1.
1410s in art
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The decade of the 1410s in art involved some significant events. Across Europe, frescoes and tapestries are produced, C.1410, Starting point of the most celebrated decade in Hubert van Eycks activity. C.1410, John, Duke of Berry, commissions the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry,1416, Nanni di Banco, guild member of the Masters of Stone and Wood, installs his Four Crowned Martyr Saints at the Orsanmichele guild hall in Florence. 1418, Brunelleschi and Ghiberti submit plans for the dome of Florence Cathedral,1419, Brunelleschi designs the loggia of the Ospedale degli Innocenti in Florence. 1419, The marble Fonte Gaia in the Piazza del Campo of Siena is sculpted by Jacopo della Quercia and his figures of Rhea Silvia and Acca Larentia are the first two female nudes to stand in a public place since Antiquity. C.1410, Madonna of Zlatá Koruna painted, C.1410, Robert Campin paints The Entombment. 1410, Jan van Eyck paints Nativity, C.1410, Andrei Rublev paints his Christ the Redeemer icon. C. 1410-1420, Andrei Rublev paints his Trinity icon for the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius,1412, A painting of Democritus is made, it will be exhibited four centuries later, at the Northwestern Fair in Chicago on October 27,1863. C.1412, The Master of Boucicaut paints a Portrait of Charles VI of France,1413, In Florence, Lorenzo paints his masterpiece of the large Coronation for the high altar of his own Church of the Convent of Santa Maria degli Angeli, in Florence. 1413, Taddeo di Bartolo paints the vestibule of the chapel in Siena,1414, Lorenzo Monaco paints Coronation of the Virgin at the Church of the Convent of Santa Maria degli Angeli, in Florence. 1414 or 1418, Jan van Eyck paints Portrait of a Moorish King or Prince,1418, Matteo da Siena paints The Slaughter of the Innocents. 1418, In Lublin, the Gothic and Renaissance Chapel of the Holy Trinity is covered with Russo-Byzantine frescoes,1418, Giacomo Jaquerio paints frescoes in the chateau of Pinerolo. 1411-1413, Donatello completes St. Mark, Or San Michele, C. 1410-1414, Nanni di Banco, Four Saints, at Or San Michele, Florence. 1415-1417, Donatello creates St. George Tabernacle, Museo Nazionale del Bargello,1419, Jacopino da Tradate executes the statue of Pope Martin V for the Duomo of Milan. 1419, Jacopo della Quercia finishes the Fonte Gaia fountain in Piazza del Campo, at Siena
2.
1420s in art
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The decade of the 1420s in art involved some significant events. It is now kept at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,1420, Giovanni di Paolo paints a tiny gold-ground triptych 1422, Masaccio - San Giovenale Triptych 1423, Gentile da Fabriano - Adoration of the Magi c. 1424, Masaccio - Virgin and Child with St. Museo dellOpera del Duomo, Florence 1425, Donatello - The Feast of Herod, baptismal font, Siena Cathedral 1424, Masolino sculpts his Pietà1423, Ghibertis sculpture of St. S
3.
1410s in architecture
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1410 In Prague, at the Old Town Hall, the Astronomical Clock is built. In Heidelberg, Germany, the Heiliggeistkirche is begun, but the nave takes until 1441 to complete, in Kościan, the monastery and Mary Magdalene and St Nicolas church are built, with the consent of the King of Poland Władysław Jagiełło. 1411 - In England, construction of the Guildhall, London, is begun,1412 - At Seoul in the Korean kingdom of Joseon, the original Changdeokgung palace is completed. 1413 - In Dubingiai, a new castle by Vytautas the Great is built. 1418 - Brunelleschi and Ghiberti submit plans for the dome of Florence Cathedral,1419 - Brunelleschi designs the loggia of the Ospedale degli Innocenti in Florence. 1411 - Jacques Coene, Flemish painter, illustrator and architect
4.
