1.
Presidencies and provinces of British India
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Provinces of India, earlier Presidencies of British India and still earlier, Presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in the subcontinent. Collectively, they were called British India, in one form or other they existed between 1612 and 1947, conventionally divided into three historical periods. During 1612–1757, the East India Company set up factories in several locations, mostly in coastal India and its rivals were the merchant trading companies of Holland and France. By the mid-18th century, three Presidency towns, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta had grown in size, during the period of Company rule in India, 1757–1858, the Company gradually acquired sovereignty over large parts of India, now called Presidencies. However, it increasingly came under British government oversight, in effect sharing sovereignty with the Crown. At the same time it gradually lost its mercantile privileges, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Companys remaining powers were transferred to the Crown. In the new British Raj, sovereignty extended to a few new regions, increasingly, however, unwieldy presidencies were broken up into Provinces. In 1608, the English East India Company established a settlement at Surat, and it was followed in 1611 by a permanent factory at Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast, and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies in Bengal. Company rule in Bengal, however, ended with the Government of India Act 1858 following the events of the Bengal Rebellion of 1857 and these rulers were allowed a measure of internal autonomy in exchange for British suzerainty. British India constituted a significant portion of India both in area and population, in 1910, for example, it covered approximately 54% of the area, in addition, there were Portuguese and French exclaves in India. Independence from British rule was achieved in 1947 with the formation of two nations, the Dominions of India and Pakistan, the latter also including East Bengal, present-day Bangladesh. The term British India also applied to Burma for a time period, starting in 1824, a small part of Burma. This arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma commenced being administered as a separate British colony, British India did not apply to other countries in the region, such as Sri Lanka, which was a British Crown colony, or the Maldive Islands, which were a British protectorate. It also included the Colony of Aden in the Arabian Peninsula, the original seat of government was at Allahabad, then at Agra from 1834 to 1868. Bombay Presidency, East India Companys headquarters moved from Surat to Bombay in 1687, the East India Company, which was incorporated on 31 December 1600, established trade relations with Indian rulers in Masulipatam on the east coast in 1611 and Surat on the west coast in 1612. The company rented a trading outpost in Madras in 1639, meanwhile, in eastern India, after obtaining permission from the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to trade with Bengal, the Company established its first factory at Hoogly in 1640. Almost a half-century later, after Emperor Aurengzeb forced the Company out of Hooghly, by the mid-18th century the three principal trading settlements, now called the Madras Presidency, the Bombay Presidency, and the Bengal Presidency were each administered by a Governor. After Robert Clives victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in 1772, the Company also obtained the Nizāmat of Bengal and thereby full sovereignty of the expanded Bengal Presidency
2.
Pakistan
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Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
3.
British Indian Army
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The Indian Army was the principal army of India before independence from the United Kingdom in 1947. It was responsible for the defence of both British India and the Princely states, which could also have their own armies. The Indian Army was an important part of the British Empires forces, the term Indian Army appears to have been first used informally, as a collective description of the Presidency armies of the Presidencies of British India, particularly after the Indian Rebellion. The first army officially called the Indian Army was raised by the government of India in 1895, however, in 1903 the Indian Army absorbed these three armies. The Indian Army should not be confused with the Army of India which was the Indian Army itself plus the British Army in India, before 1858, the precursor units of the Indian Army were units controlled by the Company and were paid for by their profits. These operated alongside units of the British Army, funded by the British government in London. Many of these took part in the Indian Mutiny, with the aim of reinstating the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II at Delhi. The meaning of the term Indian Army has changed over time, The officer commanding the Army of India was the Commander-in-Chief, the title was used before the creation of a unified British Indian Army, the first holder was Major General Stringer Lawrence in 1748. By the early 1900s the Commander-in-Chief and his staff were based at GHQ India, Indian Army postings were less prestigious than British Army positions, but the pay was significantly greater so that officers could live on their salaries instead of having to have a private income. Accordingly, vacancies in the Indian Army were much sought after and generally reserved for the higher placed officer-cadets graduating from the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. British officers in the Indian Army were expected to learn to speak the Indian languages of their men, prominent British Indian Army officers included Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts, William Birdwood, 1st Baron Birdwood, Claude Auchinleck and William Slim, 1st Viscount Slim. Commissioned officers, British and Indian, held identical ranks to commissioned officers of the British Army, Kings Commissioned Indian Officers, created from the 1920s, held equal powers to British officers. Viceroys Commissioned Officers were Indians holding officer ranks and they were treated in almost all respects as commissioned officers, but had authority over Indian troops only, and were subordinate to all British Kings Commissioned Officers and KCIOs. They included Subedar Major or Risaldar-Major, equivalents to a British Major, Subedar or Risaldar equivalents to Captain, recruitment was entirely voluntary, about 1.75 million men served in the First World War, many on the Western Front and 2.5 million in the Second. Soldier ranks included Sepoys or Sowars, equivalent to a British private, British Army ranks such as gunner and sapper were used by other corps. In the aftermath of the Indian Mutiny of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny. The three Presidency armies remained separate forces, each with its own Commander-in-Chief, overall operational control was exercised by the Commander-in-Chief of the Bengal Army, who was formally the Commander-in-Chief of the East Indies. From 1861, most of the manpower was pooled in the three Presidential Staff Corps
4.
Pakistan Army
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Pakistan Army is the land-based service branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces. It came into existence after the independence of Pakistan in 1947, according to the International Institute for Strategic Studies it had an active force of approximately 620,000 active personnel as of 2017. In Pakistan, there is 16–23 years of age for military service. Pakistan Army has started inducting women as commissioned officers, Pakistani Air Force and Pakistani Navy have inducted their first female pilots and sailors in 2012 see details at Women in the Pakistan Armed Forces. Since its establishment in 1947, the Army has been involved in four wars with neighbouring India, since 1947, it has also maintained a strong presence along with its inter-services in the Arab states during the past Arab-Israeli Wars, and aided the coalition in the first Gulf War. Recently, major joint-operations undertaken by the Army include Operation Zarb-e-Azb, Operation Toar-e-Tander, the Army has also been an active participant in United Nations peacekeeping missions, including playing a major role in rescuing trapped US soldiers in Operation Gothic Serpent in 1993. Under Article 243 of the Constitution of Pakistan, the President is appointed the civilian Commander-in-Chief, the Chief of Army Staff, by statute a four-star general, is appointed by the President with the consultation and confirmation needed from the Prime Minister. The Pakistan Army is currently commanded by General Qamar Javed Bajwa, the Pakistan Army was created on the 30th of June of the year 1947 from the division of the British Indian Army. Fearing that India would take over the state of Kashmir, irregulars, scouts, in response to this, the Maharaja acceded to India. The Indian Armed Forces were then deployed to Kashmir and this led to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. A ceasefire followed on UN intervention with Pakistan occupying the northwestern part of Kashmir and this aid greatly expanded the Pakistan Army from its modest beginnings. The Pakistan Army took over from politicians for the first time when General Ayub Khan came to power through a coup in 1958. He formed Convention Muslim League which included Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who would later become Pakistans first democratically elected Prime Minister, tensions with India flared in the 1960s and a brief border skirmish was fought near the Rann of Kutch area during April 1965. The War began after the failure of Operation Gibraltar on 5 August 1965, on the night of 6 September 1965, the Indian Army opened the war front to the Province of Punjab of Pakistan, the Indian Army almost reached the Pakistani city of Lahore. The Indian Army conquered around 360 square kilometres square kilometres of Pakistani territory on the outskirts of Lahore. Indian forces halted their assault on Lahore once they had reached the village of Burki, the rationale for this was that a ceasefire was to be signed soon, and had India captured Lahore it would likely have been returned in ceasefire negotiations. The War eventually ended with a United Nations backed ceasefire and was followed by the Tashkent Declaration, losses were relatively heavy—on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft,200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistans army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses, at the time of ceasefire declaration, India reported casualties of about 3,000 killed
5.
