1.
Photography
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
2.
Kodak
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Eastman Kodak Company, commonly referred to as Kodak, is an American technology company that produces imaging products with its historic basis on photography. The company is headquartered in Rochester, New York and is incorporated in New Jersey, Kodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Print Systems, Enterprise Inkjet Systems, Micro 3D Printing and Packaging, Software and Solutions and it is best known for photographic film products. Kodak was founded by George Eastman and Henry A, during most of the 20th century, Kodak held a dominant position in photographic film. The companys ubiquity was such that its Kodak moment tagline entered the lexicon to describe a personal event that was demanded to be recorded for posterity. Kodak began to struggle financially in the late 1990s, as a result of the decline in sales of photographic film, as a part of a turnaround strategy, Kodak began to focus on digital photography and digital printing, and attempted to generate revenues through aggressive patent litigation. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. In February 2012, Kodak announced that it would stop making digital cameras, pocket video cameras and digital picture frames, in January 2013, the Court approved financing for Kodak to emerge from bankruptcy by mid 2013. Kodak sold many of its patents for approximately $525,000,000 to a group of companies under the names Intellectual Ventures, on September 3,2013, the company emerged from bankruptcy having shed its large legacy liabilities and exited several businesses. Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging are now part of Kodak Alaris, on March 12,2014, it announced that the board of directors elected Jeffrey J. Clarke as chief executive officer and a member of its board of directors. As late as 1976, Kodak commanded 90% of film sales, Japanese competitor Fujifilm entered the U. S. market with lower-priced film and supplies, but Kodak did not believe that American consumers would ever desert its brand. Kodak passed on the opportunity to become the film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, Fuji won these sponsorship rights. Fuji opened a plant in the U. S. and its aggressive marketing. Fuji went from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% in 1997, fujis films soon also found a competitive edge in higher-speed negative films, with a tighter grain structure. The complaint was lodged by the United States with the World Trade Organization, on January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the film market in Japan. Although Kodak developed a camera in 1975, the first of its kind. In the 1990s, Kodak planned a journey to move to digital technology. CEO George M. C. Fisher reached out to Microsoft, Apples pioneering QuickTake consumer digital cameras, introduced in 1994, had the Apple label but were produced by Kodak
3.
126 film
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For the unrelated roll-film format produced from 1906 to 1949, see 126 film. 126 is the given to a cartridge-based film format used in still photography. It was introduced by Kodak in 1963, and is associated mainly with low-end point-and-shoot cameras, although 126 was once very popular, as of 2008 it is no longer manufactured, and few photofinishers will process it. In 1963, Kodak introduced a new film, encased in a plastic cartridge, the term 126 was intended to show that images were 26 mm square, using Kodaks common 1xx film numbering system. However the image size is actually 28×28 mm, but usually reduced to approximately 26. 5×26.5 mm by masking during printing or mounting, the 126 film format was defined in ISO3029, which has since been withdrawn. Like the 120 format, there is a backing paper. The cartridge has a captive take-up spool, but no supply spool, the positioning of the image is fixed by the cartridge. The film is 35 mm wide, but unlike 135 film, it is unperforated, except for one registration hole per image, similar to the earlier 828 film. The top edge of the cartridge above the gate has a square notch in a specific position corresponding to the speed of the film in the cartridge. Some of the cameras used this notch to determine the correct exposure, or to set the light meter. Although only film with speeds between ISO 64/19° and ISO 400/27° were ever manufactured in this format, the standard defined 20 different speeds, the film was originally available in 12 and 20 image lengths, at the time regular production stopped it was only available in 24 exposure cartridges. The film does not need to be rewound, and is simple to load and unload. The format was introduced by Kodak under the brand name Kodapak, around ten million cameras were made by Kodak and other companies. However, with a few exceptions, the format was used for fairly simple amateur cameras. Kodak officially discontinued the format on 31 December 1999, Ferrania in Italy, was the last factory producing 126 film. Their product was an ISO200 colour print film marketed under their Solaris brand, the last scheduled production run took place in April 2007, but an unscheduled production run in late 2007 surprised industry observers and raised hopes that it had not actually been discontinued. As of March 2009, Ferrania customer service states that they are producing only 135 format color film in 200 and 400 ASA. Adocolor 126, which was recently available in Europe and was sometimes imported by North American resellers, was manufactured for the German Adox company by Ferrania
4.
