1.
Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk
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The Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk is an unmanned surveillance aircraft. It was initially designed by Ryan Aeronautical, and known as Tier II+ during development, the Global Hawk performs a similar role as the Lockheed U-2. The RQ-4 provides an overview and systematic surveillance using high-resolution synthetic aperture radar. It can survey as much as 40,000 square miles of terrain a day, the Global Hawk is operated by the United States Air Force. It is used as a platform covering the spectrum of intelligence collection capability to support forces in worldwide military operations. According to the United States Air Force, the surveillance capabilities of the aircraft allow more precise weapons targeting. Cost overruns led to the plan to acquire 63 aircraft being cut to 45. Each aircraft was to cost US$60.9 million in 2001, the U. S. Navy has developed the Global Hawk into the MQ-4C Triton maritime surveillance platform. The Global Hawk took its first flight on 28 February 1998, the first seven aircraft were built under the Advanced Concept Technology Demonstration program, sponsored by DARPA, in order to evaluate the design and demonstrate its capabilities. Demand for the RQ-4s abilities was high in the Middle East, thus, in an unusual move, the aircraft entered initial low-rate production while still in engineering and manufacturing development. Nine production Block 10 aircraft, sometimes referred to as RQ-4A, were produced, of these, the final Block 10 aircraft was delivered on 26 June 2006. In order to increase the capabilities, the airframe was redesigned, with the nose section. The modified aircraft, designated RQ-4B Block 20, allow it to carry up to 3,000 lb of internal payload and these changes were introduced with the first Block 20 aircraft, the 17th Global Hawk produced, which was rolled out in a ceremony on 25 August 2006. First flight of the Block 20 from the USAF Plant 42 in Palmdale, developmental testing of Block 20 took place in 2008. The United States Navy took delivery of two of the Block 10 aircraft to evaluate their maritime surveillance capabilities, designated N-1 and N-2, four flights were performed, resulting in over 24 hours of persistent maritime surveillance coordinated with Abraham Lincoln and Bonhomme Richard. For the GHMD program, the Global Hawk was tasked with maintaining maritime situational awareness, contact tracking, images were transmitted to NAS Patuxent River for processing and then forwarded to the fleet off Hawaii. Northrop Grumman entered a RQ-4B variant in the US Navys Broad Area Maritime Surveillance UAV competition, on 22 April 2008, it was announced that Northrop Grummans RQ-4N had won and that the Navy had awarded a US$1.16 billion contract. In September 2010, the RQ-4N was officially designated the MQ-4C, the Navy MQ-4C differs from the Air Force RQ-4 mainly in its wing
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
4.
Aerial reconnaissance
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Aerial reconnaissance is reconnaissance for a military or strategic purpose that is conducted using reconnaissance aircraft. This role can fulfil a variety of requirements, including the collection of intelligence, observation of enemy maneuvers. The balloon found its first use in the 1794 conflict with Austria, moreover, the presence of the balloon had a demoralizing effect on the Austrian troops which improved the likelihood of victory for the French troops. After the invention of photography, primitive aerial photographs were made of the ground from manned and unmanned balloons, starting in the 1860s, an example was Arthur Batuts kite-borne camera photographs of Labruguière starting from 1889. In the early 20th century, Julius Neubronner experimented with pigeon photography, the pigeons carried small cameras with timers. Ludwig Rahrmann in 1891 patented a means of attaching a camera to a large calibre artillery projectile or rocket, Alfred Nobel in 1896 had already built the first rocket carrying a camera, which took photographs of the Swedish landscape during its flights. The first use of airplanes in combat missions was by the Italian Air Force during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911-1912, on 23 October 1911, an Italian pilot, Capt. The use of aerial photography rapidly matured during the First World War, as used for reconnaissance purposes were outfitted with cameras to record enemy movements. At the start of the conflict, the usefulness of aerial photography was not fully appreciated, frederick Charles Victor Laws started experiments in aerial photography in 1912 with No.1 Squadron RAF using the British dirigible Beta. The dirigibles were eventually allocated to the Royal Navy, so Laws formed the first aerial unit of fixed-wing aircraft. Germany was one of the first countries to adopt the use of a camera for aerial reconnaissance, opting for a Görz, French Military Aviation began the war with several squadrons of Bleriot observation planes, equipped with cameras for reconnaissance. The French Army developed procedures for getting prints into the hands of field commanders in record time, the camera was inserted into the floor of the aircraft and could be triggered by the pilot at intervals. In 1916, the Austro-Hungarian Empire made vertical camera axis aerial photos above Italy for map-making. In January 1918, General Allenby used five Australian pilots from No.1 Squadron AFC to photograph a 624 square miles area in Palestine as an aid to correcting and improving maps of the Turkish front and this was a pioneering use of aerial photography as an aid for cartography. Beginning 5 January, they flew with an escort to ward off enemy fighters. In 1928, the RAF developed a heating system for the aerial camera. This allowed reconnaissance aircraft to take pictures from very high altitudes without the camera parts freezing, although this seems obvious now, with modern reconnaissance tasks performed by fast, high flying aircraft, at the time it was radical thinking. They proposed the use of Spitfires with their armament and radios removed and replaced with extra fuel and this led to the development of the Spitfire PR variants
5.
Air Combat Command
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Air Combat Command is one of ten Major Commands in the United States Air Force, reporting to Headquarters, United States Air Force at the Pentagon. ACC is headquartered at Langley Field, Joint Base Langley–Eustis, Virginia and its commander is General Herbert Hawk Carlisle, with Major General Jerry D. Harris Jr. as Vice Commander, and Chief Master Sergeant Steve K. McDonald as the Command Chief Master Sergeant, in addition, ACC augments the forces of the United States European Command, United States Pacific Command and United States Central Command when needed. Air Combat Command consists of approximately 98,000 active duty members, in 2015, responsibility for the B-1 Lancer bomber fleet was also transferred from ACC to AFGSC. Air Combat Command was created 1 June 1992 after the inactivation of the Tactical Air Command, Strategic Air Command, furthermore, ACC had some KC-135 and KC-10 aerial refueling tankers and C-130 tactical airlift aircraft in its composite, reconnaissance, and certain other combat wings. In 1993, control of the ICBM force was transferred to the Air Force Space Command until transferred again to Air Force Global Strike Command on 1 Dec 2009. S, Air Force and the U. S. Navy. Historically, combat command was an air unit designation. During 1941 and early 1942, the air units of the War Department, formerly known as the GHQ Air Force. The AFCC was dissolved in the reorganization of the United States Army, effective 9 March 1942, not long after activation, ACC underwent organizational and mission changes. The first such change was the transfer of the combat search. With the realigning of search and rescue units, ACC gained additional resources, the formal transfer took place on 1 February 1993, when the Air Rescue Service was assigned to ACC. On 2 July of the year, the ARS was disestablished. The USAF Combat Rescue School was subsequently assigned to the 57th Wing at Nellis AFB, one of the most significant changes for Air Combat Command resulted from an overhaul of flying training responsibilities. Following its activation, ACC was responsible for aircrew training, including initial weapon system. On 1 July 1993, the 58th and 325th Fighter Wings—F-16 and F-15 training units transferred from ACC to Air Education and Training Command. Concurrently, Luke AFB, Arizona, and Tyndall AFB, Florida, for which those respective wings were the host units, however, on 1 October 2012, both Tyndall AFB and the 325th Fighter Wing returned to the control of ACC. The next major change resulted from a fine-tuning of aerial refueling. From its activation, Air Combat Command had assumed ownership of some C-130 Hercules theater airlift assets and KC-10 Extender, there was historical precedent for the reassignment of C-130s to Air Combat Command
6.
Beale Air Force Base
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Beale Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located approximately 8 miles east of Marysville, California. The host unit at Beale is the 9th Reconnaissance Wing assigned to the Air Combat Command, the 9 RW collects intelligence essential for Presidential and Congressional decisions critical to the national defense. The wing also maintains a state of readiness in its combat support. The 940th Air Refueling Wing is a tenant Air Force Reserve Command wing at Beale AFB flying the KC-135 Stratotanker, Camp Beale became a United States Air Force installation on 1 April 1951 and was renamed Beale Air Force Base. Beale AFB is the home of the 9th Reconnaissance Wing, which serves as the host wing for the base. The installation is located outside of Linda, about 10 miles east of the towns of Marysville and Yuba City, Beale is a large base in terms of land and has five gates providing access on all sides of the base. Visitors enter the base through a gate that local merchants, individuals. The base is home for approximately 4,000 military personnel, Beale Air Force Base covers nearly 23,000 acres of rolling hills in northern California. The bases natural resources are as rich as its significant cultural and historical heritage, Native Americans lived on this land, the mortar bowls they carved into the bedrock lie embedded in a shallow stream. To preserve these and other areas, the base proudly maintains 38 Native American sites,45 homestead sites. The 9th Reconnaissance Wing is composed of four groups at Beale AFB, 9th Operations Group Consists of multiple squadrons and detachments. 9th Maintenance Group Consists of the 9th Maintenance Operations Squadron, the 9th Maintenance Squadron, the 9th Aircraft Maintenance Squadron, the group is responsible for a $5.8 million annual budget. The group is also the Air Forces single focal point for providing mass ammunition production training, 9th Mission Support Group Provides trained combat support forces to theater commanders- in-chief worldwide. 9th Medical Group Consists of three squadrons, 9th Medical Operations, 9th Medical Support and 9th Physiological Support Squadrons and they provide for the medical needs of Beale AFB beneficiaries and support Beales high-altitude flyers in the U-2 aircraft. The Beale Clinic is located at 15301 Warren Shingle Road on a hillside near base housing. The clinics primary mission is to support the operational readiness. They provide comprehensive care, physiological and environmental support and promote health education. This outpatient clinic consists of both the 9th Medical Operations and 9th Medical Support Squadrons that provide primary care services with aerospace medicine, no inpatient or emergency services are available and minimal specialty services exist
7.
Battle honour
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In European military tradition, military units may be acknowledged for their achievements in specific wars or operations of a military campaign. These honours usually take the form of a place and a date, theatre honours could be listed and displayed on regimental property but not emblazoned on the colours. Since battle honours are emblazoned on colours, artillery units. These honour titles were permitted to be used as part of their official nomenclature, similar honours in the same tenor include unit citations. Battle honours, theatre honours, honour titles and their ilk form a part of the variety of distinctions which serve to distinguish military units from each other. For the British Army, the need to adopt a system to recognise military units battlefield accomplishments was apparent since its formation as an army in the later part of the 17th century. Although the granting of battle honours had already been in place at the time, before then, a regiments colours were practical tools for rallying troops in the battlefield and not quite something for displaying the units past distinctions. The first battle honour to be awarded in the British Army was granted to the 15th Hussars for the Battle of Emsdorf in 1760, thereafter, other regiments received battle honours for some of their previous engagements. The battle honour is held by the successor regiment, the Princess of Waless Royal Regiment. During these early years of the British standing army, a regiment needed only to engage the enemy with musketry before it was eligible for a battle honour, thus in 1882, a committee was formed to adjudicate applications of battle honour claims. This committee, later called the Battles Nomenclature Committee, still maintains its function in the British Army today. A battle honour may be granted to infantry/cavalry regiments or battalions, as well as ships and squadrons, they are granted to sub-units such as companies. Battle honours are presented in the form of a name of a country, region, or city where the units distinguished act took place. Not every battle fought will automatically result in the granting of a battle honour, conversely, a regiment or a battalion might obtain more than one battle honour over the course of a larger operation. Similarly, while in Korea, Princess Patricias Canadian Light Infantry earned both Kapyong and Korea 1951–1953, supporting corps/branches such as medical, service, ordnance, or transport do not currently receive battle honours. However and uniquely the Royal Logistic Corps has five battle honours inherited from its previous transport elements, Commonwealth artillery does not maintain battle honours as they carry neither colours nor guidons—though their guns by tradition are afforded many of the same respects and courtesies. However, both the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers were in 1832 granted by King William IV the right to use the Latin Ubique, meaning everywhere and this is worn on the cap badge of both the Corps of Royal Engineers and the Royal Regiment of Artillery. The practice was extended to these same regiments and corps in the successor Commonwealth armed forces
8.