Abbottabad
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Abbottabad is a city located in the Hazara region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, in northeastern Pakistan. Kashmir lies to the east of the city, the city is well known throughout Pakistan for its pleasant weather, high-standard educational institutions and for hosting the Pakistan Military Academy in Kakul. It remains a popular hill station attracting hundreds of thousands of tourists every year, Abbottabad, was the headquarters of the Hazara District during British rule of the Indian Subcontinent. It was named after Major James Abbott who founded the town and he remained the first Deputy Commissioner of the Hazara district from 1849 until April 1853. Major Abbott is noted for having written a poem titled Abbottabad, before he went back to Britain, in which he wrote of his fondness for the town and his sadness at having to leave it. In the early 20th century, Abbottabad became an important military cantonment and sanatorium, the garrison consisted of four battalions of native infantry, of the Frontier Force and two native mountain batteries. In 1901, the population of the town and cantonment was 7,764 and this increased to Rs.22,300 in 1903, chiefly derived from octroi. During this time chief public institutions were built such as the Albert Victor unaided Anglo-Vernacular High School, the Municipal Anglo-Vernacular High School, in 1911, the population had risen to 11,506 and the town also contained four battalions of Gurkhas. In June 1948, the British Red Cross opened a hospital in Abbottabad to deal with thousands of patients who were being brought in from the Kashmir fighting areas, in October 2005 Abbottabad was devastated by the Kashmir earthquake. Although most of Abbottabad survived, many buildings were destroyed or severely damaged. Abu Faraj al-Libbi told interrogators in Guantanamo that he had he had sent his family to Abbottabad, on 25 January 2011, Indonesian terrorist Umar Patek was arrested in Abbotobad. On 2 May 2011, Abbottabad gained worldwide attention when U. S. President Barack Obama announced that Osama bin Laden had been killed in his compound in the city. In February 2012, nine months after bin Laden was killed, the city is bounded at all four sides by the Sarban hills, from which residents and tourists can see breathtaking views of the region and city. The location of the city and the hills allows Abbottabad to experience pleasant weather in the summer, the Dor river flows south of Abbottabad through the town of Harnol, eventually reaching Tarbela Dam, situated west of Abbottabad. Neighbouring districts are Mansehra to the north, Muzaffarabad to the east, Haripur to the west, Abbottabad is situated in the Orash Valley lying between 34°92′N latitude and 73°13′E longitude at an altitude of 4,120 feet. To the north is the picturesque Kaghan Valley, Abbottabad has a humid subtropical climate, with mild to warm temperatures during the spring and autumn months, hot temperatures during June and July, and cool to mild temperatures during the winter. The temperature can rise as high as 38 °C during the mid-summer months, Abbottabad is the headquarters of Hazara Division and Abbottabad District. The District Nazim, Commissioner, Deputy Inspector General of police and Forest Conservator, the city is divided into localities, towns, colonies and neighbourhoods
6.
Military history of the North-West Frontier
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The North-West Frontier region of the British Indian Empire was the most difficult area to conquer in South Asia, strategically and militarily. The borderline between is known as the Durand Line and divides Pashtun inhabitants of these provinces from Pashtuns in eastern Afghanistan. The two main gateways on the North West Frontier are the Khyber and Bolan Passes, since ancient times, the Indian subcontinent has been repeatedly invaded through these northwestern routes. With the expansion of the Russian Empire into Central Asia in the century, stability of the Frontier. Much of the Frontier was occupied by Ranjit Singh in the early 19th century, between 1849 and 1947 the military history of the frontier was a succession of punitive expeditions against offending Pashtun tribes, punctuated by three wars against Afghanistan. Many British officers who went on to distinguished command in the First and Second World Wars learnt their soldiering on the North-West Frontier, which they called the Grim. In 1747 when Ahmad Khān Abdālī seized control of Kandahar, Kabul, and Peshawar and he went on to conquer Herat and Khorassan, and established an empire from the Oxus to the Indus. On his death in 1773, the Afghan domain included Baluchistan, Sindh, the Punjab, Ahmad Shah was succeeded by his son Timur Shah Durrani, whose rule of twenty years saw the Afghan tide begin to ebb. Timur left many sons but no heir, and the resultant internecine struggles for the throne lasted more than thirty years, during this period the Punjab was effectively ceded to its erstwhile governor Ranjit Singh, Iran recovered Khorassan, and Sindh broke away. In 1813 Sikh forces from the Punjab crossed the Indus and seized the old Mughal fort at Attock, in 1819 Kashmir was lost, and west of the Indus Derajat also. Four years later the capital at Peshawar came under attack. In 1826 Dost Mohammad Khan emerged as undisputed ruler in Kabul and he defeated a further attempt to oust him by his exiled rival Shuja Shah Durrani in 1833, however the Sikhs seized all of Peshawar the following year. In 1837 Dost Mohammad launched a counter-attack through the Khyber, Dost Mohammad had sought assistance from the East India Company against the resurgent Punjab, but was rebuffed. So Dost Mohammad turned to Imperial Russia for help, maharaja Ranjit Singh, also called Sher-e-Punjab was a Sikh ruler of the sovereign country of Punjab and the Sikh Empire. His Samadhi is located in Lahore, Pakistan and he then spent the following years fighting the Afghans, driving them out of western Punjab, taking opportunity of the Afghans being embroiled in civil war. The deposed Afghan king Shah Shuja rallied a significant number of tribes, the civil war in Afghanistan coupled with a British backed assault meant that the Sikhs could virtually walk into Peshawar. They managed to capture Pashtun territory including Peshawar which was under direct British supervision, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the East India Company controlled southern India, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. Dominance was gained at the expense of its French equivalent, the Compagnie des Indes, by 1819 only Sindh and the Sikh Empire remained outside the Companys control
7.
Indian Rebellion of 1857
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The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major, but ultimately unsuccessful, uprising in India in 1857–58 against British rule. For nearly 100 years, that rule had been presided over by the British East India Company, the rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the form of a mutiny of sepoys of the Companys army in the garrison town of Meerut,40 miles northeast of Delhi. It then erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions chiefly in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, though incidents of revolt also occurred farther north and east. The rebellion posed a threat to British power in that region. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, though they did not declare the hostilities formally to have ended until 8 July 1859. The rebellion is known by names, including the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection. Many Indians did rise against the British, however, very many also fought for the British, after the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi, whose 81-year-old Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, they declared the Emperor of Hindustan. Soon, the rebels had captured large tracts of the North-Western Provinces. The East India Companys response came rapidly as well, with help from reinforcements, Kanpur was retaken by mid-July 1857, and Delhi by the end of September. However, it took the remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 for the rebellion to be suppressed in Jhansi, Lucknow. Other regions of Company controlled India—Bengal province, the Bombay Presidency, in the Punjab, the Sikh princes crucially helped the British by providing both soldiers and support. In some regions, most notably in Awadh, the took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against European presence. However, the rebel leaders proclaimed no articles of faith that presaged a new political system, even so, the rebellion proved to be an important watershed in Indian- and British Empire history. India was thereafter administered directly by the British government in the new British Raj, on 1 November 1858, Queen Victoria issued a proclamation to Indians, which while lacking the authority of a constitutional provision, promised rights similar to those of other British subjects. In the following decades, when admission to these rights was not always forthcoming, the victory was consolidated in 1764 at the Battle of Buxar, when the East India Company army defeated Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. After his defeat, the granted the Company the right to the collection of Revenue in the provinces of Bengal, Bihar. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras, later, the Anglo-Mysore Wars, in 1806, the Vellore Mutiny was sparked by new uniform regulations that created resentment amongst both Hindu and Muslim sepoys. After the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories and this was achieved either by subsidiary alliances between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation
8.