15th century in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in the 15th century. See also, 15th century in poetry, 14th century in literature, 16th century in literature,1403 – A guild of stationers is founded in the City of London. As the Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers, it continues to be a Livery Company in the 21st century, 1403–08 – The Yongle Encyclopedia is written in China. 1408–11 – An Leabhar Breac is probably compiled by Murchadh Ó Cuindlis at Duniry in Ireland, C.1410 – John, Duke of Berry, commissions the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, illustrated by the Limbourg brothers between c.1412 and 1416. 1424 – The first French royal library is transferred by the English regent of France, John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford,1425 – At about this date the first Guildhall Library is established in the City of London under the will of Richard Whittington. 1434 – Japanese Noh actor and playwright Zeami Motokiyo is exiled to Sado Island by the Shogun,1443 – King Sejong the Great establishes Hangul as the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is first described in the Hunminjeongeum published on 9 October 14461444,15 June – Cosimo de Medici founds the Laurentian Library in Florence,1448 – Pope Nicholas V founds the Vatican Library in Rome. 1450 – Johannes Gutenberg has set up his movable type printing press as an operation in Mainz by this date. 14511 August – A manuscript of Dantes Divine Comedy is sold in London,1452 – Completion of the Malatestiana Library in Cesena, the first European public library, in the sense of belonging to the commune and open to all citizens. 1453 – Pageant of Coriolan staged in the piazza of Milan Cathedral,145523 February – Johannes Gutenberg completes printing of the Gutenberg Bible in Mainz, the first major book printed with movable type in the West, using a textualis blackletter typeface. 5 June – French poet François Villon is implicated in a murder, the Central Library of Astan Quds Razavi in Persia is known to be in existence. 1460 – From about this date, Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, begins to form the Bibliotheca Corviniana,1462,8 November – First known sentence written in the Albanian language, a Formula e pagëzimit by Archbishop Pal Engjëlli. Soon after this he prints the first known Biblia pauperum,1463,5 January – François Villon is reprieved from hanging in Paris but never heard of again. 146831 May – The Byzantine scholar Cardinal Basilios Bessarion donates his library to the Republic of Venice, the printers Johann and Wendelin of Speyer settle in Venice, their first book published here, Ciceros Epistolae ad familiares, appears in 1469. 1470 Johann Heynlin prints the first book in Paris, the Epistolae Gasparini of Gasparinus de Bergamo, nicolas Jensons edition of Eusebius, published in Venice, is the first book to use a roman type based on the principles of typography rather than manuscript. 1473 First book printed in Hungary, Chronica Hungarorum, the Buda Chronicle, First known printing in Poland, Almanach cracoviense ad annum 1474, a wall calendar. 1474 – First book printed in Spain, Obres e trobes en lahors de la Verge María, recuyell of the Historyes of Troye is the first book to be printed in English, by William Caxton in Bruges. Rashis commentary on the Torah is the first dated book to be printed in Hebrew,147630 January – Constantine Lascariss Erotemata is the first book to be printed entirely in Greek
5.
Fresco
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Fresco is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly-laid, or wet lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the setting of the plaster, the fresco technique has been employed since antiquity and is closely associated with Italian Renaissance painting. Buon fresco pigment mixed with water of temperature on a thin layer of wet, fresh plaster, for which the Italian word for plaster. Because of the makeup of the plaster, a binder is not required, as the pigment mixed solely with the water will sink into the intonaco. The pigment is absorbed by the wet plaster, after a number of hours, many artists sketched their compositions on this underlayer, which would never be seen, in a red pigment called sinopia, a name also used to refer to these under-paintings. Later, new techniques for transferring paper drawings to the wall were developed. The main lines of a drawing made on paper were pricked over with a point, the paper held against the wall, if the painting was to be done over an existing fresco, the surface would be roughened to provide better adhesion. This area is called the giornata, and the different day stages can usually be seen in a large fresco, buon frescoes are difficult to create because of the deadline associated with the drying plaster. Once a giornata is dried, no more buon fresco can be done, if mistakes have been made, it may also be necessary to remove the whole intonaco for that area—or to change them later, a secco. An indispensable component of this process is the carbonatation of the lime, the eyes of the people of the School of Athens are sunken-in using this technique which causes the eyes to seem deeper and more pensive. Michelangelo used this technique as part of his trademark outlining of his central figures within his frescoes, in a wall-sized fresco, there may be ten to twenty or even more giornate, or separate areas of plaster. After five centuries, the giornate, which were nearly invisible, have sometimes become visible, and in many large-scale frescoes. Additionally, the border between giornate was often covered by an a secco painting, which has fallen off. One of the first painters in the period to use this technique was the Isaac Master in the Upper Basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi. A person who creates fresco is called a frescoist, a secco or fresco-secco painting is done on dry plaster. The pigments thus require a medium, such as egg. Blue was a problem, and skies and blue robes were often added a secco, because neither azurite blue nor lapis lazuli. By the end of the century this had largely displaced buon fresco
6.