Lewis H. Brereton
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Lewis Hyde Brereton was a military aviation pioneer and lieutenant general in the United States Air Force. He began World War II as a general commanding the Far East Air Force in the Philippines. Brereton was one of the first military pilots of the United States Army, assigned to the Aeronautical Division, U. S. Signal Corps in September 1912. He was also one of five officers who were members of the United States Air Force and all of its progenitors, Brereton was born in Pittsburgh, in 1890, the second son of William Denny Brereton and Helen Brereton. The family moved to Annapolis, Maryland while Breretons older brother and his father was a successful mining engineer and a 4th-generation Irish-American. His mother was English and Episcopalian by birth, at the age of eight, Brereton suffered a recurring infection of the middle ear, purulent otitis media, which proved impossible to treat in the pre-antibiotics era. He was physically described early in World War II as 5-06, stocky build, brown-eyed, black-haired and his personality characteristics were said to be cool and thoughtful, able to think rapidly on his feet, with a quick, analytical mind. However, he was said to have an appropriate temper. He had a reputation, especially among critics, for being hedonistic, Gen. Omar N. Bradley, who intensely disliked Brereton, was quoted by a biographer of Dwight D. Eisenhower as saying that Brereton was marginally competent. More interested in living in the biggest French chateau, after two days as an ensign, his resignation was accepted. The next year he served in the 17th Company CAC at Fort Washington and he became the 26th serving officer so detailed. The lack of facilities at Rockwell forced most of his training to place at the Curtiss Aeroplane Company in Hammondsport. He began to train and instruct on float planes but experienced two crashes, the first as pilot of a crash of a Curtiss F on April 8,1913. At his own request, Brereton was relieved of duties on July 3,1913. He returned to the Coast Artillery Corps, posted to the 115th Company at Fort Rosecrans, while stationed in San Diego, he married Helen Clason Willis on February 27,1913, and subsequently had two children. In July 1916, he was promoted to first lieutenant and sent to the Philippines to join the 1st Company, less than two months later he requested to return to the Aviation Section, Signal Corps. Returning to the United States in March 1917, he was assigned to duty in Washington, after World War I began, Brereton entered flying training a second time at Hazelhurst Field, Mineola, New York. While in pilot training he was promoted to captain on May 15,1917, during most of the remainder of 1917, he worked in the Equipment Division at Aviation Section headquarters under Col. Benjamin D. Foulois
9.
Robert Merrill Lee
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Lee was born in Hinsdale, New Hampshire, educated in the public schools in Augusta, Maine, and graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point, N. Y. in June 1931. After attending Air Corps Flying Schools at Randolph and Kelly fields, Texas and he was assigned to the 55th Pursuit Squadron of the 20th Pursuit Group at Barksdale Field, Louisiana. While at Barksdale he performed pilot and other squadron officer duties, in early 1934 when U. S. airmail contracts were cancelled by the president, Lieutenant Lee joined other officers in his group flying the airmail in the central zone. In May 1937 he was assigned to the First Cavalry at Fort Knox, the following year he returned to the U. S. Army Air Corps and was assigned to the 12th Observation Squadron, Godman Field, also at Fort Knox. During 1938 to 1940 he was aide-de-camp to General Adna R. Chaffee, during this period of his career he assisted in the development of operations teamwork between air and ground forces. In 1940 Captain Lee attended the Air Corps Tactical School at Maxwell Field, during 1940-1941 he commanded the 12th Observation Squadron. In late 1941 Major Lee became chief of corps aviation, Headquarters I Armored Corps, in January 1943 he was promoted to colonel and became chief of staff of the First Air Support Command at Morris Field, North Carolina. He continued in this position through successive reorganizations and redesignations of this command as I Tactical Air Division and he was promoted to brigadier general in January 1945. At the end of hostilities when the Ninth Air Force took up its occupation role, late in 1945 General Lee was assigned to the air section of the Theater General Board at Bad Nauheim as it completed its analyses and reports on the European campaigns. After graduation from the National War College, General Lee was assigned in July 1947 to Tactical Air Command as deputy commanding general, during this assignment, in February 1948, he was promoted to major general. From November 1948, he served as commanding general until July 1950, shortly thereafter he became the director of plans. In November 1953, General Lee was assigned to command the Fourth Allied Tactical Air Force, in June 1956, command of the two air forces was separated. General Lee retained command of the Allied Tactical Air Force, when he returned to the United States in July 1957, he became commander of the Ninth Air Force, Tactical Air Command, with headquarters at Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina. S. In September 1959 he returned to the United States to become commander of the Air Defense Command in Colorado Springs, Colorado. He was promoted to general on June 4,1963, and became air deputy to the allied commander, Europe. In addition to awards and decorations from other U. S
10.
Surveillance aircraft
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A surveillance aircraft is an aircraft used for surveillance—collecting information over time. This article concentrates on aircraft used in roles, rather than for traffic monitoring, law enforcement. Surveillance aircraft usually carry no armament, or only limited defensive armament, a surveillance aircraft does not necessarily require high-performance capability or stealth characteristics. It may be a civilian aircraft. Surveillance aircraft have also included moored balloons and unmanned aerial vehicles, surveillance is sometimes grouped with Intelligence, Target acquisition and Reconnaissance under the title ISTAR. Observation was the used for surveillance when the main sensor was the human eye. In 1794, during the Battle of Fleurus, the French Aerostatic Corps balloon LEntreprenant remained afloat for nine hours. French officers used the balloon to observe the movements of the Austrian Army, dropping notes to the ground for collection by the French Army, and also signalled messages using semaphore. One of the first aircraft used for surveillance was the Rumpler Taube during World War I, the translucent wings of the plane made it very difficult for ground based observers to detect a Taube at an altitude above 400 m. The French also called this plane the Invisible Aircraft, and it is also referred to as the worlds very first stealth plane. German Taube aircraft were able to detect the advancing Russian army during the Battle of Tannenberg, during World War II, light aircraft such as the Auster were used as air observation posts. Officers from the British Royal Artillery were trained as pilots to fly AOP aircraft for artillery spotting, the air observation role was generally taken over by light observation helicopters, such as the Hughes OH-6 Cayuse, from the mid-1960s. Pre war, the British identified a need for an aircraft that could follow, to this end the slow-flying Airspeed Fleet Shadower and General Aircraft Fleet Shadower designs were built and flown in 1940 but they were made obsolete by the introduction of airborne radar. Spy flights were a source of contention between the US and Russia during most of the 1960s. Maritime patrol aircraft are typically large, slow machines capable of flying continuously for many hours, such aircraft include the Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod, the Breguet Atlantique, the Tupolev Tu-95, the Lockheed P-2 Neptune and the Lockheed P-3 Orion/CP-140 Aurora. Predator UAVs have been used by the US for border patrol, unmanned surveillance aircraft have been deployed or are under development in many countries, including Israel, the UK, the United States, Canada, China, India, South Africa and Pakistan. Unmanned surveillance UAVs include both airships—such as Sky Sentinel and HiSentinel 80—and airplanes, most air forces around the world lack dedicated surveillance planes. Several countries adapt aircraft for intelligence gathering
11.
69th Reconnaissance Group
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The 69th Reconnaissance Group is an active United States Air Force unit. It is part of Air Combat Command stationed at Grand Forks AFB, the group served in the American and European Theaters of World War II as a reconnaissance unit until returning to the United States where it was inactivated. It was reactivated in the fall of 2011 as an aircraft reconnaissance group. The group was activated in the fall of 1941 as the 69th Observation Group with two squadrons assigned, the group flew antisubmarine patrols along the Pacific coast after the Attack on Pearl Harbor. The group engaged primarily in air to ground training during 1943 and 1944 while it was successively designated 69th Reconnaissance Group and it began training with North American F-6 Mustangs in January 1945 for duty overseas. The 69th moved to France in February to March 1945 where it was assigned to Ninth AF and it flew visual and photographic reconnaissance missions to provide intelligence for ground and air units. It was again designated the 69th Reconnaissance Group in June 1945, the group returned to the United States in July and August 1945. There it trained with F-6 Mustangs and Douglas A-26 Invader aircraft, the group was inactivated on 29 July 1946. The 69th was once again activated on 19 September 2011 to conduct reconnaissance with unmanned aerial vehicles, the 69th Reconnaissance Group is currently commanded by Col Christopher Larson. afhra. af. mil/. U. S. Army Air Forces Continental Airfields D-Day to V-E Day, maxwell AFB, AL, Research Division, USAF Historical Research Center. Maurer, Maurer, ed. Air Force Combat Units of World War II, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History. Maurer, Maurer, ed. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History
12.
Grand Forks Air Force Base
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Grand Forks Air Force Base is a United States Air Force installation in northeastern North Dakota, located north of Emerado and 16 miles west of Grand Forks. In the 2010 census, the base was counted as a place with a total population of 2,367. Opened 60 years ago in early 1957, the current host unit is the 319th Air Base Wing assigned to the Expeditionary Center of the Air Mobility Command. The 319th Air Base Wing is commanded by Colonel Rodney Lewis, schools on base, Nathan Twining Elementary School. During the Cold War, GFAFB was an installation of the Strategic Air Command, with B-52 bombers, KC-135 tankers. Grand Forks AFB is the home of the Air Mobility Commands 319th Air Base Wing, the 319 ABW is organized into two distinct groups, Mission Support and Medical. It was occupied for use on 28 January 1957, and was named after the city of Grand Forks. Due to the continuance of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, GFAFB was originally an Air Defense Command fighter-interceptor air base. The site was chosen in 1954 and the land was paid for by the citizens of Grand Forks, the beginning of the 5, 400-acre air base started in 1956 with the construction of a 12, 300-foot runway. On 18 February 1957, the 478th Fighter Group was activated at Grand Forks, the 18th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was moved from Wurtsmith AFB, Michigan on 1 May 1960, and flew the F-101B Voodoo until 15 April 1971, when it was inactivated and the Voodoos were retired. It was replaced by the 460th FIS, moved from Kingsley Field at Klamath Falls, the 460th FIS flew F-106 Delta Darts until it also was inactivated on 15 July 1974. In addition to the squadrons, a Semi Automatic Ground Environment Data Center was established at Grand Forks in 1958. DC-11 was operated by the Grand Forks Air Defense Sector, activated on 8 December 1957 under the 31st Air Division at Snelling AFS, on 1 January 1959, GFADS was transferred to the operational control of the 29th Air Division at Malmstrom AFB at Great Falls, Montana. SAGE operations were extremely expansive and GFADS was inactivated on 1 December 1963, with the inactivation of DC-11, Grand Forks AFB was reassigned from the Air Defense mission to Strategic Air Command. In 1971, the 18th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was inactivated and the 460th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron replaced the unit, the DC-11 SAGE blockhouse was later the headquarters of the SAC 321st Strategic Missile Wing. Following the end of Minuteman IIIMinuteman III]] missile operations in 1998, on 3 November 1967, the Department of Defense revealed that GFAFB was one of 10 initial locations to host a Sentinel Anti-Ballistic Missile site. With president Richard Nixons 14 March 1969, announcement constructing a Safeguard installation at Grand Forks became a top priority, however, construction was stalled throughout mid-1969, as Congress debated the merits of BMD. Finally, after the Senate defeated amendments to kill Safeguard deployment, survey teams selected sites in flat wheatlands close to the Canada-Minnesota border, north-northwest of Grand Forks
13.
