into exclusive groups of skilled workers, the organization operates, and the rules are formulated primarily to benefit members of that particular group. Savage identified a group that may not be craft based. They are in essence craft groups which have combined to solve jurisdictional difficulties. The industrial unionist sees advantage in organizing by industry, the local organization is broader and deeper, with less opportunity for employers to turn one group of workers against another. These are the middle stratum of workers, Industrial unionists motivated by a more global impulse act upon a universal premise, that all workers must support each other no matter their particular industry or locale. These might be unskilled or migratory workers who conceive of their philosophy as one big union. In 1922 these workers were described as believing in assault rather than in agreements with employers, power is spectacular rather than continuous, as its members have little experience in organization
5.
Pharmacist
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Pharmacists, also known as chemists or druggists, are healthcare professionals who practice in pharmacy, the field of health sciences focusing on safe and effective medication use. A pharmacist is a member of the care team directly involved with patient care. This is mated to anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology, Pharmacists interpret and communicate this specialized knowledge to patients, physicians, and other health care providers. Among other licensing requirements, different countries require pharmacists to hold either a Bachelor of Pharmacy, Master of Pharmacy, in most countries, the profession is subject to professional regulation. Depending on the scope of practice, pharmacists may contribute to prescribing and administering certain medications in some jurisdictions. Pharmacists may also practice in a variety of settings, including industry, wholesaling, research, academia, military. Historically, the role of pharmacists as a healthcare practitioner was to check. Pharmacists monitor the health and progress of patients to ensure the safe, Pharmacists may practice compounding, however, many medicines are now produced by pharmaceutical companies in a standard dosage and drug delivery form. One of the most important roles that pharmacists are currently taking on is one of pharmaceutical care, Pharmaceutical care involves taking direct responsibility for patients and their disease states, medications, and management of each to improve outcomes. Pharmacists are often the first point-of-contact for patients with health inquiries, thus pharmacists have a significant role in assessing medication management in patients, and in referring patients to physicians. In most countries, pharmacists must obtain a university degree at a school or related institution. In many contexts, students must first complete pre-professional coursework, followed by four years of professional academic studies to obtain a degree in pharmacy. Additional curriculum may cover diagnosis with emphasis on tests, disease state management, therapeutics. On graduation, pharmacists are licensed, either nationally or regionally, some may undergo further specialized training, such as in cardiology or oncology. Specialties include, The Australian Pharmacy Council is the independent accreditation agency for Australian pharmacists and it conducts examinations on behalf of the Pharmacy Board of Australia towards eligibility for registration. The Australian College of Pharmacy provides continuing education programs for pharmacists, wages for pharmacists in Australia appear to have stagnated. The award wages for a pharmacist is $812 a week, Pharmacist graduates are the lowest paid university graduates most years. Most pharmacists do earn above the wage, the average male pharmacist earns $65,000
6.
Soda jerk
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A soda jerk is a person—typically a youth—who operates the soda fountain in a drugstore, often for the purpose of preparing and serving flavored soda water or an ice cream soda. This was made by putting flavored syrup into a specially designed tall glass, adding carbonated water and, finally, the result was served with a long-handled spoon, most commonly known as a soda spoon, and drinking straws. The unflavored carbonated water was used to all of the drinks. Consequently, the tap handle was large, as a busy shop would have the soda jerker using it frequently. This made the mixing of drinks a center of activity at the soda fountain counter, the practice of operating a soda fountain in a drugstore reached its peak popularity in the 1940s. The position was highly coveted, and was only awarded after several months or years of menial labor in the store. Michael Karl Witzel describes the archetypal soda jerk as being consummate showman, innovator, the pop culture star of the Gilded Age. The proliferation of ice cream parlors declined, however, as drive-ins and walk-up fast food stands grew in popularity, some modern theme diners are styled after establishments from the 1950s, however, and include an actual soda jerk, along with retro jukeboxes and booth seating. Longtime soda jerk closes up shop, The Topeka Capital-Journal, July 9,2000
7.