Tapestry
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Tapestry is a form of textile art, traditionally woven on a vertical loom. Tapestry is weft-faced weaving, in all the warp threads are hidden in the completed work. In tapestry weaving, weft yarns are typically discontinuous, the artisan interlaces each coloured weft back and it is a plain weft-faced weave having weft threads of different colours worked over portions of the warp to form the design. Most weavers use a warp thread, such as linen or cotton. The weft threads are usually wool or cotton, but may include silk, gold, silver, the earliest attested form of the word is the Mycenaean Greek
7.
Hubert van Eyck
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Hubert van Eyck was an Early Netherlandish painter and older brother of Jan van Eyck, as well as Lambert and Margareta, also painters. He was probably born in Maaseik, in what is now the Belgian province of Limburg, into a family in the gentry. As the name was not a common one, he is probably the Magister Hubertus, pictor recorded as having been paid in 1409 for panels in the church of Onze Lieve Vrouwe. Around the time of his settlement, or shortly afterwards, he began his only surviving documented work, modern scientific investigation reveals various changes between the finished work and the lower painted levels and the underdrawing. Today the inscription is regarded as an overgenerous fraternal tribute. The town magistrates of Ghent visited his workshop in 1425, the city had commissioned two designs for a painting from him and his heirs paid taxes relating to properties in Ghent. A copper inscription recording his date of death was engraved on the tombstone, according to a tradition from the 16th century, his arm was preserved as a relic in a casket above the portal of Saint Bavo of Ghent. Van Vaernewijck also records the tradition that Jan van Eyck was trained by his brother, though when Jan is first documented in August 1422 he was already a master. Drawings in the Albertina, Vienna of the Apostles have been attributed to him, a Diptych by Hubert van Eyck. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, Volume 28, No, 184–193 van Buren, Anne Hagopian, Eyck, van and Eyck, Hubert van. Grove Art Online, Oxford Art Online, Oxford University Press, accessed 9 Dec.2012, online Harbison, Craig, Jan van Eyck, The Play of Realism, Reaktion Books, London,1991, ISBN0948462183 Snyder, James. Northern Renaissance Art,1985, Harry N
8.
John, Duke of Berry
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John of Berry or John the Magnificent was Duke of Berry and Auvergne and Count of Poitiers and Montpensier. He was the son of King John II of France and Bonne of Luxemburg, his brothers were King Charles V of France, Duke Louis I of Anjou. He is primarily remembered as a collector of the important illuminated manuscripts and other works of art commissioned by him and he was born at the castle of Vincennes on 30 November 1340. When Poitiers was ceded to England in 1360, John II granted John the newly raised duchies of Berry, by the terms of the Treaty of Brétigny, signed that May, John became a hostage of the English Crown and remained in England until 1369. Upon his return to France, his brother, now King Charles V, appointed him lieutenant general for Berry, Auvergne, Bourbonnais, Forez, Sologne, Touraine, Anjou, Maine, and Normandy. Upon the death of his older brother Charles V in 1380, his son and heir, Charles VI was a minor, so Berry and his brothers, following the death of Louis of Anjou in 1384, Berry and his brother Burgundy were the dominant figures in the kingdom. John was also stripped of his offices in Languedoc at that time, Berry and Burgundy bided their time, and were soon able to retake power, in 1392, when the King had his first attack of insanity, an affliction which would remain with him throughout his life. The two royal dukes continued to rule until 1402, when the king, in one of his moments of lucidity, took power from them and gave it to his brother Louis, Duke of Orléans. Simon of Cramaud, a canonist and prelate, served the Duke in his efforts to find a way to end the Great Western schism that was not unfavorable to French interests, in his later years, John became a more conciliatory figure in France. It was largely due to his urging that Charles VI and his sons were not present at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 and he died a few months after the battle, which proved as disastrous as he had feared, on June 151416 in Paris. In 1389 he married his wife, Joan II, Countess of Auvergne. John of Berry was also a patron who commissioned among other works the most famous Book of Hours. His spending on his art collection severely taxed his estates, works created for him include the manuscripts known as the Très Riches Heures, the Belles Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry and the Turin-Milan Hours. Goldsmiths work includes the Holy Thorn Reliquary and Royal Gold Cup, among the artists working for him were the Limbourg Brothers, Jacquemart de Hesdin and André Beauneveu. The web site of the Louvre says of him, Emmerson, key Figures in Medieval Europe, An Encyclopedia. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, new York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–
9.