Air Service, United States Army
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The Air Service, United States Army was the military aviation service of the United States between 1918 and 1926 and a forerunner of the United States Air Force. It was established as an independent but temporary branch of the U. S and its life was extended for another year in July 1919, during which time Congress passed the legislation necessary to make it a permanent establishment. The National Defense Act of 1920 assigned the Air Service the status of combatant arm of the line of the United States Army with a general in command. By the end of the war, the Air Service used 45 squadrons to cover 137 kilometers of front from Pont-à-Mousson to Sedan,71 pursuit pilots were credited with shooting down five or more German aircraft while in American service. Overall the Air Service destroyed 756 enemy aircraft and 76 balloons in combat,17 balloon companies also operated at the front, making 1,642 combat ascensions. 289 airplanes and 48 balloons were lost in battle, the Air Service was the first form of the air force to have an independent organizational structure and identity. Although officers concurrently held rank in various branches, after May 1918 their branch designation in official correspondence while on aviation assignment changed from ASSC to AS, after July 1,1920, its personnel became members of the Air Service branch, receiving new commissions. Airmen such as Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell supported the concept, the Armys senior leadership from World War I, the United States Navy, and the majority of the nations political leadership favored integration of all military aviation into the Army and Navy. Aided by a wave of pacifism following the war that drastically cut military budgets, opponents of an independent air force prevailed, the Air Service was renamed the Army Air Corps in 1926 as a compromise in the continuing struggle. The declaration of war against Germany on April 6,1917, putting the United States in World War I, came too quickly to solve emerging engineering and production problems. The reorganization of the Aviation Section had been inadequate in resolving problems in training, leaving the United States totally unprepared to fight an air war in Europe, the Aviation Section consisted of 131 officers,1087 enlisted men, and approximately 280 airplanes. The Board dispatched Major Raynal C, by the time the bill passed, the term Air Service was in widespread if unofficial usage to collectively describe all aspects of Army aviation. Even so, the Aircraft Board in practice had little control over procurement contracts, nor did the Equipment Division of the Signal Corps exercise such control. Though individual areas within the industry responded well, the industry as a whole failed. Efforts to mass produce European aircraft under license largely failed because the aircraft, at the same time the Aeronautical Division of the OCSO was renamed the Air Division with continued responsibility for training and operations but with no influence on acquisition or doctrine. In the end the process in aircraft procurement was badly fragmented. Borglum had exchanged letters with President Wilson, a friend, from which he assumed an appointment to investigate had been authorized. Both the U. S. Senate and the Department of Justice began investigations into possible fraudulent dealings, Kenly brought back from France to be its head, to separate supervision of aviation from the duties of the Chief Signal Officer
14.
Kelly Field Annex
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Kelly Field Annex is a United States Air Force facility located in San Antonio, Texas. The base is under the jurisdiction of the 802d Mission Support Group, Air Education, Kelly Field was one of thirty-two Air Service training camps established after the United States entry into World War I, being established on 27 March 1917. It was used as a field, primary flying school, school for adjutants, supply officers, engineers, mechanics school. As of 2006, there are some isolated USAF activities on Port San Antonio subordinate to Lackland. Several large warehouses on the grounds of Port San Antonio were cleared, cleaned and equipped with large air conditioning units to house evacuees from Hurricane Katrina. The first evacuees began to arrive on September 2,2005, Kelly Field Annex is named in honor of 2d Lieutenant George Edward Maurice Kelly. Lt. Kelly, who after a course of training at the Curtiss Aviation School, Rockwell Field, California, was ordered to Fort Sam Houston, near San Antonio. While attempting to land on 10 May 1911 in order to avoid running into a tent and thereby possibly injuring several others, died in a crash, the center was to be built for the Aviation Section of the U. S. Army Signal Corps. General Scriven described San Antonio as “the most important strategic position of the South, ” in response to the unrest resulting from the Mexican Revolution. S. ”In November 1915, when the newly created 1st Aero Squadron arrived at Fort Sam Houston after a cross-country flight from Fort Sill, Oklahoma. Problems experienced by the 1st Aero Squadron on that expedition and the war in Europe persuaded Congress to improve. It was quickly apparent that Fort Sam Houston had inadequate space for flying operations, especially with newer. Major Benjamin Foulois, with the support of the San Antonio Chamber of Commerce, bordered by the Frio City Road on the northwest, the site was also adjacent to the Southern Pacific Railroad, providing easy access by road and rail. In addition, the new site was relatively flat, and thus suitable for flying operations, initially, the site was called the South San Antonio Aviation Camp. On 5 April 1917, four took off from Fort Sam Houston, flew across San Antonio and landed on the new airfield. Tents had been erected as hangars, however a permanent presence at the airfield was not established until 7 May when 700 men arrived, a week later, the population had grown to 4,000. Construction of the facility was rapid, with the United States now at war, the ground was cleared and scores of buildings - hangars, barracks, mess halls, a street system, electrical and plumbing systems, warehouses, machine shops were all constructed during the summer. By the end of June, it was clear that Foulois original site, a committee of the San Antonio Chamber of Commerce provided the necessary land and presented the proposition to the Aviation Production Board in Washington, D. C. in June 1917. A contract was signed in July 1917, comprising all of what was Kelly Field #2, Kelly soldiers organized approximately 250,000 men into Aero Squadrons during the hectic months of 1917 and 1918
15.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
16.
Salmson 2A2
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The Salmson 2, was a French biplane reconnaissance aircraft made by Salmson. It was developed to a 1916 requirement, along with the Breguet 14, it was the main reconnaissance aircraft in use with the French army and the American Expeditionary Forces aviation units in 1918. At the end of the First World War, one-third of French reconnaissance aircraft were Salmson 2s, the companys first entry into aircraft design came with the Salmson-Moineau S. M. 1, an unusual three-seat reconnaissance biplane with twin airscrews gear-driven from a single Salmson engine in the nose of the fuselage and these aircraft, of which 155 were built, were not especially successful. The Salmson 2 developed from a requirement to replace the Sopwith 1½ Strutter, Salmson had built the 1½ Strutter under license, and the Salmson 2, while an original design, owed more to the Sopwith than to the earlier Salmson-Moineau. The aircraft was of construction with a two-bay biplane configuration. Production was ordered after trials on 29 April 1917, and deliveries were underway by October of that year, around 3,200 Salmson 2s were built in France,2,200 by Salmson and the remainder by the Latécoère, Hanriot, and Desfontaines, companies. Some of these were Salmson 2 D.2 dual control advanced training aircraft, developments of the Salmson 2 included, Salmson 4 an enlarged version fitted with light armour, designed to meet the Ab 2 ground attack role. Limited production in 1918, but cancelled at the end of the war, Salmson 5 modified Salmson 2 for A2 role, no production. Salmson 7 modified Salmson 2 for A2 role, the main change was that the pilot and gunner were seated back-to-back in a single cockpit. Production was planned on a large scale, but the end of the war resulted in cancellation of the contract. Salmson Limousine Also known as Salmson 2 Berline, after the First World War, a number of ex-military Salmson 2s were converted into civilian passenger aircraft. Kawasaki Army Otsu-1 Reconnaissance Aircraft Japanese licence-built Salmson 2A.2 reconnaissance aircraft, in addition to its service with the French army, the Salmson 2 served during the First World War with United States air units. Some 700 were purchased, and were generally successful, post-war, Salmson 2s were purchased by Czechoslovakia, and remained in service until 1924. Others were transferred to Poland, but were withdrawn by 1920, Japan undertook license production as the Army Type Otsu 1, also known as the Kawasaki-Salmson. France French Air Force United States American Expeditionary Force Belgium Belgian Air Force - One aircraft only, Czechoslovakia Czechoslovak Air Force Japan Imperial Japanese Army Peru Peruvian Air Force - One aircraft only. Poland Polish Air Force Spain Spanish Air Force - One aircraft only, stratford, Connecticut, Flying Machines Press,1997. Jon S. Guttman, James J. Davilla, Salmson aircraft of World War I
17.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
18.
United States Air Forces Central Command
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United States Air Forces Central Command is a Named Air Force of the United States Air Force headquartered at Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina. During the Cold War, it was one of two Numbered Air Forces of Tactical Air Command and it has fought in the 1991 Gulf War, War in Afghanistan, the Iraq War, as well as various engagements within USCENTCOM. United States Air Forces Central is the descendant organization of Ninth Air Force. AFCENT was formed as the United States Central Command Air Forces under Tactical Air Command, CENTAF initially consisted of designated United States Air Force elements of the Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force which was inactivated and reformed as USCENTCOM in 1983. On 1 March 2008 USCENTAF was redesignated USAFCENT and it shared its commander with Ninth Air Force until August 2009. Ninth Air Force was formally re designated USAFCENT on 5 August 2009, a new Ninth Air Force was established that date for command and control of CONUS-based Air Combat Command units formerly assigned to the previous Ninth Air Force. It is planned that they return to a shared commander after the United States completes its current wars. During World War II, the air forces of the United States Army Air Forces came to be classified as strategic or tactical. In June 1942, the German Afrika Korps advance in North Africa forced the British Eighth Army to retreat towards Egypt putting British Middle East Command at risk, harry A. Halverson, commanding twenty-three B-24D Liberator heavy bombers and a hand-picked crews, decided to move to Egypt. HALPRO was quickly diverted from its mission to a new one—interdictory raids from airfields in Egypt against shipping. On 28 June 1942, Major General Lewis H Brereton arrived at Cairo to command the U. S. Army Middle East Air Force, USAMEAF comprised the Halverson Detachment, Breretons detachment, and the Air Section of US Military North African Mission. Several USAAF units were sent to join USAMEAF during next weeks in the destruction of Rommels Afrika Korps by support to troops and secure sea. Col. Patrick W. Subsequent negotiations carried the point with the British, on 12 October a small staff moved into Grey Pillars, RAF headquarters at Cairo, and thenceforth USAMEAFs bombers operated only under the strategic direction of the British. After initially resisting the attack, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel decided he no longer had the resources to hold his line, Allied victory in the Second Battle of Alamein was accomplished. Ninth Air Force had been first constituted as V Air Support Command, part of Air Force Combat Command, at Bowman Field, Kentucky on 11 September 1941. It was reassigned to Bolling Field, Washington, D. C. on 22 July and transferred without personnel or equipment to Cairo, Egypt on 12 November 1942. The Ninth Air Force mission comprised, Gain air superiority, Deny the enemy the ability to replenish or replace losses, and Offer ground forces close support in North-East Africa. On 12 November 1942, the US Army Middle East Air Force was dissolved and replaced by HQ Ninth Air Force, commanded by Lieutenant General Lewis H. Brereton
19.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
20.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
21.
Gulf War
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The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991
22.
War on Terror
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The War on Terror, also known as the Global War on Terrorism, is a metaphor of war referring to the international military campaign that started after the September 11th attacks on the United States. U. S. President George W. Bush first used the term War on Terror on 20 September 2001 and it was originally used with a particular focus on countries associated with Islamic terrorist organizations including al-Qaeda and like-minded organizations. In 2013, President Barack Obama announced that the United States was no longer pursuing a War on Terror, in 2017 Donald Trump assumed presidency of the United States and vowed that the fight against ISIL is his number one priority. Trump has also agreed to work together and carry joint operations with Russian President Vladimir Putin in the war on terror. The phrase War on Terror has been used to refer to the ongoing military campaign led by the U. S. The conflict has also referred to by names other than the War on Terror. Author Shane Harris asserts this was a reaction to the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing, Bush later apologized for this remark due to the negative connotations the term crusade has to people, e. g. of the Muslim faith. The word crusade was not used again, on 20 September 2001, during a televised address to a joint session of Congress, Bush stated that ur war on terror begins with al-Qaeda, but it does not end there. It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, in April 2007, the British government announced publicly that it was abandoning the use of the phrase War on Terror as they found it to be less than helpful. This was explained more recently by Lady Eliza Manningham-Buller, in her 2011 Reith lecture, the former head of MI5 said that the 9/11 attacks were a crime, not an act of war. So I never felt it helpful to refer to a war on terror. U. S. President Barack Obama has rarely used the term, in March 2009 the Defense Department officially changed the name of operations from Global War on Terror to Overseas Contingency Operation. In March 2009, the Obama administration requested that Pentagon staff members avoid the use of the term, basic objectives of the Bush administration war on terror, such as targeting al Qaeda and building international counterterrorism alliances, remain in place. Because the actions involved in the war on terrorism are diffuse, jackson cites among many examples a statement by John Ashcroft that the attacks of September 11 drew a bright line of demarcation between the civil and the savage. Administration officials also described terrorists as hateful, treacherous, barbarous, mad, twisted, perverted, without faith, parasitical, inhuman, Americans, in contrast, were described as brave, loving, generous, strong, resourceful, heroic, and respectful of human rights. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to the Soviet war in Afghanistan, a small number of Afghan Arab volunteers joined the fight against the Soviets, including Osama bin Laden, but there is no evidence they received any external assistance. On 7 August 1998, al-Qaeda struck the U. S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, killing 224 people, the plant produced much of the regions antimalarial drugs and around 50% of Sudans pharmaceutical needs. The strikes failed to kill any leaders of WIFJAJC or the Taliban, next came the 2000 millennium attack plots, which included an attempted bombing of Los Angeles International Airport
23.