110 film
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110 is a cartridge-based film format used in still photography. It was introduced by Kodak in 1972,110 is essentially a miniaturised version of Kodaks earlier 126 film format. Each frame is 13 mm ×17 mm, with one registration hole, the film is fully housed in a plastic cartridge, which also registers the image when the film is advanced. There is a backing paper, and the frame number. The film does not need to be rewound and is simple to load and unload. It is pre-exposed with frame lines and numbers, a feature intended to make it easier, unlike later competing formats, such as disc and APS film, processed 110 negatives were returned in strips, without the original cartridge. The 110 cartridge was introduced by Kodak in 1972 with Kodak Pocket Instamatic cameras, the new pocket-sized cameras became immediately popular, and soon displaced competing subminiature cameras, such as the Minolta 16 series, from the market. The 110 film width is 16 mm, a four frame strip measures 111 mm. Fujifilm stopped manufacturing 110 in September 2009. Lomography re-commenced 110 film production in 2011, Lomography sell 110 Black and White, Colour negative, and Colour slide film. Such cameras are capable of making high-quality images on 110 film, some of these cameras are quite small and still hold appeal to subminiature-photography enthusiasts. The small negative size of 110 film makes it difficult to enlarge successfully, for these reasons, the 110 format is associated with prints that are often rather grainy and unsharp. This has led to the misconception that the cartridge itself is incapable of holding film flat enough for making high-quality negatives, the 110 cartridge, as specified by Kodak, has a plastic tab on one end. Camera designers had the option of using this tab to sense film speed, a short tab indicated high-speed film, and a long tab indicated low-speed film. Kodak left it to the manufacturer to decide which film speeds were high or low. Only a few took advantage of this feature, Rollei A110, Canon 110 ED, Minolta 110 Zoom SLR Mark I/II, Minox 110S. The last 110 film that Kodak produced was ISO400 speed packed in a cartridge that senses as low speed, as shown in the photograph to the right, these cartridges can be modified by hand so that they signal the proper speed to the camera. Although the format is associated with print film, Kodak also produced Kodachrome 110 slide film until 1982. In 2012 Lomography re-introduced slide film for 110 with their Peacock 200 ASA model, however, since not all 110 cameras have a settable ASA dial, a ND filter has to be used over the lens or the exposure compensation dial has to be used where available
5.
Autographic film
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The autographic system for roll film was launched by Kodak in 1914, and allowed the photographer to add written information on the film at the time of exposure. The system was patented by Henry Jacques Gaisman, inventor and safety razor manufacturer, george Eastman purchased the rights for US$300,000. It consisted of a tissue-like carbon paper sandwiched between the film and the paper backing, text was entered using a metal stylus, and would appear in the margin of the processed print. The system was never popular, and was discontinued in 1932. Kodaks autographic films had A as the first part of the film size designation, thus, standard 122 film would be labeled 122 and autographic 122 would be A122. Autographic roll film sizes were A116, A118, A120, A122, A123, A126, A127, the autographic feature was marketed as having no extra charge. In 1915, Kodak also sold upgrade autographic backs for their existing cameras, Film format Size A118 Autographic Film Cartridge Autographic camera and stylus Article by David Silver
6.
Exakta
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The Exakta was a camera produced by the Ihagee Kamerawerk in Dresden, Germany, founded as the Industrie und Handels-Gesellschaft mbH, in 1912. The inspiration and design of both the VP Exakta and the Kine Exakta are the work of the Ihagee engineer Karl Nüchterlein, highlights of Exakta cameras include, First single-lens reflex camera for 127 roll film came in 1933. First built-in flash socket, activated by the shutter, in 1935, First SLR for 35mm film came in 1936, the Kine Exakta. Early Kine Exaktas had a fixed waist-level viewfinder, but later models, examat and Travemat Through-the-lens metering prisms were introduced in the mid-1960s. Most controls—including the shutter release and the film wind lever—are on the left-hand side, the film is transported in the opposite direction to other 35mm SLRs. In classic Exaktas—made between 1936 and 1969—two film canisters can be used, one containing unexposed film and a second into which is wound the exposed film, the knife was omitted in the Exakta VX500, one of the last official Exakta cameras. The shutter release on classic Exaktas is on the front of the camera and it is pressed with the left forefinger. This is quite similar to the Praktina design, the shutter-release of which was located on the side of the camera-body front. Equipment is fully compatible between all models manufactured between 1936 and 1969, a related line of smaller, simpler cameras was the Exa line, these, too, existed in several variations. The Beseler Topcon line of 35mm cameras used the same mount as the Exakta. In the early 1970s the Exakta RTL1000 was introduced, it accepted the older models lenses but had its own range of viewfinders, m42 lens mount variants of the RTL line of cameras also appeared under the Practica name. After an economic collapse following Germanys reunification, the successor of the firm is now back in business and this company is not related to the Dutchman Johan Steenbergen, the founder of Ihagee, or with the Exakta, which was discontinued in the 1970s. The Exakta RTL1000, later simply RTL1000, is not considered a true Ihagee Exakta having only the lens mount in common with earlier Ihagee Exaktas. As the name Varex was already a trademark in the USA. As such, cameras sold in Europe that bore the name Varex, were sold in the United States as V or VX. Some camera imports were simply censored during shipment, their Varex stricken out with a silver to match the colour of the camera body, ISBN 2-9519891-0-5 Spiegelreflexkameras aus Dresden, Richard Hummel, Spiegelreflexkameras aus Dresden
7.