Limbourg brothers
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The Limbourg brothers, or in Dutch Gebroeders van Limburg, were famous Dutch miniature painters from the city of Nijmegen. They were active in the early 15th century in France and Burgundy and they created what is certainly the best known late medieval illuminated manuscript, the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. Around 1398, after their fathers death, the brothers were sent for by their uncle Jean Malouel, Herman and Johan learned the craft of goldsmithing in Paris. At the end of 1399 they were travelling to visit Nijmegen but, owing to a war, since their mother could not pay the ransom of 55 gold escuz, the local goldsmiths guild started to collect the money. Eventually Philip the Bold paid the ransom for the sake of their uncle Malouel, the two boys were released in May 1400. From surviving documents it is known that in February 1402 Paul and this may or may not have been the Bible Moralisée, Ms. fr.166 in the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris, which is indisputably an early work by the Limbourg brothers. Philip II died in 1404 before the brothers had completed their work, after Philips death, Herman, Paul, and Johan later in 1405 came to work for his brother John, Duke of Berry, who was an extravagant collector of arts and especially books. Their first assignment was to illuminate a Book of Hours, now known as the Belles Heures du Duc de Berry and this work was finished in 1409 much to the satisfaction of the duke, and he assigned them to an even more ambitious project for a Book of Hours. This became the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, which is regarded as the peak of late medieval book illumination. It is kept as Ms.65 in the Musée Condé in Chantilly, Paul especially was on good terms with the duke, and received a court position as valet de chambre or personal attendant. The duke gave him jewelry and a house in Bourges. Paul was attracted to a girl, Gillette la Mercière. The duke had the girl confined, and released her only on the kings command, in 1411 Paul and Gillette married anyway, but the marriage remained childless. In the first half of 1416, Jean de Berry and the three Limbourg brothers, all less than 30 years old, died, possibly of the plague, the work of the Limbourg brothers, being mostly inaccessible, became forgotten until the 19th century. Nevertheless, they set an example for the generations of painters. They worked in a Northern European tradition, but display influences from Italian models, rob Dückers and Pieter Roelofs, The brothers van Limburg. The Art of Illumination, The Limbourg Brothers and the Belles Heures of Jean de France, the Metropolitan Museum of Art/Yale University Press,2008
10.
Orsanmichele
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Orsanmichele is a church in the Italian city of Florence. The building was constructed on the site of the garden of the monastery of San Michele. Located on the Via Calzaiuoli in Florence, the church was built as a grain market in 1337 by Francesco Talenti, Neri di Fioravante. Between 1380 and 1404, it was converted into a used as the chapel of Florences powerful craft. On the ground floor of the building are the 13th-century arches that originally formed the loggia of the grain market. The second floor was devoted to offices, while the third housed one of the citys municipal grain storehouses, late in the 14th century, the guilds were charged by the city to commission statues of their patron saints to embellish the facades of the church. The sculptures seen today are copies, the originals having been removed to museums, inside the church is Andrea Orcagnas bejeweled Gothic Tabernacle encasing a repainting by Bernardo Daddis of an older icon of the Madonna and Child. The facades held 14 architecturally designed external niches, which were filled from 1399 to around 1430, the three richest guilds opted to make their figures in the far more costly bronze, which cost approximately ten times the amount of the stone figures. Orsanmicheles statuary is a relic of the devotion and pride of Florentine trades. Today, all of the sculptures have been removed and replaced with modern duplicates to protect them from the elements. The originals mainly reside in the museum of Orsanmichele, which occupies the floor of the church, and can be seen on every Monday. Two works by Donatello are in other Florentine museums, St. George and its niche are in the Bargello, digital Imaging Project, Art historical images of European and North American architecture and sculpture from classical Greek to Post-modern. Museums in Florence - Orsanmichele Church and Museum The Orsanmichele Museum National Gallery of Art, exhibition Orsanmichele khan academy video
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Florence