12th Aero Squadron
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The 12th Aero Squadron was a Air Service, United States Army unit that fought on the Western Front during World War I. After the 1918 Armistice with Germany, the squadron was assigned to the United States Third Army as part of the Occupation of the Rhineland in Germany. It returned to the United States in June 1919 and became part of the permanent United States Army Air Service in 1921, being redesignated as the 12th Squadron. The current United States Air Force unit which holds its lineage and history is the 12th Reconnaissance Squadron, assigned to the 69th Reconnaissance Group, Grand Forks Air Force Base and those men formed H Company and were selected for their mechanical ability and experience. On 2 June, the unit was given its official designation, after several weeks of classes on aircraft engines and parts, the squadron went to Wilbur Wright Field at Fairfield, Ohio. The squadron’s first flight is supposed to have made by a Captain Christy on 17 July 1917 in a Curtiss JN-4 Jenny. At the end of October, preparations for overseas movement were made, the squadron left Wright Field on 31 October, for the Aviation Concentration Center, Camp Mills, Garden City, New York, arriving at Field #1 on 2 November. At Garden City, the squadron remained for about a month awaiting transportation, on 5 December it boarded the SS Northland sailing from Philadelphia. After a week waiting at Halifax Nova Scotia, the crossing was made without incident. The squadron then took a train to Southampton, and made the crossing to Le Havre, France. After a few days, it was moved by a French train south to the large American base at St. Maixent Aerodrome on 1 January 1918. After two weeks at St. Maixent, where the squadron largely performed guard duty and drills, orders were received to move to Chaumont Aerodrome, where its mechanics took charge of maintenance on French Nieuports and SPAD aircraft. On 2 February, the 12th finally began its training, being moved to Amanty Airdrome in Lorraine where it joined the 1st, 91st. At Amanty, the squadron was equipped with Avion de Reconnaissance 1 trainers, classes were held in radio and machine-gun work and ground training was conducted by French officers. In addition the squadron helped in construction projects. The AR-1s were inferior, obsolete machines, called Antique Rattletraps by the pilots, at Ourches, the 12th joined the 1st Aero Squadron and began active operations over the front. It was equipped with SPAD S. XIA. 2s aircraft, in combat, the mission of the 12th Aero Squadron was general surveillance of the enemy rear areas by means of both visual and photographic reconnaissance. Due to the nature of the missions and the depths of enemy area which was penetrated, with few exceptions, the 12th’s pilots had never flown combat, but most of the observers had spent a number of weeks flying with French squadrons on active missions
24.
Squadron (aviation)
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In most armed forces, two or more squadrons will form a group or a wing. Some air forces use the term squadrons for non-flying ground units. In contrast to United States Air Force units where flying squadrons are separate from supporting administrative and aircraft maintenance squadrons, in United States Marine Corps Aviation the nomenclature squadron is also used to designate all battalion-equivalent, aviation support organizations. These squadrons include, wing headquarters, tactical air command, air control, air support, aviation logistics, wing support, exceptions are USN helicopter mine countrmeasures squadrons, USMC composite medium tilt-rotor squadrons, heavy helicopter and light/attack helicopter squadrons, and Marine attack squadrons. Although part of U. S. naval aviation, United States Coast Guard aviation units are centered on an air station versus a squadron or group/wing organizational structure, the one exception to this is the Coast Guards Helicopter Interdiction Squadron, which is engaged primarily in counter-narcotics interdiction operations. In U. S. Army Aviation, flying units may be organized in battalions or squadrons reporting to an aviation brigade, an escadron is the equivalent unit in Frances Armée de lAir. It is normally subdivided into escadrilles of eight aircraft, in the Air Training Corps of the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth nations, a Squadron is a group of cadets who parade regularly. In the U. S. Civil Air Patrol, a squadron is the administrative unit. In the Swedish Air Force a helicopter squadron is a detachment from the Helicopter Wing
25.
Wilbur Wright Field
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Located near Riverside, Ohio, the site is officially Area B of Wright-Patterson Air Force Base and includes the National Museum of the United States Air Force built on the airfield. A Signal Corps Aviation School began in June 1917 for providing pilots to the Western Front in France, and the field housed an aviation mechanics school. On 19 June 1918, Lt. Frank Stuart Patterson at the airfield was testing machine gun/propeller synchronization when a tie rod failure broke the wings off his Airco DH. 4M while diving from 15,000 ft. Also in 1918, McCook Field near Dayton between Keowee Street and the Great Miami River began using space and mechanics at Wilbur Wright Field, following World War I, the training school at Wilbur Wright Field was discontinued. The Field Service Section at Wilbur Wright Field merged with McCooks Engineering Division to form the Materiel Division on 15 October 1926, the Air Services control station for the model airway—which scheduled military flights of the Airways Section—moved to Wilbur Wright Field from McCook Field in the late 1920s. The Fairfield Air Depot formed when the area of Wilbur Wright Field. The depot remained active until 1946, in 1924, the city of Dayton purchased 4,500 acres, the portion of Fairfield Air Depot leased in 1917 for Wilbur Wright Field, along with an additional 750 acres in Montgomery County to the southwest. The combined area was named Wright Field to honor both Wright Brothers, a new installation with permanent brick facilities was constructed to replace McCook Field and was dedicated on October 12,1927. The Engineering School shut down for the school year 1927-28 at Wright Field, by November 1930, the laboratory at Wright Field had planes fitted as flying laboratories, and the equipment of the 1929 Full Flight Laboratory was moved to Wright Field by the end of 1931. Materiel Division’s Fog Flying Unit under 1st Lt. Albert F. Hegenberger used the equipment for blind landings, after the USAF was created, the base was renamed Air Force Technical Base in December 1947 and Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in January 1948
26.
Western Front (World War I)
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The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. This line remained unchanged for most of the war. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front, the attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire, as a result, no significant advances were made. In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of new technology, including poison gas, aircraft. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored, the German Armys Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front. In spite of the stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, belgiums neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London, this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914, Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August, Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August, for their part, the French had five armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities, on 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine, in keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back
27.
Armistice of 11 November 1918
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It went into effect at 11 a. m. Paris time on 11 November 1918, and marked a victory for the Allies, the Germans were responding to the policies proposed by U. S. President Woodrow Wilson in his Fourteen Points of January 1918. Although the armistice ended the fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. In addition, he recommended the acceptance of the demands of US president Woodrow Wilson including putting the Imperial Government on a democratic footing, hoping for more favorable peace terms. As he said to officers of his staff on 1 October, on 3 October, the liberal Prince Maximilian of Baden was appointed Chancellor of Germany, replacing Georg von Hertling in order to negotiate an armistice. In the subsequent two exchanges, Wilsons allusions failed to convey the idea that the Kaisers abdication was a condition for peace. The leading statesmen of the Reich were not yet ready to contemplate such a monstrous possibility, in late October, Ludendorff, in a sudden change of mind, declared the conditions of the Allies unacceptable. He now demanded to resume the war which he himself had declared lost only one month earlier, however the German soldiers were pressing to get home. It was scarcely possible to arouse their readiness for battle anew, the Imperial Government stayed on course and Ludendorff was replaced by Wilhelm Groener. On 5 November, the Allies agreed to take up negotiations for a truce, the latest note from Wilson was received in Berlin on 6 November. That same day, the led by Matthias Erzberger departed for France. For example, they assumed that the de-militarization suggested by Wilson would be limited to the Central Powers, there were also contradictions with their post-War plans that did not include a consistent implementation of the ideal of national self-determination. Also on 9 November, Max von Baden handed over the office of Chancellor to Friedrich Ebert, eberts SPD and Erzbergers Catholic Centre Party had enjoyed an uneasy relationship with the Imperial government since Bismarcks era in the 1870s and 1880s. They were well represented in the Imperial Reichstag, which had power over the government. Their prominence in the negotiations would cause the new Weimar Republic to lack legitimacy in right-wing. The Armistice was the result of a hurried and desperate process and they were then entrained and taken to the secret destination, aboard Ferdinand Fochs private train parked in a railway siding in the forest of Compiègne. Foch appeared only twice in the three days of negotiations, on the first day, to ask the German delegation what they wanted, the Germans were handed the list of Allied demands and given 72 hours to agree. The German delegation discussed the Allied terms not with Foch, but with other French, the Armistice amounted to complete German demilitarization, with few promises made by the Allies in return
28.
United States Army Border Air Patrol
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With the end of World War I in 1918, the Air Service, United States Army was largely demobilized. In 1916 the squadron took part in General Pershing’s Punitive Expedition into Mexico in pursuit of Mexican revolutionist Pancho Villa, difficulties along the border continued during World War I while the United States was at war in Europe. Mexican bandits often raided American ranches to secure supplies, cattle, and horses, U. S. troops stationed along the border shot raiders as they pursued them into Mexico. The biggest clash came in August 1918, when more than 800 American troops fought some 600 Mexicans near Nogales, border patrol was one of the many activities being considered for the postwar United States Army Air Service. Cabell, Commanding General of the Army Southern Department, received orders to seal off the border if Villa took Juarez. If the Villistas tired across the border, Cabell was to cross into Mexico, disperse Villa’s troops, the general ordered Air Service men and planes from Kelly Field and Ellington Field, Texas, to Fort Bliss, near El Paso, for border patrol. American troops under Brig. Gen. James B, erwin, Commander of the El Paso District of the Southern Department, were on alert when about 1,600 of Villa’s men attacked Juarez during the night of 14/15 June 1919. Stray fire from across the river killed an American soldier and a civilian, around 3,600 U. S. troops crossed into Mexico, quickly dispersed the Villistas, and returned to the American side. As a result of this incident, Air Service personnel equipped with war surplus Dayton-Wright DH-4 aircraft were ordered to Fort Bliss, Texas, on 15 June. Major Edgar G. Tobin, an ace who had flown with the 103d Aero Squadron in France, the original plan called for two Observation Squadrons of the Western Department to patrol eastward from Rockwell Field, California, to the California-Arizona line. Three Surveillance Squadrons and four Bombardment Squadrons of the Southern Department were to be distributed along the border from Arizona to the Gulf of Mexico, on 1 July 1919, three surveillance squadrons were organized into the Army Surveillance Group headquartered at Kelly Field. In September the four bombardment squadrons formed the 1st Day Bombardment Group, in addition the 1st Pursuit Group and its squadrons were moved from Selfridge Field, Michigan, to Kelly at the end of August to be available if needed. The three groups comprised the 1st Wing at Kelly, commanded by Lt. Col. Henry B. Clagett, the 1st Wing became responsible for patrol of the border in the Southern Department. Also in August, work started on a steel hangar for an airship station at Camp Owen Bierne. The Air Service soon scaled down the plan for border patrol, although minor incidents continued to occur, Pancho Villa never succeeded in rebuilding his forces. The major threat had been dispelled by the time aerial patrol began, the group’s squadrons operated in two flights, each patrolling a sector on either side of its operating base. The border patrol mission started with DH-4s and Curtiss JN-4 Jennies, most of the first planes were not properly equipped for field service
29.