Second Anglo-Afghan War
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This was the second time British India invaded Afghanistan. The war ended after the British emerged victorious against the Afghan rebels, most of the British and Indian soldiers withdrew from Afghanistan. This was aimed to thwart expansion by the Russian Empire into India, after tension between Russia and Britain in Europe ended with the June 1878 Congress of Berlin, Russia turned its attention to Central Asia. That same summer, Russia sent a diplomatic mission to Kabul. Sher Ali Khan, the Amir of Afghanistan, tried unsuccessfully to keep them out, Russian envoys arrived in Kabul on 22 July 1878, and on 14 August, the British demanded that Sher Ali accept a British mission too. The Amir not only refused to receive a British mission under Neville Bowles Chamberlain, a British force of about 50,000 fighting men, mostly Indians, was distributed into military columns which penetrated Afghanistan at three different points. An alarmed Sher Ali attempted to appeal in person to the Russian Tsar for assistance, but unable to do so, he returned to Mazar-i-Sharif, where he died on 21 February 1879. According to this agreement and in return for a subsidy and vague assurances of assistance in case of foreign aggression. Ghazi Mohammad Jan Khan Wardak, and a force of 10,000 Afghans, staged an uprising, despite besieging the British garrison there, he failed to maintain the Siege of Sherpur, instead shifting focus to Roberts force, and this resulted in the collapse of this rebellion. Yaqub Khan, suspected of complicity in the massacre of Cavagnari, Ayub Khan, who had been serving as governor of Herat, rose in revolt, defeated a British detachment at the Battle of Maiwand in July 1880 and besieged Kandahar. Roberts then led the main British force from Kabul and decisively defeated Ayub Khan on 1 September at the Battle of Kandahar, abandoning the provocative policy of maintaining a British resident in Kabul, but having achieved all their other objectives, the British withdrew. They also used a method involving urine, Pathan women urinated into prisoners mouths. Captured British soldiers were out and fastened with restraints to the ground, then a stick. Pathan women then squatted and urinated directly into the mouth of the man until he drowned in the urine, there were several decisive actions in the Second Anglo–Afghan War, from 1878 to 1880. Here are the battles and actions in chronological order, an asterisk indicates a clasp was awarded for that particular battle with the Afghanistan Medal. Afghan Wars and the North-West Frontier 1839–1947, westminster, National Union of Conservative and Constitutional Associations. Afghanistan, A Short Account of Afghanistan, Its History, and Our Dealings with It
9.
Boxer Rebellion
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The Boxer Rebellion, Boxer Uprising or Yihequan Movement a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising that took place in China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing dynasty. The uprising took place against a background of severe drought and the disruption caused by the growth of foreign spheres of influence, Foreigners and Chinese Christians sought refuge in the Legation Quarter. Diplomats, foreign civilians and soldiers as well as Chinese Christians in the Legation Quarter were placed under siege by the Imperial Army of China, Chinese officialdom was split between those supporting the Boxers and those favoring conciliation, led by Prince Qing. The supreme commander of the Chinese forces, the Manchu General Ronglu, the Eight-Nation Alliance, after being initially turned back, brought 20,000 armed troops to China, defeated the Imperial Army, and captured Beijing on August 14, lifting the siege of the Legations. Uncontrolled plunder of the capital and the surrounding countryside ensued, along with the execution of those suspected of being Boxers. The Empress Dowager then sponsored a set of institutional and fiscal changes in an attempt to save the dynasty by reforming it. The Righteous and Harmonious Fists arose in the sections of the northern coastal province of Shandong long known for social unrest, religious sects. American Christian missionaries were probably the first to refer to the well-trained, athletic men as Boxers, because of the martial arts. Their primary practice was a type of possession which involved the whirling of swords, violent prostrations. The opportunities to fight back Western encroachment and colonization were especially attractive to unemployed village men, the tradition of possession and invulnerability went back several hundred years but took on special meaning against the powerful new weapons of the West. The Boxers, armed with rifles and swords, claimed supernatural invulnerability towards blows of cannon, rifle shots, furthermore, the Boxer groups popularly claimed that millions of soldiers of Heaven would descend to assist them in purifying China of foreign oppression. The Big Swords, emboldened by this support, also attacked their local Catholic village rivals. The Big Swords responded by attacking Catholic churches and burning them, the line between Christians and bandits, remarks one recent historian, became increasingly indistinct. As a result of pressure in the capital, Yuxian executed several Big Sword leaders. More martial secret societies started emerging after this, the early years saw a variety of village activities, not a broad movement or a united purpose. Martial folk religious societies such as the Baguadao prepared the way for the Boxers, like the Red Boxing school or the Plum Flower Boxers, the Boxers of Shandong were more concerned with traditional social and moral values, such as filial piety, than with foreign influences. One leader, for instance, Zhu Hongdeng, started as a healer, specializing in skin ulcers. Zhu claimed descent from Ming dynasty emperors, since his surname was the surname of the Ming imperial family and he announced that his goal was to Revive the Qing and destroy the foreigners
10.
Somaliland
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Somaliland, officially the Republic of Somaliland, is a self-declared state internationally recognised as an autonomous region of Somalia. Somaliland lies in northwestern Somalia, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Aden and it is bordered by Puntland State of Somalia to the east, Djibouti to the northwest, and Ethiopia to the south and west. Its claimed territory has an area of 137,600 square kilometres, the capital and the largest city is Hargeisa, with the population of around 1,200,000 residents. In 1988, the Siad Barre regime launched a crackdown against the Hargeisa-based Somali National Movement and other militant groups, the conflict left the countrys economic and military infrastructure severely damaged. Since then, the territory has been governed by elected governments that seek international recognition as the Government of the Republic of Somaliland. The central government maintains informal ties with foreign governments, who have sent delegations to Hargeisa. Ethiopia also maintains an office in the region. However, Somalilands self-proclaimed independence remains unrecognised by any country or international organisation and it is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, an advocacy group whose members consist of indigenous peoples, minorities, and unrecognised or occupied territories. The earliest human artefacts in the area are the Laas Geel cave paintings, the region is sometimes thought to be part of the Land of Punt. Islam was introduced to the northern Somali littoral early on from the Arabian peninsula, various Muslim Somali kingdoms were formed around this period in the area. In the 14th century, the Zeila-based Adal Sultanate battled the forces of the Ethiopian emperor Amda Seyon I, the Ottoman Empire later occupied Berbera and environs in the 1500s. Muhammad Ali, Pasha of Egypt, subsequently established a foothold in the area between 1821 and 1841, the British garrisoned the protectorate from Aden and administered it as part of British India until 1898. British Somaliland was then administered by the Foreign Office until 1905, generally, the British did not have much interest in the resource-barren region. The stated purposes of the establishment of the protectorate were to secure a supply market, check the traffic in slaves, hence, the regions nickname of Adens butchers shop. Colonial administration during this period did not extend administrative infrastructure beyond the coast, on 1 July 1960, the protectorate and the Trust Territory of Somaliland united as planned to form the Somali Republic. A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa, with Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President, on 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum, the Somali people ratified a new constitution, which was first drafted in 1960. In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke, Shermarke was assassinated two years later by one of his own bodyguards. His murder was followed by a military coup détat on 21 October 1969
11.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
12.
Third Anglo-Afghan War
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The Third Anglo-Afghan War, also referred to as the Third Afghan War, began on 6 May 1919 and ended with an armistice on 8 August 1919. The Afghans were able to resume the right to conduct their own affairs as a fully independent state. The root cause of the Third Anglo-Afghan War lies many years before the fighting commenced. For the British in India, Afghanistan was long seen as a source of threat. For a long time the British worried about Russian intentions in the region and this period became known as the Great Game. Ostensibly, the country remained independent, however under the Treaty of Gandamak it accepted that in external matters it would. have no windows looking on the outside world, the death in 1901 of Emir Abdur Rahman Khan led indirectly to the war that began 18 years later. His successor, Habibullah, was a leader who sided with Britain or Russia. Notwithstanding these outbreaks, the frontier generally remained settled at a time when Britain could ill afford trouble, a Turco-German mission left Kabul in 1916. By that time, however, it had successfully convinced Habibullah that Afghanistan was an independent nation, with the end of the First World War, Habibullah sought to gain reward from the British government for his assistance during the war. Looking for British recognition of Afghanistans independence in foreign affairs, he demanded a seat at the Versailles Peace Conference in 1919 and this request was denied by the Viceroy, Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford, on the grounds that attendance at the conference was confined to the belligerents. Further negotiations were scheduled, but before they could begin Habibullah was assassinated on 19 February 1919 and this resulted in a power struggle as Habibullahs brother Nasrullah Khan proclaimed himself as Habibullahs successor, while in Kabul Amanullah, Habibullahs third son, had also proclaimed himself Amir. However, the Afghan army suspected Amanullahs complicity in the death of his father, needing a way of cementing his power, upon seizing the throne in April 1919 Amanullah posed as a man of democratic ideals, promising reforms in the system of government. He stated that there should be no forced labour, tyranny or oppression, upon seizing the throne, Amanullah had his uncle Nasrullah arrested for Habibullahs murder and had him sentenced to life imprisonment. Nasrullah had been the leader of a conservative element in Afghanistan. By April 1919 he realised that if he could not find a way to placate the conservatives he would be unlikely to maintain his hold on power. In 1919 the Afghan regular army was not a formidable force. These men were organised into 21 cavalry regiments and 75 infantry battalions, with about 280 modern artillery pieces, organised into 70 batteries, in reality, the Afghan regular army was not ready for war. As in past years, the levels of the officer corps were riddled with political intrigue
13.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
14.