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Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the Metropolitan City of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants, Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of the time. It is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has called the Athens of the Middle Ages. A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family, from 1865 to 1871 the city was the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy. The Historic Centre of Florence attracts 13 million tourists each year and it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture, the city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics. Due to Florences artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world, in 2008, the city had the 17th highest average income in Italy. Florence originated as a Roman city, and later, after a period as a flourishing trading and banking medieval commune. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, it was politically, economically, and culturally one of the most important cities in Europe, the language spoken in the city during the 14th century was, and still is, accepted as the Italian language. Starting from the late Middle Ages, Florentine money—in the form of the gold florin—financed the development of all over Europe, from Britain to Bruges, to Lyon. Florentine bankers financed the English kings during the Hundred Years War and they similarly financed the papacy, including the construction of their provisional capital of Avignon and, after their return to Rome, the reconstruction and Renaissance embellishment of Rome. Florence was home to the Medici, one of European historys most important noble families, Lorenzo de Medici was considered a political and cultural mastermind of Italy in the late 15th century. Two members of the family were popes in the early 16th century, Leo X, catherine de Medici married king Henry II of France and, after his death in 1559, reigned as regent in France. Marie de Medici married Henry IV of France and gave birth to the future king Louis XIII, the Medici reigned as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, starting with Cosimo I de Medici in 1569 and ending with the death of Gian Gastone de Medici in 1737. The Etruscans initially formed in 200 BC the small settlement of Fiesole and it was built in the style of an army camp with the main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, intersecting at the present Piazza della Repubblica. Situated along the Via Cassia, the route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century, Florence was conquered by Charlemagne in 774 and became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as capital. The population began to again and commerce prospered
12.
Filippo Brunelleschi
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Filippo Brunelleschi was an Italian designer and a key figure in architecture, recognised to be the first modern engineer, planner and sole construction supervisor. He was one of the fathers of the Renaissance. He is generally known for developing a technique for linear perspective in art. Heavily depending on mirrors and geometry, to reinforce Christian spiritual reality and it also had the most profound – and quite unanticipated – influence on the rise of modern science. His accomplishments also include other works, sculpture, mathematics, engineering. His principal surviving works are to be found in Florence, Italy, unfortunately, his two original linear perspective panels have been lost. Brunelleschi was born in Florence, Italy, little is known about his early life, the only sources being Antonio Manetti and Giorgio Vasari. According to these sources, Filippos father was Brunellesco di Lippo, a notary, Filippo was the middle of their three children. The young Filippo was given a literary and mathematical education intended to enable him to follow in the footsteps of his father, a civil servant. Being artistically inclined, however, Filippo enrolled in the Arte della Seta, the silk merchants Guild, which also included goldsmiths, metalworkers and he became a master goldsmith in 1398. It was thus not a coincidence that his first important building commission, in 1401, Brunelleschi entered a competition to design a new set of bronze doors for the Florence Baptistery. Seven competitors each produced a bronze panel, depicting the Sacrifice of Isaac. Brunelleschis entry, which, with that of Lorenzo Ghiberti, is one of two to have survived, made reference to the Greco-Roman Boy with Thorn. Brunelleschis panel consists of several pieces bolted to the back plate, Brunelleschi is considered a seminal figure of the Renaissance. Around 1400, there emerged a cultural interest in humanitas, or humanism, however, this interest was restricted to a few scholars, writers, and philosophers before it began to influence the visual arts. It was in period that Brunelleschi and his friend Donatello visited Rome to study its ancient ruins. Donatello, like Brunelleschi, was trained as a goldsmith, though he worked in the studio of contemporarily well-known painter Ghiberti. Although the glories of Ancient Rome were a matter of popular discourse at the time, it seems no one had studied the physical fabric of its ruins in any detail until Brunelleschi
13.