General Mitchell International Airport
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General Mitchell International Airport is a civil-military airport five miles south of downtown Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States. It is included in the Federal Aviation Administration National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2017–2021 and it is named after United States Army Air Service General Billy Mitchell, who was raised in Milwaukee and is often regarded as the father of the United States Air Force. It is also used by travellers throughout Wisconsin and Northern Illinois, an Amtrak railway station opened at the airport in 2005, the station is served by Amtraks Hiawatha Service running between Chicago and Milwaukee several times daily. The original airfield was established in 1920 as Hamilton Airport by local business owner and aviator, Milwaukee County purchased the land on October 19,1926, for the Milwaukee County Airport. The first airport terminal there, the Hirschbuehl Farmhouse, opened in July 1927 and that month, Northwest Airlines, Inc. began air service from Milwaukee to Chicago and Minneapolis/St. In August 1927, world-renowned aviator Charles Lindbergh visited the Milwaukee airport, kohler Aviation Corporation began providing passenger service across Lake Michigan on August 31,1929. During the late years, a new two-story passenger terminal building was constructed by the Works Progress Administration. On March 17,1941 the airport was renamed General Mitchell Field after Milwaukees military airpower advocate, on January 4,1945, Mitchell Field was leased to the War Department for use as a World War II prisoner-of-war camp. Over 3,000 prisoners and 250 enlisted men stayed at the work camp, escaped German prisoners were often surprised to find a large German American population just beyond the fence. The present terminal opened on July 20,1955 and was designed by Leigh Fisher and it was renovated and expanded in 1985, designed by Miller, Meier, Kenyon, Cooper Architects and Planners Inc. The hammerhead section of the D concourse was added in 1990, on June 19,1986 the Milwaukee County Board of Supervisors renamed Mitchell Field to General Mitchell International Airport. The airport was formerly a hub for AirTran Airways, Frontier Airlines, on December 28,2014, the airport became a focus city for Southwest Airlines, after finalizing their merger with AirTran Airways. The airport is owned and operated by Milwaukee County, but some Milwaukee business leaders, Mitchell International has expanded the runway safety area on their runways after an accident on January 21,2007, when Northwest Airlines Flight 1726 skidded off the runway after aborting takeoff. According to the FAA, most airports are encouraged to have a safety area no shorter than 1,000 feet. Construction of this safety area began at the end of summer 2009 and was completed in fall 2012. There is also a Master Plan idea to increase terminal area by stretching the existing terminal or begin construction of a separate terminal, nearly all cases would involve major reconstruction on the airport itself, and would have a huge impact on the airports traffic. These plans were, however, drafted before Mitchell saw a significant reduction in carriers, more recently, in 2012, there have been discussions of closing one concourse as a cost-cutting move. In late 2015, Milwaukee County hired Izzy Bonilla to be the new airport director, as director, Bonilla has proposed converting Concourse E into an international/domestic terminal and combining security checkpoints to allow movement between concourses behind security
30.
Airco DH.4
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The Airco DH.4 was a British two-seat biplane day bomber of World War I. It was designed by Geoffrey de Havilland for Airco, and was the first British two-seat light day-bomber to have a defensive armament. It first flew in August 1916 and entered service with the Royal Flying Corps in March 1917, the majority of DH. 4s were actually built as general purpose two-seaters in the United States, for service with the American forces in France. The DH.4 was tried with several engines, of which the best was the 375 hp Rolls-Royce Eagle engine. Armament and ordnance for the aircraft consisted of one 0.303 in Vickers machine gun for the pilot, two 230 lb bombs or four 112 lb bombs could be carried. The DH.4 entered service on 6 March 1917 with No.55 Squadron in France, the DH.4 was designed by Geoffrey de Havilland as a light two-seat day bomber powered by the new Beardmore Halford Pullinger engine. The prototype first flew in August 1916, powered by a prototype BHP engine rated at 230 hp, while the DH.4 trials were promising, the BHP engine required major redesign before entering production, and the Rolls-Royce Eagle engine was selected as the DH. 4s powerplant. The first order for 50 DH. 4s, powered by 250 hp Eagle III engines was placed at the end of 1916, the aircraft was a conventional tractor two bay biplane of all-wooden construction. The crew of two were accommodated in widely spaced cockpits, separated by the fuel tank and it was armed with a single forward-firing synchronised Vickers machine gun and one or two.303 in Lewis guns fitted on a Scarff ring fired by the observer. A bomb load of 460 lb could be fitted to external racks, as production continued, DH. 4s were fitted with Eagle engines of increasing power, settling on the 375 hp Eagle VIII, which powered the majority of frontline DH. 4s by the end of 1917. None of these engines could match the Rolls-Royce Eagle, however, in American production, the new Liberty engine proved suitable as a DH.4 powerplant. The Liberty was also to power the British DH. 9A. Production was by Airco, F. W. Berwick and Co, Glendower Aircraft Company, Palladium Autocars, Vulcan Motor and Engineering, a total of 1,449 aircraft were made in the UK for the RFC and RNAS. SABCA of Belgium made a further 15 in 1926, a total of 9,500 DH-4s were ordered from American manufacturers, of which 1,885 actually reached France during the war. After the war, a number of firms, most significantly Boeing, were contracted by the U. S. Army to remanufacture surplus DH-4s to DH-4B standard. Known by Boeing as the Model 16, deliveries of 111 aircraft from this manufacturer took place between March and July 1920, with 50 of them returned for further three years later. In 1923, the Army ordered a new DH-4 variant from Boeing and these three prototypes were designated DH-4M-1 and were ordered into production alongside the generally similar DH-4M-2 developed by Atlantic Aircraft. A total of 22 of the 163 DH-4M-1s were converted by the Army into dual-control trainers, the DH.4 entered service with the RFC in January 1917, first being used by No.55 Squadron
31.
Roosevelt Field (airport)
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Roosevelt Field is a former airport, located 2.3 miles east-southeast of Mineola, Long Island, New York. Originally called the Hempstead Plains Aerodrome, or sometimes Hempstead Plains field or the Garden City Aerodrome, it was a field for the Air Service. In 1919, it was renamed in honor of President Theodore Roosevelts son, Quentin, Roosevelt Field was the takeoff point for many historic flights in the early history of aviation, including Charles Lindberghs 1927 solo transatlantic flight. It was also used by other pioneering aviators, including Amelia Earhart, the Hempstead Plains Aerodrome originally encompassed 900 to 1,000 acres east of and abutting Clinton Road, south of and adjacent to Old Country Road, and west of Merrick Avenue. A bluff 15 feet in elevation divided the plain into two large fields and he reported for aeronautical duty at the Signal Corps Aviation School, Augusta, Georgia, on 2 March 1912. On September 24,1918, the Army dedicated the portion of Hazelhurst Field No.1 as Roosevelt Field. Once in civilian hands, the owners sold portions along the edge of the field. Curtiss Field, a 300-acre airport on the site of Hazelhurst Field. Roosevelt Field occupied the remainder, consisting of seven hangars and a parking ramp adjacent to Curtiss Field. Unable to gain speed, the plane cartwheeled off the end of the bluff and burst into flames. The following May, operating from a hangar at Curtiss Field, both fields were bought in 1929 by Roosevelt Field, Inc. The western field, called Unit 2, and the runway atop the bluff, called Unit 1, were connected by a broad earthen taxi ramp and the consolidated property was named Roosevelt Field. Unit 1 was sold in 1936 and became the Roosevelt Raceway, at its peak in the 1930s, it was Americas busiest civilian airfield. Roosevelt Field was used by the Navy and Army during World War II, after the war, Roosevelt Field reverted to operation as a commercial airport until it was acquired by real estate developers in 1950. The field closed on May 31,1951, currently its site is occupied by Roosevelt Field Mall and Garden City Plaza. afhra. af. mil/. UNH,1918 USGS map of Hazelhurst/Roosevelt Field and environs Abandoned & Little-Known Airfields, New York, Central Long Island
32.
Crissy Field
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Crissy Field, a former U. S. Army airfield, is now part of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area in San Francisco, California, United States. Historically part of the Presidio of San Francisco, Crissy Field closed as an airfield after 1974, under Army control, the site was affected by dumping of hazardous materials. The National Park Service took control of the area in 1994 and cleaned it up, while most buildings have been preserved as they were in the 1920s, some have been transformed into offices, retail space, and residences. The land Crissy Field resides on is an ancient 130-acre salt marsh, prior to European settlement, the Ohlone people used the area for harvesting shellfish and fish. They also lived in camps in the area, leaving behind shell middens in the archaeological record. The Spanish arrived in 1776 and called the area El Presidio and they began to use the area for livestock grazing and agriculture. The 127-acre marsh site was filled in during the 1870s and this alteration was finished in time for the 1915 Panama Pacific International Exposition. The U. S. Army took control of the Presidio in 1846, after filling in the marshlands, the Army covered over it and created an aerodrome. In June 1919 the Army assigned Colonel Henry H, arnold of the Air Service as Air Officer, Western Department, and directed him to convene a board of four officers to select the site. The board chose the former exposition site as much for its sheltered beach to protect seaplane operations as the fact that the infield of its racetrack was already in use as an aviation field. Although the wartime appropriations were reduced by the end of the war, the east-west clay and sand landing field was kidney shaped with the outline of the racetrack still visible. The western end of the field featured hangars, workshops and a garage for the army, the bluff overlooking the field had the row of officers quarters. Arnold led the effort to name the facility Crissy Field in memory of Major Dana H. Crissy, the base commander of Mather Field, California. The first unit assigned to the field, the 91st Observation Squadron, arrived from Mather in August, the first Western aerial forest fire patrols took place from Crissy Field. The first successful dawn-to-dusk transcontinental flight across the United States ended at Crissy Field in June 1924. That same year, the armys first aerial circumnavigation of the world stopped at Crissy Field, and Lowell H. Smith, who was stationed at the field, led the flyers upon their return. In 1925, two Navy flying boats led by Commander John Rodgers took off from Crissy Field, marking the first attempt to fly from the continental United States to Hawaii. The flight was expected to take 26-hours, but it took twelve days when the PN-9 ran out of short of land
33.
Scott Air Force Base
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Scott Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base in St. Clair County, Illinois, near Belleville and OFallon,25 miles East of downtown St. Louis. Scott Field was one of thirty-two Air Service training camps established after the United States entered World War I in April 1917 and it is part of the Air Mobility Command, and is also the headquarters of the U. S. Transportation Command, a Unified Combatant Command that coordinates transportation across all the services, the base currently employs 13,000 people,5,100 civilians with 5,500 active-duty Air Force, and an additional 2,400 Air National Guard and Reserve personnel. It was announced in June 2014 that two new cybersecurity squadrons will be added to the three currently on base and its airfield is also used by civilian aircraft, with civilian operations at the base referring to the facility as MidAmerica St. Louis Airport. MidAmerica has operated as a Joint Use Airport since beginning operations in November 1997, allegiant Air, the only commercial with scheduled flights at the airport, pulled out of the airport on January 3,2009, but resumed direct flights to Orlando in 2012. During World War I, Secretary of War Newton Baker advocated a role for aviation. Business and political leaders on both sides of the Mississippi River wanted the Midwest to be chosen as a site for one of the new flying fields. Aerial expert Albert Bond Lambert joined the St. Louis Chamber of Commerce, after inspecting several sites, the U. S. War Department agreed to the lease June 14,1917, congress appropriated $10 million for its construction, and 2,000 laborers and carpenters were immediately put to work. The layout of Scott Field was typical of aviation fields built during World War I, the government gave the Unit Construction Company 60 days to erect approximately 60 buildings, lay a mile-long railroad spur, and to level off an airfield with a 1,600 foot landing circle. Scott Field began as a field for World War I pilots in August 1917 when the 11th and 21st Aero Squadrons from Kelly Field, Texas. Construction was completed in August, and the first flight from Scott Field occurred 2 September 1917, Flying instruction began 11 September 1917. Later the 85th and 86th Aero Squadrons arrived, and more than 300 pilots, a. Reinburg, made the first flight from Scott Field in a Standard J-1 two-seater biplane. At least seven J-1s were already on Scott, by the time the first Curtiss JN-4D Jenny arrived, operable from the front or rear seat, the 8-cylinder, 90- horsepower, Jenny would become the primary trainer used on Scott Field. Everything moved fast in an environment, including the dangerous act of learning to fly airplanes. A judgment error or weather shift could produce severe accidents in the aircraft of the day. Determined to improve the recovery of Scotts downed pilots, Captains Charles Bayless, Early Hoag, etheridge, along with Second Lieutenant Seth Thomas, designed two air ambulances, or hospital planes—using a configuration likely modeled after one in use at Gerstner Field, Louisiana. By the summer of 1918, Scott Fields engineering department had completed the rear cockpit modifications needed to convert two Jennies, not long thereafter, on 24 August 1918, as aviator with a broken leg became Scotts first air evacuated patient
34.