Colonel-in-chief
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Colonel-in-Chief is a ceremonial position in a military regiment. It is in use in several Commonwealth armies, where it is held by the regiments patron. The position was used in the armies of several European monarchies. A Colonel-in-Chief has a ceremonial role in their regiment. The Norwegian Army has taken a more whimsical approach to the position, historically a Colonel-in-Chief was the ceremonial head of a regiment, usually a member of a European countrys royal family. The practice extends at least back to 1740 in Prussia when Frederick II held that position in the newly created Garde du Corps, an elite heavy cavalry regiment. By the late 19th Century the designation could be given to the children of royalty, the German Kaiser Wilhelm II carried the title to an extreme, holding it in literally dozens of German and Austro-Hungarian, British, Russian, and Portuguese regiments. In addition, his mother, wife, son, and daughters were also full or deputy Colonels-in-Chief of various units, in modern usage, the Colonel-in-Chief of a regiment is its patron, who has a ceremonial role in the life of the regiment. They do not have a role, or the right to issue orders. The chief purpose of the Colonel-in-Chief is to maintain a link between the regiment and the royal family. Some artillery regiments have a Captain-General instead of a Colonel-in-Chief, Colonels-in-Chief are appointed at the invitation of the regiment. While it is traditional for a royal personage to hold the position, as of 2015, most Colonels-in-Chief in the British Army are members of the British royal family. These exceptions, however, do not change the raison dêtre of the post, the role has spread to other armies in the Commonwealth of Nations, at least in countries which have royal families
15.
George V
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George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. He was the son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. From the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession behind his father and his own brother, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. From 1877 to 1891, George served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his grandmother in 1901, Georges father became King-Emperor of the British Empire, and George was created Prince of Wales. He succeeded his father in 1910 and he was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, the Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, in 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He had health problems throughout much of his reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son. George was born on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House and he was the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Albert Edward and Alexandra. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and he was baptised at Windsor Castle on 7 July 1865 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Longley. As a younger son of the Prince of Wales, there was expectation that George would become king. He was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother, George was only 17 months younger than Albert Victor, and the two princes were educated together. John Neale Dalton was appointed as their tutor in 1871, neither Albert Victor nor George excelled intellectually. For three years from 1879, the brothers served on HMS Bacchante, accompanied by Dalton. They toured the colonies of the British Empire in the Caribbean, South Africa and Australia, and visited Norfolk, Virginia, as well as South America, the Mediterranean, Egypt, Dalton wrote an account of their journey entitled The Cruise of HMS Bacchante. Between Melbourne and Sydney, Dalton recorded a sighting of the Flying Dutchman, after Lausanne, the brothers were separated, Albert Victor attended Trinity College, Cambridge, while George continued in the Royal Navy. He travelled the world, visiting many areas of the British Empire, during his naval career he commanded Torpedo Boat 79 in home waters then HMS Thrush on the North America station, before his last active service in command of HMS Melampus in 1891–92. From then on, his rank was largely honorary
16.
William Birdwood
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Field Marshal William Riddell Birdwood, 1st Baron Birdwood, GCB, GCSI, GCMG, GCVO, CIE, DSO was a British Army officer. He saw active service in the Second Boer War on the staff of Lord Kitchener and he went on to be general officer commanding the Northern Army in India in 1920 and Commander-in-Chief, India, in 1925. William Riddell Birdwood was born on 13 September 1865 in Kirkee and his father, Herbert Mills Birdwood, born in Bombay and educated in the UK, had returned to India in 1859 after passing the Indian Civil Service examination. In 1861, Herbert Birdwood married Edith Marion Sidonie, the eldest daughter of Surgeon-Major Elijah George Halhed Impey of the Bombay Horse Artillery and they would have five sons and a daughter, William was their second son. At the time of Williams birth, his father held positions in the Bombay legislative council, William Birdwood was educated at Clifton College, Bristol. He joined his regiment in India and then transferred from the 12th Royal Lancers to the Bengal Staff Corps on 20 December 1886 and he subsequently transferred to the 11th Bengal Lancers in 1887, seeing action on the North-West Frontier in 1891. He later became adjutant of the Viceroys Bodyguard in 1893 and he was promoted to captain on 9 May 1896 and saw action during the Tirah Campaign in 1897. He received a promotion to lieutenant-colonel in the South African Honours list published on 26 June 1902. When Kitchener went to India as commander-in-chief in November 1902, Birdwood joined him there as assistant military secretary and he was promoted to the substantive rank of major on 9 May 1903 and appointed Military Secretary to Lord Kitchener with the rank of full colonel on 26 June 1905. In November 1914 Birdwood was instructed by Kitchener to form an army corps from the Australian and he was promoted to temporary lieutenant-general on 12 December 1914 and given command of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps. Hamilton ordered Birdwood to carry out a landing on 25 April 1915 north of Kabatepe at a site now known as ANZAC Cove, the ANZAC Corps encountered high ridges, narrow gullies, dense scrub and strong Turkish resistance and became pinned down. Nevertheless, Hamilton ordered them to hold fast, Birdwood took effective command of the Australian Imperial Force, i. e. all Australian Forces in May 1915 while still commanding Allied troops on the ground at Gallipoli. He launched an attack on the Turks in August 1915. Notwithstanding this he was the corps commander opposed to abandoning Gallipoli. When I ANZAC Corps became the first to depart for France, Birdwood, as corps commander. Birdwood was promoted to the permanent rank of general on 23 October 1917 with command of a formation then known as the Australian Corps in November 1917. Birdwood was made Baronet of Anzac and of Totnes, in the County of Devon on 29 December 1919 and he toured Australia to great acclaim in 1920 and then became general officer commanding the Northern Army in India later that year. After leaving the service in 1930, Birdwood made a bid to become Governor-General of Australia and he had the backing of the King and the British government
17.
Henry Montgomery Lawrence
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Brigadier-General Sir Henry Montgomery Lawrence KCB was a British soldier and statesman in India, who died in the Siege of Lucknow during the Indian Rebellion. He is remembered in the Indian subcontinent as founder of the four Lawrence Military Asylums, Lawrence was born in 1806 into an Irish family at Matara, British Ceylon. His father, Lieutenant-Colonel Alexander William Lawrence hailed from Derry and achieved distinction in the Seige of Seringapatnam and he had two brothers who would go on to achieve fame in their own right, George Lawrence and John Lawrence. He was educated at Foyle College, Derry and the East India Company Military Seminary in Addiscombe, in 1822 he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Bengal Artillery, arriving in India the following year. He was based at the Calcutta suburb of Dum Dum, where Henry Havelock was also stationed about the same time and he soon saw action in the First Anglo-Burmese War. Lawrence and his battery formed part of the Chittagong column which General Joseph Morrison led over the hills of Arakan. The expedition was decimated by fever, and Lawrence nearly perished to the illness and he was sent first to Penang, and then Canton to convalesce, before being invalided back to England. Back in the United Kingdom, he assisted in the survey in Ireland. He returned to India in 1829, rejoining his regiment in Karnal where his brother George was stationed, in 1832 he passed examinations in Hindustani and Persian with the aim of earning a civil service posting. The following year he was appointed an assistant to the Revenue Survey of India by Lord William Bentinck based at Gorakhpur and he spent some years in camp, during which he married his cousin Honoria Marshall. In 1839, with the outbreak of the First Anglo-Afghan War he initially joined Alexander Burness Horse Artillery, when it was ordered to stand fast, he instead became assistant to Sir George Russell Clerk, adding to his political experience in the management of the district of Ferozepore. When news of disaster came from Kabul in November 1841 he was sent to Peshawar in order to push up supports for the relief of Sir Robert Sale and the garrison of Jalalabad. He was often unpopular with higher authorities due to his insistence that government should pay most attention to the welfare of the Indian population and he served with Sir George Pollock in the Kabul Expedition in 1842, managing a contingent to the Afghan capital. Following the war, he continued as a assistant in Peshawar somewhat disappointed by his lack of recognition for his contribution in the war. In 1843 he was elevated to the rank of Major and appointed to the well-salaried, whilst in Kathmandu, Lawrence devoted much of his time to literary pursuits, ably assisted by his wife. In 1845, instability in the Sikh Empire led to growing tensions with neighbouring provinces, Lawrences articles in the Calcutta Review had caught the attention of Henry Hardinge, the new Governor-General of India, who was impressed by his knowledge of the region. Hardinge appointed Lawrence as his political assistant following the death of Major George Broadfoot at the start of the First Anglo-Sikh War and he was present at the decisive Battle of Sobraon which brought the war to a conclusion. Following Sobraon, Lawrence counselled the Governor-General not to annex the Punjab but instead reconstruct the Sikh Empire, fenced in and this was provided for in the Treaty of Lahore, whereby a British garrison was to be based in Lahore to further this purpose
18.
John Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence
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Lawrence came from Richmond, North Yorkshire. Lawrence spent his years in Derry, part of the Province of Ulster in the northern part of Ireland. After attending the East India Company College, Lawrence went to India in 1829 along with his older brother, Sir Henry Montgomery Lawrence. He soon became a magistrate and tax collector in Delhi, where he was known for his concern for the plight of the peasantry as long as they did not question British rule. In that role he was known for his reforms, for subduing the hill tribes. For this, he was created a baronet and received a pension from the East India Company of £2,000. He returned to Britain in 1859, but was sent back to India in 1863 to become Viceroy to succeed Lord Elgin, as Viceroy, Lawrence pursued a cautious policy, avoiding entanglement in Afghanistan and the Persian Gulf. In domestic affairs, he increased educational opportunities for Indians, and he was raised to the peerage as Baron Lawrence, of the Punjaub and of Grateley in the County of Southampton, on his return to England in 1869. Arthur Munby as quoted in Mundy, Man of Two Worlds, wrote, Thursday, passing through Kensington Tuesday, I saw a man of all others worth seeing-Sir John Lawrence. He was riding down the street alone--without even a groom, and he all unnoticed, and still a commoner, while Vernon Smith is a peer. But idiots are proverbially the favourites of fortune, Lord Lawrence died in June 1879, aged 68. He had married Harriette Katherine, daughter of The Reverend Richard Hamilton and he was succeeded in his titles by his eldest son, John. Their second son, Henry Arnold, was a rugby player. Sir Herbert became a First World War general and a banker and their younger son Charles was a businessman and was created Baron Lawrence of Kingsgate in 1923. Lady Lawrence died in December 1917, a boarding house at the East India Company College and a house at Foyle College was subsequently named after him. Lawrence is also a Senior Wing House at St Pauls School, Darjeeling, in India, a statue of him stands at Foyle and Londonderry College. Another statue of Lawrence stands in Waterloo Place in central London, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Lawrence, John Laird Mair Lawrence, 1st Baron. Mundy, Man of Two Worlds. Derek Hudson. The Life and Diaries of Arthur Munby, 1828-1910. Abacus Edition,1974, John Laird Mair Lawrence, a viceroy of India
19.
Second Anglo-Sikh War
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The Second Anglo-Sikh War took place in 1848 and 1849, between the Sikh Empire and the British East India Company. It resulted in the subjugation of the Sikh Empire, and the annexation of the Punjab and what became the North-West Frontier Province. He also foresaw the spread of the rebellion, and the necessity that must arise, not merely for the capture of Multan and he therefore resolutely delayed to strike, organized a strong army for operations in November, and himself proceeded to the Punjab. At length, on January 22, the Multan fortress was taken by General Whish, here a complete victory was won on the February 21 at the Battle of Gujarat, the Sikh army surrendered at Rawalpindi, and their Afghan allies were chased out of India. After the victory at Gujarat, Lord Dalhousie annexed the Punjab for the East India Company in 1849, for his services the Earl of Dalhousie received the thanks of the British parliament and a step in the peerage, as marquess. The Sikh Wars gave the two sides a mutual respect for each others fighting prowess, the Sikhs would fight loyally for the British in the Indian Mutiny and in many other campaigns and wars up until Indian Independence in 1947. The Sikh kingdom of the Punjab was consolidated and expanded by Maharaja Ranjit Singh during the years of the nineteenth century. During the same period, the British East India Companys territories had been expanded until they were adjacent to the Punjab, when Ranjit Singh died in 1839, the Sikh Empire began to fall into disorder. There was a succession of short-lived rulers at the central Durbar, the East India Company began to build up its military strength on the borders of the Punjab. Eventually, the increasing tension goaded the Sikh Army to invade British territory, under weak, the hard-fought First Anglo-Sikh War ended in defeat for the Sikh Army. Some of the Sikh Army were forced to make an expedition to oust the ruling Maharajah of Kashmir in favour of Gulab Singh. The infant Maharaja Duleep Singh of the Sikh Empire was allowed to retain his throne, Duleep Singhs mother, Maharani Jind Kaur, continually tried to regain some of her former influence as Regent and was eventually exiled by Lawrence. While some Sikh generals and courtiers welcomed her dismissal, others resented Lawrences action, the British were unwilling to incur the financial and manpower costs of using large numbers of British or Bengal Army units for this task. To the contrary, the Governor-General of India, Viscount Hardinge sought to make economies after the war by reducing the size of the Bengal Army by 50,000 men, the Sardars of the Sikh Army naturally resented carrying out the orders of comparatively junior British officers and administrators. Early in 1848, Sir Henry Lawrence, who was ill, although it was assumed that his younger brother John Lawrence would be appointed in his place, Lord Dalhousie, who had replaced Hardinge as Governor-General, appointed Sir Frederick Currie instead. Currie was a legalist, based in Calcutta, who was unfamiliar with military matters, the city of Multan was part of the Sikh kingdom, having been captured by Ranjit Singh in 1818. In 1848, it was governed by a Hindu viceroy, Dewan Mulraj, after the end of the First Anglo-Sikh war, Mulraj had behaved independently. Currie instead imposed a Sikh governor, Sardar Kahan Singh, with a British Political Agent, Lieutenant Patrick Vans Agnew, on 18 April 1848, Vans Agnew arrived at Multan with another officer, Lieutenant William Anderson, and a small escort
20.
Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener
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His term as Commander-in-Chief of the Army in India saw him quarrel with another eminent proconsul, the Viceroy Lord Curzon, who eventually resigned. Kitchener then returned to Egypt as British Agent and Consul-General, in 1914, at the start of the First World War, Kitchener became Secretary of State for War, a Cabinet Minister. Kitchener died on 5 June 1916 when HMS Hampshire sank west of the Orkney Islands and he was making his way to Russia in order to attend negotiations when the ship struck a German mine. He was one of more than 600 killed on board the ship, Kitchener was born in Ballylongford near Listowel, County Kerry, in Ireland, son of army officer Henry Horatio Kitchener and Frances Anne Chevallier. His father had recently bought land in Ireland under a scheme to encourage the purchase of land after selling his commission. They then moved to Switzerland where the young Kitchener was educated at Montreux, then at the Royal Military Academy, pro-French and eager to see action, he joined a French field ambulance unit in the Franco-Prussian War. His father took him back to England after he caught pneumonia after ascending in a balloon to see the French Army of the Loire in action. Commissioned into the Royal Engineers on 4 January 1871, his service in France had violated British neutrality, and he was reprimanded by the Duke of Cambridge, the commander-in-chief. He served in Palestine, Egypt, and Cyprus as a surveyor, learned Arabic, Sir Walter Kitchener, had also entered the army, and was Governor of Bermuda from 1908 to 1912. In 1874, at age 24, Kitchener was assigned by the Palestine Exploration Fund to a mapping-survey of the Holy Land, replacing Charles Tyrwhitt-Drake, who had died of malaria. Conder and Kitchener’s expedition became known as the Survey of Western Palestine because it was confined to the area west of the Jordan River. The survey collected data on the topography and toponymy of the area, as well as local flora, the results of the survey were published in an eight-volume series, with Kitchener’s contribution in the first three tomes. This survey has had an effect on the Middle East for several reasons, The ordnance survey serves as the basis for the grid system used in the modern maps of Israel. The collection of data compiled by Conder and Kitchener are still consulted by archaeologists, the survey itself effectively delineated and defined the political borders of the southern Levant. For instance, the border between Israel and Lebanon is established at the point in upper Galilee where Conder and Kitchener’s survey stopped. In 1878 having completed the survey of Western Palestine, Kitchener was sent to Cyprus to undertake a survey of newly acquired British protectorate. Then in 1879 he became vice-consul in Anatolia, in 1883 Kitchener became a Freemason. On 4 January 1883 Kitchener was promoted to captain, given the Turkish rank bimbashi, Egypt had recently become a British puppet state, its army led by British officers, although still nominally under the sovereignty of the Khedive and his nominal overlord the Sultan of Turkey
21.
55th Coke's Rifles (Frontier Force)
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The 55th Cokes Rifles was a regiment of the British Indian Army. It was raised in 1849 as the 1st Regiment of Punjab Infantry and it was designated as the 55th Cokes Rifles in 1903 and became 1st Battalion 13th Frontier Force Rifles in 1922. In 1947, it was allocated to the Pakistan Army, where it continues to exist as 7th Battalion The Frontier Force Regiment, the regiment was formed on 18 May 1849 as the 1st Regiment of Punjab Infantry by Captain John Coke. The men were recruited from veterans of disbanded opposition forces after the British annexation in 1848 of the Punjab during to the Second Sikh War, in 1857 the Indian Mutiny began and the regiment, like many other Indian units, remained loyal to the British. During the British-Indian siege of rebel-held Delhi the 1st Punjab Infantry was part of the 3rd Column, on 14 September the column was tasked with storming the Kashmiri Gate—a part of the walled defences of Delhi—which they successfully achieved. Fierce fighting, however, ensued and Delhi was not fully retaken until 20 September, the rebellion was finally quelled by July 1858. In 1863 the 1st Punjab Infantry took part in the Umbeyla campaign in the North-West Frontier, one of the VC recipients was Henry William Pitcher of the 4th Punjabis, who later joined the 1st Punjab Infantry and was killed in 1875 at Dera Ghazi Khan. Further fighting took place at Crag Picquet in November, which involved the regiment, in 1865 the Punjab Irregular Force was renamed the Punjab Frontier Force and the regiments title was consequently changed to become the 1st Regiment of Infantry, Punjab Frontier Force. In 1878, the Second Afghan War began and the regiment participated as part of the 2nd Infantry Brigade of the Kandahar Field Force, the force captured the city of Kandahar on 8 January 1879. The regiment was awarded the Theatre Honour Afghanistan 1878–79 for their participation in the campaign of the war. The conflict did not conclude until 1880, the 1890s saw the 1st Punjab Infantry involved in several major operations against the hostile tribes on the North-West Frontier of India. These included Maizar, and Waziristan on 10 June 1897, when the regiment was ambushed in an action that signified the beginning of a tribal uprising against the British. The beginning of the 20th Century gave the regiment no respite and that same year it became, simply, the 1st Punjab Infantry. In 1903, the regiment was designated a rifle regiment and retitled as the 55th Cokes Rifles, in 1908, the Regiment took part in the Mohmand expedition on the North-West Frontier. Many men of the regiment did, however, see service abroad during the war attached to other units. In 1915, Jemadar Mir Dast, while attached to the 57th Wildes Rifles, was awarded the 55ths first Victoria Cross for his actions at Wieltie. Mir Dasts brother, Mir Mast, had deserted from his regiment—the 58th—to the Germans and it is rumoured that Mir Mast received the Iron Cross while fighting for them. In 1921–22, a reorganization was undertaken in the British Indian Army leading to the formation of large infantry groups of four to six battalions
22.
56th Punjabi Rifles (Frontier Force)
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The 56th Punjabi Rifles was an infantry regiment of the British Indian Army. It was raised in 1849 as the 2nd Regiment of Punjab Infantry and it was designated as the 56th Punjabi Rifles in 1906 and became 2nd Battalion 13th Frontier Force Rifles in 1922. In 1947, it was allocated to the Pakistan Army, where it continues to exist as 8th Battalion The Frontier Force Regiment, the regiment was raised on 18 May 1849 by Lieutenant JC Johnston at Mianwali as part of the Transfrontier Brigade. In 1851, the brigade was expanded and redesignated as the Punjab Irregular Force, the Piffers consisted of five regiments of cavalry, eleven regiments of infantry and five batteries of artillery besides the Corps of Guides. Their mission was to order on the Punjab Frontier, a task they performed with great aplomb. During the Second Afghan War of 1878-80, the regiment fought in the Battle of Peiwar Kotal, in 1897, it took part in the Tirah Campaign. Subsequent to the reforms brought about in the Indian Army by Lord Kitchener in 1903, in 1914, the regiments class composition was two companies each of Dogras, Pathans, Sikhs, and Punjabi Muslims. During the First World War, the regiment served throughout with the 28th Indian Brigade, in 1915, it served in Egypt and Aden, moving to Mesopotamia in December. In 1918, the regiment moved to Palestine and took part in the Battle of Megiddo and it returned to India in 1920. In 1917, the 56th Punjabi Rifles raised a second battalion, the regiments total casualties during the war were 1679, including 389 killed or died of wounds. After the First World War, the two battalions of 56th Punjabi Rifles were grouped with the 55th, 57th, 58th and 59th Scinde Rifles to form the 13th Frontier Force Rifles in 1922. The 1st Battalion 56th Punjabi Rifles became the 2nd Battlaion, while 2nd Battalion 56th Punjabi Rifles became the 10th Battlaion of the new regiment, during the Second World War, the battalion served with distinction in the Burma Campaign. In 1947, the Frontier Force Rifles was allotted to Pakistan Army, in 1948,2 FF Rifles fought in the Kashmir War against India. In 1956, the Frontier Force Rifles and the Pathan Regiment were merged with the Frontier Force Regiment, during the Indo-Pakistan War of 1965, the battalion served in the Rann of Kutch and Rajasthan Sector. Bury St Edmunds, Groom and Son, Regimental History of the 13th Frontier Force Rifles. The Punjab Frontier Force, A Brief Record of Their Services 1846-1924, one Hundred Glorious Years, A History of the Punjab Frontier Force, 1849-1949. Lahore, Civil and Military Gazette Press, a Brief Account of the Late Punjab Frontier Force, From its Organization in 1849 to its Re-distribution on 31st March 1903. The Wardens of the Marches – A History of the Piffers 1947-71, abbottabad, The Frontier Force Regimental Centre
23.