Lorenzo Ghiberti
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Trained as a goldsmith and sculptor, he established an important workshop for sculpture in metal. His book of Commentari contains important writing on art, as well as what may be the earliest surviving autobiography by any artist, Ghiberti was born in Pelago,20 km from Florence. His father was Bartoluccio Ghiberti, an artist and goldsmith, who trained his son in goldsmithing and he then went to work in the Florence workshop of Bartoluccio di Michele, where Antonio del Pollaiolo also received his training. When the bubonic plague struck Florence in 1400, Ghiberti emigrated to Rimini, Ghibertis career was dominated by his two successive commissions for pairs of bronze doors to the Florence Baptistery. They are recognized as a masterpiece of the Early Renaissance. Ghiberti first became famous when as a 23-year-old he won the 1401 competition for the first set of bronze doors, the original plan was for the doors to depict scenes from the Old Testament, but the plan was changed to depict scenes from the New Testament instead. However, the piece made was of the sacrifice of Isaac. To carry out this commission, he set up a workshop in which many artists trained, including Donatello, Masolino, Michelozzo, Uccello. Instead of twenty-eight scenes, he produced ten rectangular scenes in a different style. These were more naturalistic, with perspective and a greater idealization of the subject, dubbed The Gates of Paradise by Michelangelo, this second set remains a major monument of the age of Renaissance humanism. As recommended by Giotto, Andrea Pisano was awarded the commission to design the first set of doors at the Florence Baptistery in 1329, the south doors were originally installed on the east side facing the Duomo, and were transferred to their present location in 1452. These proto-Renaissance doors consist of 28 quatrefoil panels, with the twenty top panels depicting scenes from the life of St. John the Baptist, the eight lower panels depict the eight virtues of hope, faith, charity, humility, fortitude, temperance, justice and prudence. Pisano took six years to them, finishing in 1336. In 1453, Ghiberti and his son Vittorio were commissioned to add a door case to Pisanos existing panels, Ghiberti died in 1455, eight years before the frame was finished leaving a majority of the work to Vitorrio and other members of his workshop. There is a Latin inscription on top of the door, Andreas Ugolini Nini de Pisis me fecit A. D. MCCCXXX, the South Doors were undergoing restoration during September,2016. In 1401, the Arte di Calimala announced a competition to design doors which would eventually be placed on the side of the baptistry. These new doors would serve as an offering to celebrate Florence being spared from relatively recent scourges such as the Black Death in 1348. Many artists competed for this commission and a jury selected seven semifinalists which included Ghiberti, Filippo Brunelleschi, Donatello, at the time of judging, only Ghiberti and Brunelleschi were finalists, and when the judges could not decide, they were assigned to work together on them
14.
Florence Cathedral
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The Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore is the main church of Florence, Italy. The exterior of the basilica is faced with marble panels in various shades of green. The cathedral complex, located in Piazza del Duomo, includes the Baptistery and these three buildings are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site covering the historic centre of Florence and are a major attraction to tourists visiting Tuscany. The basilica is one of Italys largest churches, and until development of new materials in the modern era. It remains the largest brick dome ever constructed, the cathedral is the mother church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Florence, whose archbishop is currently Giuseppe Betori. Santa Maria del Fiore was built on the site of a cathedral dedicated to Saint Reparata. The new church was designed by Arnolfo di Cambio and approved by city council in 1294, di Cambio was also architect of the church of Santa Croce and the Palazzo Vecchio. He designed three wide naves ending under the dome, with the middle nave covering the area of Santa Reparata. The first stone was laid on September 9,1296, by Cardinal Valeriana, the building of this vast project was to last 140 years, Arnolfos plan for the eastern end, although maintained in concept, was greatly expanded in size. After Arnolfo died in 1310, work on the cathedral slowed for thirty years, when the relics of Saint Zenobius were discovered in 1330 in Santa Reparata, the project gained a new impetus. In 1331, the Arte della Lana, the guild of merchants, took over patronage for the construction of the cathedral. Assisted by Andrea Pisano, Giotto continued di Cambios design and his major accomplishment was the building of the campanile. When Giotto died in 1337, Andrea Pisano continued the building work was halted due to the Black Death in 1348. In 1359, Talenti was succeeded by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini who divided the nave in four square bays. Other architects were Alberto Arnoldi, Giovanni dAmbrogio, Neri di Fioravante, by 1375, the old church Santa Reparata was pulled down. The nave was finished by 1380, and by 1418, only the dome remained incomplete, on 18 August 1418, the Arte della Lana announced an architectural design competition for erecting Neris dome. The two main competitors were two master goldsmiths, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi, the latter of whom was supported by Cosimo de Medici. Ghiberti had been the winner of a competition for a pair of doors for the Baptistery in 1401
15.