The Trusts Arena
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The Trusts Arena is an indoor arena located in Henderson, New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand. It is a stadium that primarily holds sports events and music concerts. The Arena was opened by the former Prime Minister of New Zealand Helen Clark on 11 September 2004, the Stadium Arena has hosted the New Zealand Breakers in the past, the Netball World Championships in November 2007 and the Auckland Darts Masters in August 2015. It holds 4,901 people and was built in 2004, the Arena is home to the Northern Mystics and the Super City Rangers. 14-15 November 2015, The Trusts Arena was host to the 2015 Oceania Sevens Championship, the outdoor facility attached to The Trusts Arena, known as Douglas Track and Field, is a track and field facility that served as the home of New Zealand Football Championship team Waitakere United. The Waitakere City Rugby and Athletic Club is also based at the grandstand, heavy metal Band Slipknot play their first New Zealand show, with their All Hope Is Gone World Tour on October 22,2008. Grammy Nominated and American Idol Runner Up Adam Lambert play his first New Zealand show, Glam rock Legend Alice Cooper played a show with his No More Mr. Nice Guy Tour on September 22,2011. Boy band One Direction played their first headlining tour in New Zealand, the Trusts Arena has hosted over more than a dozen of notable boxing events from various promotions like Duco Events and Super 8. This venue has been so popular for boxing promoters that it has earned the name of New Zealands Home of Boxing, the arena itself even has its own boxing gym called Arena Boxing. 16 April 2016 Kali Reis vs. Maricela Cornejo for the vacant WBC World female middleweight title and this was the first time in New Zealand history that one of the four major boxing sanctioning bodies has had there world title being held on New Zealand soil. Also featured on the card were Melissa St. Vil vs Baby Nansen and Ronica Jeffrey vs Gentiane Lupi,16 October 2014 Joseph Parker defeated Sherman Williams while retaining the WBA - PABA and WBO Oriental Heavyweight titles. 4 June 2014 Kali Meehan won the first Super 8 Tournament and this Heavyweight Tournament involved highly credentialed boxers like Michael Sprott, Hasim Rahman, Alonzo Butler, Lawrence Tauasa and Martin Rogan. 14 December 2013 Brian Minto Defeated Shane Cameron for the Vacant WBO Oriental Heavyweight title,13 June 2013 Joseph Parker Defeated Frans Botha. On the same night Arlene Blencowe defeated Daniella Smith for the Vacant WIBA,31 March 2010 David Tua defeated Friday Ahunanya while retaining the WBO Asia Pacific & Oriental Heavyweight titles
35.
Biggs Field
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Biggs Army Airfield, Biggs AAF, Biggs Field, or simply Biggs is a military airport located at Fort Bliss in El Paso, El Paso County, Texas, in the United States. The airfield was previously Biggs Air Force Base, a Strategic Air Command installation, the United States Army began operations supporting Fort Bliss and its mission in 1973. Biggs Field is now the home of the United States Army 1st Armored Division, in October 2011, the Airfield became home of the Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Armored Division. Biggs is also the headquarters for the El Paso Intelligence Center, a federal tactical operational intelligence center, Biggs Field is designated a military power projection platform. Runway,13,576 feet long,300 feet wide, asphalt surface, capable of handling B-52, C-5. 1,000 feet asphalt overrun on the 21 end of the runway, taxiways, approximately 9.7 miles of taxiways. Parking,3,600,000 square feet, asphalt surface with numerous 50 X120 concrete pads, what is now Biggs Army Airfield started life in 1915 as an encampment at Fort Bliss, Texas, for the 82d Field Artillery. That location was on what is now Ft Bliss, approximately two miles, south southwest of the current Biggs Army Airfield. The next year aircraft of the 1st Aero Squadron used the field as a point between San Antonio, Texas, and Columbus, New Mexico, in response to Pancho Villas raid on the town. They were equipped with Curtiss JN-2 Jennys, and their mission included scouting, observation, the field was referred to as Fort Bliss Aviation Field. In 1920, Camp Owen Bierne opened on the site of the current airbase as a base for airship operations, but the units were soon disbanded. On 25 January 1925, the field was officially named Biggs Field in honor of Lieutenant James Berthes Buster Biggs, an U. S. Army Air Service officer from El Paso killed in World War I. Lieutenant Biggs was an El Paso native and a student at the Texas State School of Mines and Metallurgy who on October 27,1918, was killed in a crash at Beltran. On 30 June 1926 the original Biggs Field was closed and Camp Owen Beirne was renamed Biggs Field, Camp Owen Beirne had been a National Guard camp and was the location of the large airship hangar that would be a Biggs landmark for many years. When the United States entered World War II in late 1941, Fort Bliss was home to the largest horse cavalry force in the nation, the Division continued to patrol the border during the early years of the war. However, the need for maintaining an outdated horse cavalry along the border all, in 1943, the War Department dismounted the 1st Cavalry Division. With World War II imminent, a massive effort was begun at Biggs Army Airfield from 1942 to 1945. The field itself was moved to its present location, huge hangars and longer concrete runways were built to accommodate Army Air Corps bombers and other aircraft as Biggs assigned to Second Air Force in 1942
36.
Columbus Airfield
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Columbus Municipal Airport is an abandoned airport in New Mexico. Its origins date to 1916 when it was used by the Aviation Section and it was apparently closed and abandoned in the late 1970s. Today, efforts are being made to restore it to a general aviation airport, Columbus Municipal Airport is historically recognized as the birthplace of American air power. During the Mexican Revolution, hundreds of Pancho Villas horsemen crossed the United States border and raided Columbus, the town was looted and burned, and 17 Americans were killed. Wilson then ordered General John J. Pershing to pursue and disperse, one of Pershings first acts was to order the 1st Aero Squadron to Columbus to establish a base of operations. The squadron left Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas on 13 March, two days later it arrived in Columbus with eight Curtiss JN-3 aircraft,11 pilots and 82 enlisted men and established an airfield to the southeast of the town. The Curtiss aircraft were not in condition, however, despite their lack of readiness. The first reconnaissance flight into Mexico was made on 16 March, Captain Dodd piloting Airplane #44, Pershing crossed the border with 6,600 men a week after the Columbus raid. As the soldiers pushed south, hoping to encircle Villas forces, all of the eight airplanes of the Squadron were started in flight from Columbus at 5,10 P. M. on March 19. Due to motor trouble, one of the airplanes was compelled to return to Columbus, using its base in Columbus, the 1st Aero Squadron concentrated on carrying mail and dispatches between Columbus and Pershings Army columns moving south into Mexico. During the last few days of March, the planes flew approximately 20 missions with messages for the various columns of Pershings command. After the loss of most squadron aircraft in Mexico due to non-combat causes, the fliers arrived on 20 April 1916, and found four new Curtiss N-8s, an export version of the JN-4, the latest model of the Jenny. These were the first of 94 JN-4s ordered by the Army in 1916, the aviators tested their new planes during the last week of April and found them lacking. The Technical Aero Advisory and Inspection Board of the Signal Corps decided instead to equip the 1st Aero with the Curtiss R-2, which boasted a 160-hp engine. Twelve R-2s were delivered to the squadron in May, but the planes, the aircraft even lacked compasses, instruments and tool kits when they arrived. The experienced mechanics at Columbus soon put the planes into flying shape, the R-2s used in Mexico were eventually equipped with automatic cameras, radios and Lewis machine guns, as well as incendiary and explosive bombs. Despite the use of airplanes, the U. S. Army never managed to locate the elusive Pancho Villa, although the 1st Aero Squadron remained at Columbus until August 1917 when it was ordered to France after the United States entry into World War I. After World War I, Columbus Airfield was used by the Army as part of their patrol flights along the Mexican border, when the Border Patrol operation ended in June 1921, all airfields except Biggs Field in El Paso were closed and most units were reassigned to other stations
37.
Nogales, Arizona
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Nogales is a city in Santa Cruz County, Arizona, United States. The population was 20,837 at the 2010 census and estimated 20,407 in 2014, Nogales forms part of the larger Tucson-Nogales combined statistical area, with a total population of 1,027,683 as of the 2010 Census. The city is the county seat of Santa Cruz County, Nogales, Arizona, borders the city of Nogales, Sonora, Mexico, and is Arizonas largest international border community. The southern terminus of Interstate 19 is located in Nogales at the U. S. -Mexico border, the highways meeting in Nogales comprise a major road intersection in the CANAMEX Corridor, connecting Canada, the United States, and Mexico. Nogales also is the beginning of the Arizona Sun Corridor, an important trade region stretching from Nogales to Prescott, AZ, including the Tucson. The Nogales-Mariposa Port of Entry has 12 passenger vehicle inspection lanes and 8 commercial inspection lanes and this trade helps to support tens of thousands of jobs and the overall economies in Ambos Nogales and throughout the American state of Arizona and the Mexican state of Sonora. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 20.8 square miles. The city is at an elevation of 3,865 feet, Nogales has a semi-arid steppe climate, which is less hot and more rainy than a typical arid climate classification such as Phoenix. In the winter months, Nogales averages in the mid to upper 60s, lows typically settle just below the freezing mark on a majority of nights, but it is not uncommon to see temperatures tumble below 25 °F or −3.9 °C on some winter nights. On the other hand, in the months, highs average between 90 °F and 100 °F, with the month of June being the hottest with an average daytime high of 96 °F or 35.6 °C. Nighttime lows for the summer months remain in the upper 50s, some monsoon season storms are capable of producing several inches of rain in a short amount of time, creating flash flood hazards. Nogales’ all-time highest recorded temperature is 112 °F or 44.4 °C, the lowest recorded temperature was −4 °F or −20 °C on December 8,1978. The name Nogales is derived from the Spanish word for walnut or walnut tree and it refers to the large stands of walnut trees that once stood in the mountain pass where Nogales is located. On the second floor of the 1904 Nogales Courthouse is a room dedicated to the 1775–1776 Anza Expedition. In 1841, a grant from the Mexican government to the Elías family established Los Nogales de Elías. Following the Gadsden purchase in 1853, Nogales became a part of the United States of America, in 1880, Russian immigrant Jacob Isaacson built a trading post at present-day Nogales. The U. S. Postal Service opened the Isaacson post office, on August 27,1918, a battle between United States Army forces and Mexican militia - mostly civilian in composition - took place. Most of Nogales economy is based on agribusiness and produce distributors, despite its small population, Nogales actually receives much patronage from its bordering sister-city, Nogales, Sonora, Mexico
38.