Rollei
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Later products included specialty and nostalgic type films for the photo hobbyist market. Originally named Werkstatt für Feinmechanik und Optik, Franke & Heidecke, KG, in 1979, and Rollei Fototechnic GmbH & Co. After being purchased in 1995 by Samsung Techwin, part of the South Korean Samsung Group, in 2002, it was bought by a Danish investment group, and renamed Rollei GmbH in 2004. Following another restructuring in 2007, Rollei was split into three companies, Franke & Heidecke GmbH, Feinmechanik und Optik focused on the production of professional medium format cameras and slide projectors, while RCP-Technik GmbH & Co. Finally, Rollei Metric GmbH took over the photogrammetry business, in early 2009, Franke & Heidecke GmbH, Feinmechanik und Optik declared itself insolvent. DHW Fototechnik presented two new Rolleiflex cameras and a new electronic shutter at photokina 2012, DHW itself filed for insolvency on 2014-08-15 and was dissolved in April 2015, thereby ending any further production of cameras, lenses and accessories. As of 2015 the brands Rollei and Rolleiflex continue to be owned by the RCP Technik Verwaltungs GmbH, on 2015-01-01, the RCP-Technik GmbH & Co. KG refirmed as Rollei GmbH & Co, KG to market digital consumer cameras and accessories under the Rollei label in Europe. Rollei was a German company that established a reputation with the Rolleiflex. Rollei was founded in 1920 as the Werkstatt für Feinmechanik und Optik, the company changed its name and legal form many times, to Rollei-Werke Franke & Heidecke in 1962, to Rollei-Werke Franke & Heidecke GmbH & Co. KG in 1979, to Rollei Fototechnic GmbH & Co, KG in 1981, and finally to Rollei GmbH in 2004. In 2006, the headquarters of Rollei GmbH were moved to Berlin while production was transferred to Rollei Produktion GmbH, currently Franke & Heidecke GmbH, the company underwent more radical restructuring in 2007/08. Rolleis decision to start manufacturing in Singapore in 1970 was regarded as an achievement by the photographic industry. Unfortunately, it damaged the companies reputation as a German precision manufacturer. In 1982, after failed attempts at restructuring, the company finally achieved success by focusing on medium format cameras along with a few other products. Surveying systems were added to the range in 1986, and modern digital. Over the years, many great photographers have used Rollei cameras, David Bailey and Diane Arbus, Brett Weston, and Helmut Newton, amongst others. Rollei cameras typically used Carl Zeiss or Schneider Kreuznach lenses, as well as manufactured by Rollei based on designs by Zeiss
8.
Yashica
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Yashica was a Japanese manufacturer of cameras. The trademark rights of Yashica are now owned by Hong Kong-based MF Jebsen Group, in 2015, trademark rights were transferred to Yashica International Company Limited and appointed 100 Enterprises International Group Co. Limited as Yashica Global Sole Agent, the company began in December 1949 in Nagano, Japan, when the Yashima Seiki Company was founded with an initial investment of $566. Its eight employees originally manufactured components for electric clocks, while the Yashimaflex used lenses labeled Tri-Lausar, successive models used Yashikor and Yashinon lenses. All of these lenses were manufactured for Yashica by the Tomioka Optical Works, late in 1953, Yashima Seiki Company became Yashima Optical Industry Company, Ltd. In 1957, Yashima founded Yashica, Inc. a subsidiary arm in New York City to manage marketing efforts in the United States,1957 also marked the introduction of a popular new TLR camera series, the Yashica Mat line. As well as an 8mm cine movie camera, during the next year and a half, Yashima continued to grow, with 1,982 employees by 1958. Later in 1958, Yashima changed its name to Yashica Company, Ltd, the Nicca acquisition was fortuitous, as the designs acquired assisted Yashica in expanding its product line into advanced 35mm rangefinder cameras. The Yashica Pentamatic, an advanced, modern 35mm Single Lens Reflex camera with a proprietary bayonet-mount, automatic diaphragm, as before, Yashica continued to source its lenses from the Tomioka Optical factory. Around 1959–1960, Yashica acquired the assets of the bankrupt Zunow Optical Industry Co. Ltd, with the assistance of Tomioka Optical Works, Yashica adapted Zunow lens designs into its own 8mm turret cine cameras. Like Zunow, Yashica found it difficult to gain acceptance with its proprietary SLR lens mount. The new SLR camera was introduced as the Penta J, the company continued to expand its international markets, and in August 1968, Yashica finally acquired its lens manufacturer, the Tomioka Optical and Machine Manufacturing Co. Ltd. By this time, Tomioka was one of the largest and most reputable lens manufacturers in Japan, sales of 35mm SLRs continued to grow steadily, and Yashica was quickly acquiring a reputation for both electronic camera expertise and high-quality optics. 1968 also marked the year of Yashicas last major TLR camera design, the Yashica Mat-124, in 1968, Yashica introduced the TL Electro-X 35mm single lens reflex camera and produced it until 1974. It had a screw thread lens mount, the M42 lens mount and it also had an all-electronic through-the-lens exposure meter in the viewfinder using LEDs. The Copal Square SE shutter, a metal blade focal plane shutter made by Copal Corporation. In 1972, Yashica introduced the TL Electro 35mm SLR camera which was similar to the Pentax Spotmatic camera made by the Asahi Optical Company. The TL Electro also used the electronic exposure LEDs that the prior TL Electro-X had introduced as well as the M42 screw threaded lens mount for its interchangeable lenses, the F. Alexander Porsche Group was hired to complete an ergonomic and styling study of the new camera
9.