Loggia
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A loggia is an architectural feature which is a covered exterior gallery or corridor usually on an upper level, or sometimes ground level. The outer wall is open to the elements, usually supported by a series of columns or arches, Loggias can be located either on the front or side of a building and are not meant for entrance but as an out-of-door sitting room. From the early Middle Ages, nearly every Italian comune had an arched loggia in its main square which served as a symbol of communal justice and government. The main difference between a loggia and a portico is the role within the layout of the building. The portico allows entrance to the inside from the exterior and can be found on vernacular, the loggia is accessed only from inside and intended as a place for leisure. Thus, it is mainly on noble residences and public buildings. A classic use of both is that represented in the Mosaics of Basilica of Sant Apollinare Nuovo of the Royal Palace, a double loggia occurs when a loggia is located on an upper floor level above a loggia on the floor beneath. In Italian architecture, a loggia often takes the form of a small, often ornate, summer house built on the roof of a residence to enjoy cooling winds and they were especially popular in the 17th century and are prominent in Rome and Bologna, Italy. Grinnell College in Grinnell, Iowa, contains three sets of dorms connected by loggias. In the town center of Chester in the United Kingdom, a number of timber-framed buildings dating from the Tudor to Victorian periods have first-floor loggias called the Chester Rows, in Russia, a loggia can be a recessed balcony on a residential apartment building. A loggia was added to the Sydney Opera House in 2006, at the archeological site of Hagia Triada on the Greek island of Crete, several loggias constructed around 1400 BC have been located and whose column bases still remain. Peristyle Portico Veranda Curl, James Stevens, a Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture. The dictionary definition of loggia at Wiktionary Media related to Loggias at Wikimedia Commons
16.
Ospedale degli Innocenti
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The Ospedale degli Innocenti is a historic building in Florence, Italy. It was designed by Filippo Brunelleschi, who received the commission in 1419 from the Arte della Seta and it was originally a childrens orphanage. It is regarded as a example of early Italian Renaissance architecture. The hospital, which features a nine bay loggia facing the Piazza SS, Annunziata, was built and managed by the Arte della Seta or Silk Guild of Florence. That guild was one of the wealthiest in the city and, like most guilds, the façade is made up of nine semicircular arches springing from columns of the Composite order. The semicircular windows bring the building down, earthbound and is a revival of the classical style, in the spandrels of the arches there are glazed blue terracotta roundels with reliefs of babies designed by Andrea della Robbia suggesting the function of the building. There is an emphasis on the horizontal because the building is longer than it is tall, above each semicircular arch is a tabernacle window. The clean and clear sense of proportion is reflected in the building, the height of the columns is the same width of the intercolumniation and the width of the arcade is equal to the height of the column, making each bay a cube. The simple proportions of the building reflect a new age, of secular education, also half the height of the column is the height of the entablature, which is appropriate for a clear minded society. Children were sometimes abandoned in a basin which was located at the front portico, however, this basin was removed in 1660 and replaced by a wheel for secret refuge. There was a door with a rotating horizontal wheel that brought the baby into the building without the parent being seen. This allowed people to leave their babies, anonymously, to be cared for by the orphanage and this system was in operation until the hospitals closure in 1875. Today the building houses a museum of Renaissance art with works by Luca della Robbia, Sandro Botticelli, Piero di Cosimo. The Foundling Hospital was constructed in phases and only the first phase was under Brunelleschi’s direct supervision. Later phases added the story, but omitted the pilasters that Brunelleschi seems to have envisioned. The vaulted passageway in the bay to the left of the loggia was added later. Since the loggia was started before the hospital was begun, the hospital was not formally opened until 1445, brunelleschis design was based on Classical Roman, Italian Romanesque and late Gothic architecture. The loggia was a well known building type, such as the Loggia dei Lanzi, but the use of round columns with classically correct capitals, in this case of the Composite Order, in conjunction with a dosserets was novel
17.