Jacksonville Beach, Florida
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Jacksonville Beach is a coastal resort city in Duval County, Florida, United States. It was incorporated on May 22,1907 as Pablo Beach, the city is part of group of communities collectively referred to as the Jacksonville Beaches. These communities include Mayport, Atlantic Beach, Neptune Beach, when the city of Jacksonville consolidated with Duval County in 1968, Jacksonville Beach, together with Atlantic Beach, Neptune Beach, and Baldwin, voted to retain their own municipal governments. As a result, citizens of Jacksonville Beach are also eligible to vote in election for the City of Jacksonville. As of the 2010 census, Jacksonville Beach had a population of 21,362. The area around present-day Jacksonville Beach was first settled by Spanish settlers, Spanish missions were established from Mayport to St. Augustine. Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain by treaty in 1763, only to have Spain regain it again, American river pilots and fishermen came to Hazard, present-day Mayport, and established a port. In the late 19th century, developers began to see the potential in Duval Countys oceanfront as a resort, in 1883 a group of investors formed the Jacksonville and Atlantic Railroad with the intention of developing a resort community that would be connected to Jacksonville by rail. The first settlers were William Edward Scull, an engineer and surveyor. They lived in a tent two blocks east of Pablo Historical Park, a second tent was the general store and post office. On August 22,1884, Mrs. Scull was appointed postmaster, mail was dispatched by horse and buggy up the beach to Mayport, and from there to Jacksonville by steamer. The Sculls built the first house in 1884 on their tent site, the settlement was named Ruby for their first daughter. On May 13,1886, the town was renamed Pablo Beach after the San Pablo River. In 1885, the San Pablo Diego Beach Land Co. sold town lots ranging from $50 to $100 each along with 5 to 10 acres lots from $10 to $20 per acre within 3 miles of the new seaside resort Pablo Beach. In September 1892, work on the road to Pablo Beach was begun. The first resort hotel called the Murray Hall Hotel was established in mid 1886, by 1900 the railway company began to have financial difficulties and Henry Flagler took over as part of his Florida East Coast Railway. In late 1900 the railway was changed to standard gauge and was extended to Mayport, the Spanish–American War broke out in 1898. The 3rd Nebraska arrived July 22,1898, for training and they were led by three-time presidential candidate, William Jennings Bryan
39.
Rockwell Field
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This airfield played a fundamental role in the development of United States military aviation in the period before and during World War I. Originally it was The Curtiss School of Aviation, founded by Glenn Curtiss, in November 1912, the Army established a permanent flying school on the island. It served as a flying school during World War I. The facility was transferred to the United States Navy on 31 January 1939, today, Rockwell Field forms the southeastern quadrant of what is today the Naval Air Station, North Island. The facility was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1991, the field was originally called the Signal Corps Aviation School. It was the first U. S. Army school to provide flying training for military pilots, the Aviation School was officially established on North Island in 1912. At that time North Island really was an island, separated from South Coronado on the Silver Strand peninsula by a narrow bight of water, both North Island and South Coronado were privately owned, but North Island had not been developed. In January 1911, Curtiss signed a contract with the owner of North Island to use the land for three years for a school, which was established in February 1911. Curtiss invited the Army and the Navy to send officers to his new school for flying training, the Army sent three airmen to the Curtiss school in early 1911, but they were ordered to Texas before completion of their training. During the winter of 1911 to 1912, the Navy sent three pilots to the Curtiss school for flying training, the Wright group, organized as the 1st Provisional Aero Squadron, came to North Island after mobilizing in Texas in March. The Army flyers established a tent camp at the end of North Island, and for about a year. None of the buildings from this period, constructed on the north end of the island. Existing historic and architecturally significant buildings reflect the use and development of Rockwell Field from 1918 to 1935, on July 20,1917, the Signal Corps Aviation School was named Rockwell Field in honor of 2nd Lt. Lewis C. Rockwell, killed in the crash of Wright Model B, Signal Corps 4, also in July, the United States Congress authorized the President to proceed with the taking of North Island for Army and Navy aviation schools. There was a needed for trained pilots as the United States had entered World War I earlier in the year. President Woodrow Wilson signed an Executive Order in August 1917 for condemnation of the land, the Army turned over the north end of the island to the Navy and relocated to the south end of North Island, the location of the Rockwell Field Historic District. The Navys first occupancy of North Island occurred on September 8,1917, the Army selected well-known Detroit industrial architect, Albert Kahn, to develop a site and building designs. Permanent construction of Kahns design began in mid-1918, during World War I, Rockwell Field provided training for many of the pilots and crews sent to France
40.
Fort Worth
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Fort Worth is the 16th-largest city in the United States and the fifth-largest city in the state of Texas. The city is in North Central Texas and covers nearly 350 square miles in the counties of Denton, Parker, Wise, according to the 2015 census, estimates, Fort Worths population is 833,319. The city is the second-largest in the Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington metropolitan area, the city was established in 1849 as an Army outpost on a bluff overlooking the Trinity River. Today, Fort Worth still embraces its Western heritage and traditional architecture, USS Fort Worth is the first ship of the United States Navy named after the city. Fort Worth is home to the Van Cliburn International Piano Competition, also of note is the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, designed by Tadao Ando. The Amon Carter Museum of American Art, designed by Philip Johnson, the Sid Richardson Museum, redesigned by David M. Schwarz, has one of the most focused collections of Western Art in the U. S. emphasizing Frederic Remington and Charles Russell. The Treaty of Birds Fort between the Republic of Texas and several Native American tribes was signed in 1843 at Birds Fort in present-day Arlington, Texas. Article XI of the treaty provided that no one may pass the line of trading houses without permission of the President of Texas and these trading houses were later established at the junction of the Clear Fork and West Fork of the Trinity River in present-day Fort Worth. At this river junction, the U. S, War Department established Fort Worth in 1849 as the northernmost of a system of 10 forts for protecting the American Frontier following the end of the Mexican–American War. The City of Fort Worth continues to be known as where the West begins, originally 10 forts had been proposed by Major General William Jenkins Worth, who commanded the Department of Texas in 1849. In January 1849, Worth proposed a line of 10 forts to mark the western Texas frontier from Eagle Pass to the confluence of the West Fork, One month later, Worth died from cholera in South Texas. General William S. Harney assumed command of the Department of Texas, Arnold to find a new fort site near the West Fork and Clear Fork. On June 6,1849, Arnold, advised by Middleton Tate Johnson, established a camp on the bank of the Trinity River, in August 1849, Arnold moved the camp to the north-facing bluff, which overlooked the mouth of the Clear Fork of the Trinity River. The United States War Department officially named the post Fort Worth on November 14,1849, E. S. Terrell from Tennessee claimed to be the first resident of Fort Worth. The fort was flooded the first year and moved to the top of the bluff, the fort was abandoned September 17,1853. As a stop on the legendary Chisholm Trail, Fort Worth was stimulated by the business of the cattle drives, millions of head of cattle were driven north to market along this trail. Fort Worth became the center of the drives, and later. It was given the nickname of Cowtown, during Civil War, Fort Worth suffered from shortages of money, food, and supplies
41.
El Paso, Texas
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El Paso is the seat of El Paso County, Texas, United States. The city is situated in the far corner of the U. S. state of Texas. El Paso stands on the Rio Grande river across the Mexico–United States border from Ciudad Juárez, the region of over 2.9 million people constitutes the largest bilingual and binational work force in the Western Hemisphere. The city hosts the annual Sun Bowl college football post-season game, El Paso has a strong federal and military presence. William Beaumont Army Medical Center, Biggs Army Airfield, and Fort Bliss call the city home, Fort Bliss is one of the largest military complexes of the United States Army and the largest training area in the United States. Also headquartered in El Paso are the DEA domestic field division 7, El Paso Intelligence Center, Joint Task Force North, Border Patrol El Paso Sector, and U. S. In 2010, El Paso received an All-America City Award, El Paso has been ranked the safest large city in the U. S. for four consecutive years and has ranked in the top three since 1997. As of July 1,2015, the estimate for the city from the U. S. Census was 681,124. Its U. S. metropolitan area covers all of El Paso and Hudspeth counties in Texas, the El Paso MSA forms part of the larger El Paso–Las Cruces CSA, with a population of 1,053,267. The El Paso region has had human settlement for thousands of years, the evidence suggests 10,000 to 12,000 years of human habitation. The earliest known cultures in the region were maize farmers, when the Spanish arrived, the Manso, Suma, and Jumano tribes populated the area. These were subsequently incorporated into the Mestizo culture, along with immigrants from central Mexico, captives from Comanchería, the Mescalero Apache were also present. El Paso del Norte was founded on the bank of the Río Bravo del Norte. El Paso remained the largest settlement in New Mexico until its cession to the U. S. in 1848, the Texas Revolution was generally not felt in the region, as the American population was small, not being more than 10% of the population. However, the region was claimed by Texas as part of the treaty signed with Mexico, during this interregnum, 1836–1848, Americans nonetheless continued to settle the region. The present Texas–New Mexico boundary placing El Paso on the Texas side was drawn in the Compromise of 1850, El Paso County was established in March 1850, with San Elizario as the first county seat. The United States Senate fixed a boundary between Texas and New Mexico at the 32nd parallel, thus largely ignoring history and topography, a military post called The Post opposite El Paso was established in 1854. Further west, a settlement on Coons Rancho called Franklin became the nucleus of the future El Paso, a year later, pioneer Anson Mills completed his plan of the town, calling it El Paso
42.
Marfa, Texas
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Marfa is a city in the high desert of the Trans-Pecos in far West Texas, located between the Davis Mountains and Big Bend National Park. It is the county seat of Presidio County, and its population as of the 2010 United States Census was 1,981. The city was founded in the early 1880s as a waterstop, the population increased during World War II, today, Marfa is a tourist destination and a major center for Minimalist art. Attractions include Building 98, the Chinati Foundation, artisan shops, historical architecture, a classic Texas town square, modern art installments, art galleries, Marfa was founded in the early 1880s as a railroad water stop. The town was named Marfa at the suggestion of the wife of a railroad executive, the town grew quickly during the 1920s. The Marfa Army Airfield served as a facility for several thousand pilots during World War II, including the American actor Robert Sterling. The base was used as the training ground for many of the United States Armys chemical mortar battalions. Marfa is located at 30°18′43″N 104°1′29″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 1.6 sq mi, all land. The city is located in the Chihuahuan Desert, a developed region of about 140,000 square miles. As of the 2010 United States Census,1,981 people,864 households, the population density was 1,354.6 people per square mile. There were 1,126 housing units at a density of 719.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 91% White,0. 28% African American,0. 38% Native American,0. 05% Asian,7. 50% from other races, hispanics or Latinos of any race were 69. 9% of the population. About 31. 4% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.99. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females, there were 101.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.9 males, the median income for a household in the city was $24,712, and for a family was $32,328. Males had an income of $25,804 versus $18,382 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,636, about 15. 7% of families and 20. 6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24. 6% of those under age 18 and 26. 9% of those age 65 or over. The area around Marfa is known as a center for contemporary artists
43.
Claire Lee Chennault
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Claire Lee Chennault was an American military aviator best known for his leadership of the Flying Tigers and the Republic of China Air Force in World War II. Chennault was an advocate of pursuit or fighter-interceptor aircraft during the 1930s when the U. S. Army Air Corps was focused primarily on high-altitude bombardment. Chennault retired from the United States Army in 1937, and went to work as an adviser and trainer in China. Starting in early 1941, Chennault commanded the 1st American Volunteer Group, one mission which never came to fruition was the bombing of Japanese cities, the bombers did not arrive before Pearl Harbor. He headed both the group and the uniformed U. S. Air Force units that replaced it in 1942. He feuded constantly with General Joseph Stilwell, the U. S. Army commander in China, Chennaults surname is of French origin and it is often pronounced as Shen-O. However, his American family pronounced the surname as Shen-Awlt, Chennault was born in Commerce, Texas, to John Stonewall Jackson Chennault and Jessie Chennault. He grew up in the Louisianan towns of Gilbert and Waterproof and he began misrepresenting his year of birth as either 1889 or 1890, possibly because he was too young to attend college after he graduated from high school, so his father added three years to his age. Chennault attended Louisiana State University between 1909 and 1910 and underwent ROTC training and he and Nell moved to West Carroll Parish where he served as principal of Kilbourne School from 1913 -1915. At the onset of World War I, he graduated from Officers School at Fort Benjamin Harrison in Indiana and he learned to fly in the Army Air Service during World War I. Following the war he graduated from pilot training at Ellington Field, Texas, on April 23,1922. Chennault became the Chief of Pursuit Section at Air Corps Tactical School in the 1930s, into the mid-1930s Chennault led and represented the 1st Pursuit Group of the Montgomery, Alabama-based Army Air Corps aerobatic team the Three Musketeers. The group performed at the 1928 National Air Races, in 1932, as a pursuit aviation instructor at Maxwell Field, Chennault re-organized the team as Three Men on the Flying Trapeze. As a civilian, he then was induced to go to China, Chennault arrived in China in June 1937. He had a contract at a salary of $1,000 per month. Soong Mei-ling, or Madame Chiang as she was known to Americans, was in charge of the Aeronautical Commission and his duties also included organizing the International Squadron of mercenary pilots. They reported to the Chinese Ambassador to the United States, Hu Shih, Chennaults mission to Washington ultimately brought up the idea of creating an American Volunteer Group of pilots and mechanics to serve in China. By then Dr. Soong had already begun negotiations for an increase in aid with U. S. Secretary of Commerce
44.