House Un-American Activities Committee
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The House Un-American Activities Committee was an investigative committee of the United States House of Representatives. The HUAC was created in 1938 to investigate alleged disloyalty and subversive activities on the part of citizens, public employees. In 1969, the House changed the name to House Committee on Internal Security. When the House abolished the committee in 1975, its functions were transferred to the House Judiciary Committee, the committees anti-communist investigations are often associated with those of Joseph McCarthy who, as a U. S. Senator, had no direct involvement with this House committee. McCarthy was the chairman of the Government Operations Committee and its Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the U. S. Senate, not the House. The Overman Committee was a subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary chaired by North Carolina Democratic Senator Lee Slater Overman that operated from September 1918 to June 1919, the subcommittee investigated German as well as Bolshevik elements in the United States. This committee was concerned with investigating pro-German sentiments in the American liquor industry. Among the committees targets were the American Civil Liberties Union and communist presidential candidate William Z. Foster, the committee was widely known as the McCormack-Dickstein committee. Its records are held by the National Archives and Records Administration as records related to HUAC, the committee investigated allegations of a fascist plot to seize the White House, known as the business plot. Although the plot was reported as a hoax, the committee confirmed some details of the accusations. It is unclear whether he passed on any information. It was chaired by Martin Dies, Jr. and therefore known as the Dies Committee, in 1938, Hallie Flanagan, the head of the Federal Theatre Project, was subpoenaed to appear before the committee to answer the charge the project was overrun with communists. Flanagan was called to testify for only a part of one day, in 1939, the committee investigated leaders of the American Youth Congress, a Communist International affiliate organization. The committee also put together an argument for the internment of Japanese Americans known as the Yellow Report, a number of anti-WRA arguments were presented in subsequent hearings, but Director Dillon Myer debunked the more inflammatory claims. Twenty years later, in 1965–1966, however, the committee did conduct an investigation into Klan activities under chairman Edwin Willis, the House Committee on Un-American Activities became a standing committee in 1945. Democratic Representative Edward J. Hart of New Jersey became the committees first chairman, under this mandate, the committee focused its investigations on real and suspected communists in positions of actual or supposed influence in the United States society. A significant step for HUAC was its investigation of the charges of espionage brought against Alger Hiss in 1948 and this investigation ultimately resulted in Hisss trial and conviction for perjury, and convinced many of the usefulness of congressional committees for uncovering communist subversion. In 1947, the committee held nine days of hearings into alleged communist propaganda, after conviction on contempt of Congress charges for refusal to answer some questions posed by committee members, The Hollywood Ten were blacklisted by the industry
8.
Communism
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Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
9.
Congress of Industrial Organizations
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The Congress of Industrial Organizations, was a federation of unions that organized workers in industrial unions in the United States and Canada from 1935 to 1955. Created by John L. Lewis in 1935, it was called the Committee for Industrial Organization. The CIO supported Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal Coalition, both the CIO and its rival the AFL grew rapidly during the Great Depression. The rivalry for dominance was bitter and sometimes violent, the CIO was founded on November 9,1936, by eight international unions belonging to the American Federation of Labor. In its statement of purpose, the CIO said it had formed to encourage the AFL to organize workers in production industries along industrial union lines. The CIO failed to change AFL policy from within, on September 10,1936, the AFL suspended all 10 CIO unions. In 1938, these formed the Congress of Industrial Organizations as a rival labor federation. The Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 required union leaders to swear that they were not Communists, many CIO leaders refused to obey that requirement, later found unconstitutional. In 1955, the CIO rejoined the AFL, forming the new entity known as the American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations, the CIO was born out of a fundamental dispute within the United States. Labor movement over whether and how to organize industrial workers and those who favored craft unionism believed that the most effective way to represent workers was to defend the advantages they had secured through their skills. They used that power to quash any drive toward industrial organizing and they started to press the AFL to change its policies in this area. The AFL did, in fact, respond, and added more new members than the CIO. The AFL had long permitted the formation of unions, which were affiliated directly with the AFL. The AFL did not, however, promise to allow those unions to maintain a separate identity indefinitely and that meant these unions might be broken up later in order to distribute their members among the craft unions that claimed jurisdiction over their work. The AFL, in fact, dissolved hundreds of federal unions in late 1934, while the bureaucratic leadership of the AFL was unable to win strikes, three victorious strikes suddenly exploded onto the scene in 1934. Victorious industrial unions with militant leaderships were the catalyst that brought about the rise of the CIO, the AFL did authorize organizing drives in the automobile, rubber and steel industries at its convention in 1934, but gave little financial support or effective leadership to those unions. The AFLs timidity only succeeded in making it less credible among the workers it was trying to organize. This was especially significant in those industries, such as auto and rubber, Lewis responded that Hutchesons comment was small potatoes, to which Hutcheson replied I was raised on small potatoes, that is why I am so small