Croatia
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Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a sovereign state between Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital city is Zagreb, which one of the countrys primary subdivisions. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres and has diverse, mostly continental, Croatias Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The countrys population is 4.28 million, most of whom are Croats, the Croats arrived in the area of present-day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD. They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century, tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria-Hungary, a fascist Croatian puppet state backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II. After the war, Croatia became a member and a federal constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year, the Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration. A unitary state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system, the International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high-income economy. Croatia is a member of the European Union, United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the service sector dominates Croatias economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world, the state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatias most important trading partner, since 2000, the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia, the rest is imported, the origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe. The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, the first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim, the oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th-century Branimir Inscription, where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately, but is likely to be from during the period of 879–892, the area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period
10.
Canon EOS
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Canon EOS is an autofocus single-lens reflex camera camera series produced by Canon Inc. Introduced in 1987 with the Canon EOS650, all EOS cameras used 35 mm film until October 1996 when the EOS IX was released using the new, in 2000, the D30 was announced, as the first digital SLR designed and produced entirely by Canon. Since 2005, all newly announced EOS cameras have used digital image sensors rather than film, the EOS line is still in production as Canons current digital SLR range, and, with the 2012 introduction of the Canon EOS M, Canons mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera system. The name EOS was chosen for Eos, the Titan goddess of the dawn in Greek mythology and it competes primarily with the Nikon F series and its successors, as well as autofocus SLR systems from Olympus Corporation, Pentax, Sony/Minolta, and Panasonic/Leica. In 2010, Canon held 44. 5% market share in DSLRs, at the heart of the system is the EF lens mount, which replaced the previous FD lens mount, which mainly supported only manual-focus lenses. The bayonet-style EF lens mount is at the centre of the EOS camera system, breaking compatibility with the earlier FD mount, it was designed with no mechanical linkages between moving parts in the lens and in the camera. The aperture and focus are controlled via electrical contacts, with motors in the lens itself and this was similar in some ways to Canons earlier attempt at AF with the T80. Other manufacturers including Contax, Nikons 1983 F3AF and Olympus have since embraced this type of drive system. It is a lens mount compared to most of its competition. The flash system in the EOS cameras has gone through a number of evolutions since its first implementation, the basic EOS flash system was actually developed not for the first EOS camera, but rather for the last high-end FD-mount manual-focus camera, the T90, launched in 1986. This was the first Canon camera with through-the-lens flash metering, although other brands had been metering that way for some time and it also introduced the A-TTL system for better flash exposure in program mode, using infrared preflashes to gauge subject distance. This system was carried over into the early EOS cameras wholesale, A-TTL largely fell out of favor, and was replaced by E-TTL. This used a pre-flash for advanced metering, and used the system to judge where the main subject was for more accurate exposure. E-TTL II, which was an enhancement in the firmware only. Canon Speedlite-brand flashes have evolved alongside the cameras and they are capable of wired and wireless multi-flash setups, the latter using visible or infrared pulses to synchronise. Canon also produces Speedlite accessories, including the OC-E3 Off-Camera Shoe Cord, the Off-Camera Shoe Cord is popular among portrait photographers who need to have more control over lighting than a camera mounted flash can offer. As of 2017, Canon has released no fewer than 70 EOS SLR and DSLR camera models, in the 1990s, Canon worked with Kodak to produce digital camera bodies, starting with the EOS DCS3 in 1995. The first digital EOS SLR camera wholly designed and manufactured by Canon was the EOS D30, Canon sold two EOS cameras designed to use the APS film format, the EOS IX and the EOS IX Lite
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