Flying Tiger
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The shark-faced nose art of the Flying Tigers remains among the most recognizable image of any individual combat aircraft or combat unit of World War II. The group consisted of three squadrons of around 30 aircraft each. It trained in Burma before the American entry into World War II with the mission of defending China against Japanese forces, the group of volunteers were officially members of the Chinese Air Force. The members of the group had contracts with salaries ranging from $250 a month for a mechanic to $750 for a squadron commander, while it accepted some civilian volunteers for its headquarters and ground crew, the AVG recruited most of its staff from the U. S. military. The group first saw combat on 20 December 1941,12 days after Pearl Harbor, AVG pilots earned official credit, and received combat bonuses, for destroying 296 enemy aircraft, while losing only 14 pilots in combat. The combat records of the AVG still exist and researchers have found them credible, on 4 July 1942 the AVG was disbanded. It was replaced by the 23rd Fighter Group of the United States Army Air Forces, fourteenth Air Force with General Chennault as commander. The 23rd FG went on to achieve combat success, while retaining the nose art on the left-over P-40s. Chiang then asked for American combat aircraft and pilots, sending Chennault to Washington as adviser to Chinas ambassador and Chiangs brother-in-law, T. V. Soong. Since the U. S. was not at war, the Special Air Unit could not be organized overtly, the resulting clandestine operation was organized in large part by Lauchlin Currie, a young economist in the White House, and by Roosevelt intimate Thomas G. Corcoran. Financing was handled by China Defense Supplies – primarily Tommy Corcorans creation – with money loaned by the U. S. government, purchases were then made by the Chinese under the Cash and Carry provision of the Neutrality Act of 1939. Previously in the 1930s, a number of American pilots including Annapolis graduate Frank Tinker had flown combat during the Spanish Civil War on the Republican side, members were organized into the Yankee Squadron. He also laid the groundwork for a bomber group and a second fighter group. Of the pilots,60 came from the Navy and Marine Corps and 40 from the Army Air Corps, although sometimes considered a mercenary unit, the AVG was closely associated with the U. S. military. Most histories of the Flying Tigers say that on 15 April 1941, however, Flying Tigers historian Daniel Ford could find no evidence that such an order ever existed, and he argued that a wink and a nod was more the presidents style. In any event, the AVG was organized and in part directed out of the White House, during the summer and fall 1941, some 300 men carrying civilian passports boarded ships destined for Burma. They were initially based at a British airfield in Toungoo for training while their aircraft were assembled and they called Chennault the Old Man due to his much older age and leathery exterior obtained from years flying open cockpit pursuit aircraft in the Army Air Corps. Most believed that he had flown as a pilot in China
45.
Charlotte, Texas
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Charlotte is a city in Atascosa County, Texas, United States. The population was 1,715 at the 2010 census and it is part of the San Antonio Metropolitan Statistical Area. The town is named for Charlotte Simmons, the daughter of Dr. Charles Simmons, Charlotte is located at 28°51′38″N 98°42′27″W. This is 52 miles south of downtown San Antonio, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 2.0 square miles, all land. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,637 people,514 households, the population density was 823.4 people per square mile. There were 585 housing units at a density of 294.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 64. 94% White,0. 06% African American,1. 65% Native American,29. 93% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 81. 19% of the population. 18. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 3.18 and the average family size was 3.61. In the city, the population was out with 34. 8% under the age of 18,10. 2% from 18 to 24,27. 4% from 25 to 44,18. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 30 years, for every 100 females there were 98.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.1 males, the median income for a household in the city was $24,792, and the median income for a family was $27,976. Males had an income of $24,375 versus $15,313 for females. The per capita income for the city was $9,769, about 24. 9% of families and 30. 0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 35. 1% of those under age 18 and 25. 0% of those age 65 or over. Charlotte is served by the Charlotte Independent School District and home to the Charlotte High School Trojans, the climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Charlotte has a subtropical climate. Charlotte Independent School District Handbook of Texas article
46.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
47.
Salt Lake City
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Salt Lake City, often shortened to Salt Lake or SLC, is the capital and the most populous municipality of the U. S. state of Utah. With an estimated population of 190,884 in 2014, the city lies at the core of the Salt Lake City metropolitan area, Salt Lake City is further situated within a larger metropolis known as the Salt Lake City-Ogden-Provo Combined Statistical Area. This region is a corridor of contiguous urban and suburban development stretched along an approximately 120-mile segment of the Wasatch Front and it is one of only two major urban areas in the Great Basin. The city was founded in 1847 by Brigham Young, Isaac Morley, George Washington Bradley and numerous other Mormon followers, who extensively irrigated and cultivated the arid valley. Due to its proximity to the Great Salt Lake, the city was originally named Great Salt Lake City—the word great was dropped from the name in 1868 by the 17th Utah Territorial Legislature. Today, however, less than half the population of Salt Lake City proper are members of the LDS Church. It was traversed by the Lincoln Highway, the first transcontinental highway, in 1913, Salt Lake City has since developed a strong outdoor recreation tourist industry based primarily on skiing, and hosted the 2002 Winter Olympics. It is the banking center of the United States. Before Mormon settlement, the Shoshone, Ute, and Paiute had dwelt in the Salt Lake Valley for thousands of years. The land was treated by the United States as public domain, the first U. S. explorer in the Salt Lake area is believed to be Jim Bridger in 1825, although others had been in Utah earlier, some as far north as the nearby Utah Valley. Frémont surveyed the Great Salt Lake and the Salt Lake Valley in 1843 and 1845, the Donner Party, a group of ill-fated pioneers, had traveled through the Great Salt Lake Valley in August 1846. The first permanent settlements in the date to the arrival of the Latter-day Saints on July 24,1847. Upon arrival at the Salt Lake Valley, president of the church Brigham Young is recorded as stating, This is the right place, Brigham Young claimed to have seen the area in a vision prior to the wagon trains arrival. They found the broad valley empty of any human settlement, four days after arriving in the Salt Lake Valley, Brigham Young designated the building site for the Salt Lake Temple, which would eventually become a famous Mormon and Salt Lake City landmark. The Salt Lake Temple, constructed on the block that would later be called Temple Square, construction started in 1853, and the temple was dedicated on 6 April 1893. The temple has become an icon for the city and serves as its centerpiece, in fact, the southeast corner of Temple Square is the initial point of reference for the Salt Lake Meridian, and for all addresses in the Salt Lake Valley. The Mormon pioneers organized a new state called Deseret and petitioned for its recognition in 1849, the United States Congress rebuffed the settlers in 1850 and established the Utah Territory, vastly reducing its size, and designated Fillmore as its capital city. Great Salt Lake City replaced Fillmore as the capital in 1858
48.
Oakland, California
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Oakland /ˈoʊklənd/ is the largest city and the county seat of Alameda County, California, United States. The city was incorporated in 1852, Oaklands territory covers what was once a mosaic of California coastal terrace prairie, oak woodland, and north coastal scrub. Its land served as a resource when its hillside oak and redwood timber were logged to build San Francisco. In the late 1860s, Oakland was selected as the terminal of the Transcontinental Railroad. Following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, many San Francisco citizens moved to Oakland, enlarging the citys population, increasing its housing stock and it continued to grow in the 20th century with its busy port, shipyards, and a thriving automobile manufacturing industry. Oakland is known for its sustainability practices, including a top-ranking for usage of electricity from renewable resources, in addition, due to a steady influx of immigrants during the 20th century, along with thousands of African-American war-industry workers who relocated from the Deep South during the 1940s. Oakland is the most ethnically diverse city in the country. The earliest known inhabitants were the Huchiun Indians, who lived there for thousands of years, the Huchiun belonged to a linguistic grouping later called the Ohlone. In Oakland, they were concentrated around Lake Merritt and Temescal Creek, in 1772, the area that later became Oakland was claimed, with the rest of California, by Spanish settlers for the King of Spain. In the early 19th century, the Spanish crown granted the East Bay area to Luis María Peralta for his Rancho San Antonio, the grant was confirmed by the successor Mexican republic upon its independence from Spain. Upon his death in 1842, Peralta divided his land among his four sons, Most of Oakland fell within the shares given to Antonio Maria and Vicente. The portion of the parcel that is now Oakland was called encinal—Spanish for oak grove—due to the oak forest that covered the area. In 1851, three men—Horace Carpentier, Edson Adams, and Andrew Moon—began developing what is now downtown Oakland, on May 4,1852, the Town of Oakland incorporated. Two years later, on March 25,1854, Oakland re-incorporated as the City of Oakland, with Horace Carpentier elected the first mayor, the city and its environs quickly grew with the railroads, becoming a major rail terminal in the late 1860s and 1870s. In 1868, the Central Pacific constructed the Oakland Long Wharf at Oakland Point, a number of horsecar and cable car lines were constructed in Oakland during the latter half of the 19th century. The first electric streetcar set out from Oakland to Berkeley in 1891, at the time of incorporation, Oakland consisted of the territory that lay south of todays major intersection of San Pablo Avenue, Broadway, and Fourteenth Street. The city gradually annexed farmlands and settlements to the east and the north, Oaklands rise to industrial prominence, and its subsequent need for a seaport, led to the digging of a shipping and tidal channel in 1902. This resulted in the town of Alameda being made an island
49.
Elko, Nevada
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Elko is the largest city and county seat of Elko County, Nevada, United States. The population was 18,297 at the 2010 census, the city straddles the Humboldt River. Elko is the city of the Elko Micropolitan Statistical Area. It is the largest city for over 130 miles in all directions, making it, as its city motto states and it is home to Great Basin College, as well as to the National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office serving most of northern and central Nevada. Though Elko lies along the route of the historic California Trail, it was first inhabited only in 1868, when the railroad crews moved on, Elko remained, serving as a center for ranching, mining, rail freight and general supplies. Elko is said to have been named by Charles Crocker, a superintendent of the Central Pacific Railroad and he was especially fond of animal names and added the letter o to Elk. There is no evidence of this naming history, but it has become the widely accepted version. The first Elko County Courthouse was built in 1869, Elko was officially incorporated as a city in 1917. In 1925, the Kelly Act authorized the United States Postal Service to contract with private airlines for the routes that fed the main transcontinental route. The first commercial flight in the United States was on the 487-mile Airmail Route #5 from Pasco, Washington. The flight was piloted by Leon D. Cuddeback and included a stop in Boise, Idaho. The 1910 replacement for the courthouse is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Post Office-Elko Main, built in 1933, is also listed, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 17.6 square miles, all land, though the path of the Humboldt River fills from time to time. January is normally the coldest month of the year, with an average temperature of 25.1 °F or −3.8 °C. There are an average of 1.8 days with 100 °F highs,44 days of 90 °F or 32. Annual precipitation averages 9.89 inches or 251.2 millimetres, falling on an average of 81 days, there are normally 130 sunny days each year. The highest temperature on record is 107 °F or 41.7 °C, most recently on July 4,1981, and the lowest on record is −43 °F or −41.7 °C on January 21,1937. The most rainfall in 24 hours was 4.13 inches on August 27,1970, and the most precipitation in one month 5.71 inches – all as snow – in January 1916
United States
United States Air Force
Air Combat Command
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This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http://www.afhra.af.mil/.