4th Punjab Infantry Regiment
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The regiment was designated as the 57th Wildes Rifles in 1903, and 4th Battalion 13th Frontier Force Rifles in 1922. In 1947, it was allocated to the Pakistan Army, where it continues to exist as 9th Battalion The Frontier Force Regiment, Henry Montgomery Lawrence, President of the newly created governing body, the Board of Administration of the Punjab. They were irregular as they were outside the regulations of the Regular Army of the Line in such matters as discipline, training and these 5 regiments were thus some of the first to adopt khaki uniforms, known as drab, so suitable for the local barren landscape. The Regiment was raised at Lahore, historic capital of the kingdom of Punjab, by Capt. George Gladwin Denniss II, of the 1st European Bengal Fusiliers, appointed on 18 April 1849. Capt. O. Marshall, however, of the Madras Native Infantry became its first commandant, resigning on 19 March 1850, a number of the Fateh Paltan also were, by order of Sir Henry Lawrence, drafted to the Regiment. Wilde wrote in 1860, I have no hesitation in asserting that duty is carried on in the as strictly as in the Line. Compared with the Sepoy of the Bengal Army, there is a difference in the address and manners of these Northern men. The earliest record of such an oath is recorded by Capt. Wilde. The Regiment remained at Lahore until November 1850, the event of importance during this time being an inspection on 5 December 1849 by the Governor General. Shortly after their arrival the regiment was inspected by Brigadier Hodgson, in 1857 the regiment was sent into action by John Lawrence, younger brother of Henry and Chief Commissioner of Punjab, as vital relief reinforcements during the Indian Mutiny. Under the command of Wilde it marched with the rest of the Transfrontier Force 1,000 miles in summer from Bannu on the NW Frontier to Delhi, John Lawrence was hailed as the Saviour of India for his decisive action in sending the Punjab regiments to assist at Delhi. The tribesmen in these regiments remained loyal to the British during the Mutiny, as they had no affection for the Indian Sepoy, the conduct of the regiment has been second to none since they came into these provinces. Denniss had been at the storming of Delhi, being with General John Nicholson when the latter fell, Sir Henry Lawrence, under whose orders Denniss had raised the regiment, had died from shell wounds on 4 July 1857 during the siege of Lucknow. Clearly his wishes for the recruitment criteria of the regiment differed from those used by Denniss. In 1851 the 5 original Punjab Infantry regiments of the Transfrontier Brigade became part of the newly formed Punjab Irregular Force, the Transfrontier Brigade appellation was dropped. A 6th regiment was added the year, being the former Sind Camel Corps formed in 1843 at Karachi by Lt. Robert FitzGerald, by order of General Charles James Napier. In 1865 the PIF became the Punjab Frontier Force, the surviving regiments after 1882 were thus the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th and 6th. In 1894, it took part in an expedition to Waziristan
24.
58th Vaughan's Rifles (Frontier Force)
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The 58th Vaughans Rifles was an infantry regiment of the British Indian Army. It was raised in 1849 as the 5th Regiment of Punjab Infantry and it was designated as the 58th Vaughans Rifles in 1903 and became 5th Battalion 13th Frontier Force Rifles in 1922. In 1947, it was allocated to the Pakistan Army, where it continues to exist as 10th Battalion The Frontier Force Regiment, the regiment was raised on 18 May 1849 by Captain JE Gastrell at Leiah as part of the Transfrontier Brigade. In 1851, the brigade was expanded and redesignated as the Punjab Irregular Force, the Piffers consisted of five regiments of cavalry, eleven regiments of infantry and five batteries of artillery besides the Corps of Guides. Their mission was to order on the Punjab Frontier, a task they performed with great aplomb. The 5th Punjab Infantry took part in numerous frontier operations besides the Great Indian Mutiny of 1857–58, during the Second Afghan War of 1878–80, the regiment fought in the Battle of Peiwar Kotal and took part in the defence of Sherpur Cantonment at Kabul. In 1897, it took part in the Tirah Campaign, subsequent to the reforms brought about in the Indian Army by Lord Kitchener in 1903, the regiments designation was changed to 58th Vaughans Rifles. In 1914, the class composition was three companies each of Pathans and Sikhs, and one company each of Dogras and Punjabi Muslims. During the First World War, the regiment served on the Western Front in 1914–15, fighting in the Battles of Givenchy-les-la-Bassee, Neuve Chapelle, Aubers Ridge and Loos. In 1915, it served in Egypt moving to Palestine in 1917, where it fought in the Third Battle of Gaza, the Battle of Nebi Samwil, in 1918, it fought in the Battle of Megiddo, which led to the annihilation of Turkish Army in Palestine. After the First World War, the 58th Vaughans Rifles was grouped with the 55th, 57th, 59th, the 58th Vaughans Rifles became 5th Battlaion of the new regiment. During the Second World War, the served in Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, North Africa. In 1947, the Frontier Force Rifles was allotted to Pakistan Army, in 1948,5 FF Rifles fought in the Kashmir War against India. In 1956, the Frontier Force Rifles and the Pathan Regiment were merged with the Frontier Force Regiment, during the Indo-Pakistan War of 1965, the battalion fought in the Battle of Khem Karan in the Kasur Sector. History of the 5th Battalion, 13th Frontier Forces Rifles, 1849–1926, Regimental History of the 13th Frontier Force Rifles. The Punjab Frontier Force, A Brief Record of Their Services 1846–1924, one Hundred Glorious Years, A History of the Punjab Frontier Force, 1849–1949. Lahore, Civil and Military Gazette Press, a Brief Account of the Late Punjab Frontier Force, From its Organization in 1849 to its Re-distribution on 31st March 1903. The Wardens of the Marches – A History of the Piffers 1947–71, abbottabad, The Frontier Force Regimental Centre
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59th Scinde Rifles (Frontier Force)
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The 59 Scinde Rifles was an infantry regiment of the British Indian Army. The regiment is one of the most reputed outfits of British Indian Army. It was raised in 1843, as the Scinde Camel Corps, in 1856, it was incorporated into the Punjab Irregular Force. It was designated as the 59th Scinde Rifles in 1904 and became 6th Royal Battalion 13th Frontier Force Rifles in 1922, in 1947, it was allocated to the Pakistan Army, where it continues to exist as 1st Battalion The Frontier Force Regiment. The regiment was raised on 1 December 1843 by Lieutenant Robert Fitzgerald at Karachi as the Scinde Camel Corps, the corps consisting of camel-mounted infantry was entrusted with keeping the peace on the Sindh frontier. In 1853, it was designated as the 6th Regiment of Punjab Infantry and became part of the Punjab Irregular Force, the Piffers consisted of five regiments of cavalry, eleven regiments of infantry and five batteries of artillery besides the Corps of Guides. Their mission was to order on the Punjab Frontier, a task they performed with great aplomb. Over the next fifty years, the 6th Punjab Infantry took part in numerous frontier operations and it was also engaged in operations during the Indian Mutiny of 1857–58. Subsequent to the reforms brought about in the Indian Army by Lord Kitchener in 1903, in 1914, the regiments class composition was three companies of Pathans, two companies each of Sikhs and Dogras, and one company of Punjabi Muslims. Lieutenant William Bruce was awarded the Victoria Cross during the Battle of Givenchy, in 1916, the regiment arrived in Mesopotamia. Here, it fought in the battles for the Relief of Kut al Amara on the Tigris Front in 1916–17, the capture of Baghdad. In 1918, the regiment moved to Palestine and took part in the Battle of Megiddo, for its gallant conduct during the war, it was made a Royal battalion in 1921. After the First World War, the 59th Royal Scinde Rifles was grouped with the 55th, 57th, 58th, the 59th Royal Scinde Rifles became the 6th Battalion of the new regiment. During the Second World War, the battalion again distinguished itself, serving in the Sudan, Eritrea, North Africa, Persia, Iraq, Syria, Palestine. Sepoy Ali Haider was awarded the Victoria Cross during the Battle of the Senio, in 1947, the Frontier Force Rifles was allotted to Pakistan Army. In 1948,6 Royal FF Rifles fought in the Kashmir War against India, during the Indo-Pakistan War of 1965, the battalion fought in the Battle of Khem Karan in the Kasur Sector. The unit got the nickname of Garbar given by a British general at Karachi Harbour in 1939, barthorp, M, and Burn, J. Indian Infantry Regiments 1860-1914. Bunbury, NL St P. Regimental History of the 6th Royal Battalion, 13th Frontier Force Rifles, a Brief Account of the Late Punjab Frontier Force, From its Organization in 1849 to its Re-distribution on 31st March 1903. Sons of John Company, The Indian and Pakistan Armies 1903–1991, one Hundred Glorious Years, A History of the Punjab Frontier Force, 1849–1949
26.
Pakistan Movement
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The first organised political movements were in Aligarh where another literary movement was led by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan that built the genesis of the Pakistan movement. During the initial stages of the movement, it adopted the vision of philosopher Iqbal after addressing at the convention of the AIMLs annual session, Muhammad Ali Jinnahs constitutional struggle further helped gaining public support for the movement in the four provinces. Urdu poets such as Iqbal and Faiz used literature, poetry, feminists such as Sheila Pant and Fatima Jinnah championed the emancipation of Pakistans women and their participation in national politics. The Pakistan Movement was the result of a series of social, political, and intellectual transformations in Pakistani society, government, efforts and struggles of the Founding Fathers resulted in the creation of the democratic and independent government. In the following years, another nationally–minded subset went on to established a strong government, grievousness and unbalanced economic distribution caused an upheaval which led East Pakistan to declare independence as the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh in 1971. As the Mughal Empire quickly declined in power, the British Empire expanded quick to gain control of the subcontinent in the 1700s. The economic, social, public, and political influence of East India Company, the defeat of Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore, proved to be an event which led to the fall of Mysore Kingdom under the direct or indirect rule of the East India Company. All over the subcontinent, the British government took over the machinery, bureaucracy, universities, schools. During this time, Lord Macaulays radical and influential educational reforms led to the changes to the introduction and teaching of Western languages, history. Religious studies and the Arabic, Turkish, and Persian languages were completely barred from the state universities, traditional Hindu and Islamic studies were no longer supported by the British Crown, and nearly all of the madrasahs lost their waqf. Noting the sensitivity of this issue, Queen Victoria removed the East India Company and this tendency, had it continued for long, would have proven disastrous for the Muslim community. In justifying these actions, Macaulay argued that Sanskrit and Arabic were wholly inadequate for studying history, science. He stated, We have to educate people who cannot at present be educated by means of their mother-tongue and we must teach them some foreign language. The solution was to teach English, eventually, many Muslims barred their children to be educated at English universities which had proved to be disastrous for the Muslim communities. Very few Muslim families had their children sent at the English universities, during this time, Muslim reformer and educationist Sir Syed Ahmad Khan began to argue for the importance of the British education. Sir Syed was a jurist and a scholar who was knighted by the British Crown for his services to British Empire, witnessing this atmosphere of despair and despondency, Sir Syed launched his attempts to revive the spirit of progress within the Muslim community of British India. Despite harsh criticism from the Islamic orthodoxy, he helped convince many Muslim communities to realise that the fact was the source of progress. Therefore, modern education became the pivot of his movement for regeneration of the Indian Muslims and he tried to transform the Muslim outlook from a medieval one to a modern one
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Pathan Regiment
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The Pathan Regiment was an infantry regiment of Pakistan Army now merged into Frontier Force Regiment. It was raised after the independence of Pakistan on November 1,1948 from the strength of 12th Frontier Force Regiment, the establishment of this regiment was intended to appease the locals of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, who were partially divided at the time of independence in 1947. The regimental depot was stationed at Dera Ismail Khan and later relocated to Kohat in 1949, in 1956, this regiment was merged with others to form the Frontier Force Regiment with its regimental depot at Abbottabad
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12th Frontier Force Regiment
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The 12th Frontier Force Regiment was part of the British Indian Army. It consisted of five battalions, numbered 1 to 5. During the Second World War a further ten battalions were raised, in 1945 the prenominal 12th was dropped when the British Indian Army dispensed with prenominal numbering of its regiments. After the independence in 1947 it was formed into the Frontier Force Regiment, the 1st Sikhs were raised by Captain J. S. Hodgson at Hoshiarpur, the 2nd Sikhs by Captain J. W. V. Stephen at Kangra, the 3rd Sikhs by Captain F, winter at Ferozpur and the 4th Sikhs by Captain C. Even at the start the Sikhs, although in the majority, were not in the preponderance, the nuclei of the regiments consisted of a few men from the regular Native Infantry regiments of the line and police officers. At the same time Lawrence also ordered irregular force of mixed cavalry and infantry, in 1851 the four Sikh regiments and the Corps of Guides became part of the Punjab Irregular Force. Men of these regiments are to this day known as Piffers, in 1901, they became Sikh Infantry. In 1876, the Corps of Guides became one of the first regiments in the Indian Army to be conferred royal status as Queen Victorias Own Corps of Guides. In the 1922 reorganisation of the British Indian Army, the four Sikh regiments became the first four battalions of the newly constituted 12th Frontier Force Regiment, the two infantry battalions of the Corps of Guides became its 5th and 10th battalions. At the same time the first battalion became the 1st battalion whilst the 3rd battalion was made the 3rd Royal Battalion in 1935, the location of the training battalion, later to grow into the Regimental Centre, was first at Mardan but moved to Sialkot in 1929. During the Second World War the regiments saw service in East Africa, North Africa. The Regiments casualties in the war totalled 1,444 dead and 3,503 wounded, the 1/12th served in Iraq and Syria before it was sent to fight in the Italian Campaign on 24 September 1943. 2/12th Frontier Force Regiment The 2/12th FFR, also part of the Bannu Brigade, the commanding officer of the 2/12th FFR, Lt. Col. Arthur Edward Cumming, received the Victoria Cross during this campaign. 3/12th Frontier Force Regiment The 3/12th FFR was part of the 5th Indian Infantry Division during the East African, the 3/12th FFR was all but destroyed at El Adem on 15 June 1942. It was reformed in Egypt before transferring to the 4th Indian Infantry Division, 4/12th Frontier Force Regiment The 4/12th FFR served throughout the war in the Burma Campaign. 5/12th Frontier Force Regiment The 5/12th FFR served throughout the Second World War as part of the 6th Indian Infantry Division on garrison duties in Iraq. In 1945, the regiment was renamed the Frontier Force Regiment, dropping the numerical designation 12, in 1957, the Frontier Force Rifles and The Pathan Regiment were amalgamated with it to form a new Frontier Force Regiment
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Frontier Force Regiment
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The Frontier Force Regiment is one of six infantry regiments of the Pakistan Army. They are popularly known as the Piffers (a reference to the former PIF or as the FF, the regiment takes its name from the historic North-West Frontier. Most ancestor units of the regiment are Punjabi or Pathan infantry regiments, however the oldest ancestor unit is the Scinde Camel Corps raised in 1843. Another ancestor unit is the component of the celebrated Corps of Guides of the British Indian Army. Despite being a Pakistani regiment, the Frontier Force Regiment is also the successor to several Sikh regiments because Sikh units were used on the North-West Frontier during the British Raj, at present, the regiment consists of 67 battalions and has its regimental depot at Abbottabad in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. For that reason Abbottabad is also known as the Home of Piffers, currently the regiment includes both mechanised and motorised infantry battalions. There are also some armoured and artillery battalions which were raised from the strength of the Frontier Force or one of its predecessor regiments, the Frontier Force Regiment is Pakistans third oldest regiment, in terms of the date of most recent amalgamation, after the Punjab and Baloch. These two regiments were the Frontier Force Regiment and the Frontier Force Rifles, the third component, the Pathan Regiment, had been raised after independence from elements of the former two. The merger took place when a reorganisation of regiments was carried out in the Pakistan Army. The FF battalions have fought in wars along Pakistans borders. The battalions are divided under independent formations and are commanded by their formation commander, training and record keeping is undertaken by the regimental depot, which is usually commanded by a brigadier. The regiments highest-ranking officer is given the title of Colonel Commandant and Colonel-in-Chief. The Pathan Regiment was raised after independence from the 4th Battalion of the Frontier Force Regiment, initially the regimental depot was at Dera Ismail Khan but it relocated to Kohat in 1949 and was later merged into the Frontier Force Regiment with its regimental depot at Abbottabad. Fifteen of the modern Frontier Force Regiments 52 battalions trace their origins back to British Indian Army units, at present the Frontier Force Regiment musters 67 infantry battalions, some of which are mechanised or motorised with the remainder known colloquially as foot infantry. Each battalion is subdivided into four companies, normally named Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, the regiment also includes armoured and artillery units, established from among its strength. The regiment recruits mostly from the Pashtun tribes of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, although officers and other ranks from all over Pakistan have served and this measure was intended to diminish segregation within the Army. The regiment is based in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwas city of Abbottabad, which also houses the depots of the Baloch Regiment. The city was originally the headquarters of the Frontier Force Rifles prior to their merger with the Frontier Force Regiment, the Abbottabad depot is responsible for the regiments basic recruit training
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