Fonte Gaia
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The Fonte Gaia is a monumental fountain located in the Piazza del Campo in the center of Siena, Italy. The first fountain in the Piazza del Campo was completed in 1342, underground pipes brought water to the site from 25 kilometers away. Legend holds that the fountain was met with joy, thus it was given the name Gaia or joyous. Others suggest the term Gaia refers to the Latin term for bride, and that the fountain was dedicated to the bride of God and patron of Siena, the Virgin Mary. The fountains, plates, and statues conflate Roman matrons cardinal virtues, with a depiction of Mary. In 1419, the fountain had the present decorative frame constructed by Jacopo della Quercia, in 1858, the original marble panels were replaced by copies sculpted by Tito Sarrocchi, under the supervision of architect Giuseppe Partini. The side reliefs depict episodes from Genesis, The Creation of Adam, the wolves spouting water, representing the mother-wolf of Remus and Romulus, form part of the reconstructed fountain. Two nude female figures once adorned the front two columns, traditionally believed to represent Rea Silvia and Acca Larentia, in celebration of Siena’s supposed links to ancient Rome. These were not added in the reconstruction but can be viewed along with the panels at a museum at Santa Maria della Scala. The long section of the fountain is adorned at the centre with a Madonna and Child, description on Siena on line website. La Fonte Gaia di Jacopo della Quercia, Storia e restauro di un capolavoro dellarte senese, Sara Dei, Enrico Toti Media related to Fonte Gaia at Wikimedia Commons
18.
Piazza del Campo
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Piazza del Campo is the principal public space of the historic center of Siena, Tuscany, Italy and is regarded as one of Europes greatest medieval squares. It is renowned worldwide for its beauty and architectural integrity, the Palazzo Pubblico and its Torre del Mangia, as well as various palazzi signorili surround the shell-shaped piazza. At the northwest edge is the Fonte Gaia, the twice-a-year horse-race, Palio di Siena, is held around the edges of the piazza. Siena may have had earlier Etruscan settlements, but it was not a considerable Roman settlement, the number of divisions is held to be symbolic of the rule of The Nine who laid out the campo and governed Siena at the height of its mediaeval splendour between 1292-1355. The Campo was and remains the point of public life in the City. From the piazza, eleven narrow shaded streets radiate into the city, at the foot of the Palazzo Pubblicos wall is the late Gothic Chapel of the Virgin built as an ex voto by the Sienese, after the terrible Black Death of 1348 had ended. Under the direction of the Committee of Nine, many miles of tunnels were constructed to bring water in aqueducts to fountains and thence to drain to the surrounding fields. The white marble Fonte Gaia was originally designed and built by Jacopo della Quercia, whose bas-reliefs from the basins sides are conserved in the Ospedale di St. Maria della Scala in Piazza Duomo. When they were set up in 1419, Jacopo della Quercias nude figures were the first two female nudes, who were neither Eve nor a repentant saint, to stand in a place since Antiquity. Two Weeks in Tuscany The Sight in the Piazza ItalyGuides. com, Piazza del Campo Many pictures Siena Piazza del Campo English Video Introduction
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Siena
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Siena is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the province of Siena, the historic centre of Siena has been declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site. It is one of the nations most visited tourist attractions, with over 163,000 international arrivals in 2008, Siena is famous for its cuisine, art, museums, medieval cityscape and the Palio, a horse race held twice a year. Siena, like other Tuscan hill towns, was first settled in the time of the Etruscans when it was inhabited by a called the Saina. A Roman town called Saena Julia was founded at the site in the time of the Emperor Augustus, the first document mentioning it dates from AD70. Some archaeologists assert that Siena was controlled for a period by a Gaulish tribe called the Senones, according to local legend, Siena was founded by Senius and Aschius, two sons of Remus and thus nephews of Romulus, after whom Rome was named. Supposedly after their fathers murder by Romulus, they fled Rome, taking them the statue of the she-wolf suckling the infants. Additionally they rode white and black horses, giving rise to the Balzana, some claim the name Siena derives from Senius. Other etymologies derive the name from the Etruscan family name Saina, Siena did not prosper under Roman rule. It was not sited near any major roads and lacked opportunities for trade and its insular status meant that Christianity did not penetrate until the 4th century AD, and it was not until the Lombards invaded Siena and the surrounding territory that it knew prosperity. Siena prospered as a trading post, and the constant streams of pilgrims passing to, the oldest aristocratic families in Siena date their line to the Lombards surrender in 774 to Charlemagne. This ultimately resulted in the creation of the Republic of Siena, the Republic existed for over four hundred years, from the late 11th century until the year 1555. During the golden age of Siena before the Black Death in 1348, in the Italian War of 1551–59, the republic was defeated by the rival Duchy of Florence in alliance with the Spanish crown. After 18 months of resistance, Siena surrendered to Spain on 17 April 1555, the new Spanish King Felipe II, owing huge sums to the Medici, ceded it to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, to which it belonged until the unification of Italy in the 19th century. A Republican government of 700 Sienese families in Montalcino resisted until 1559, the picturesque city remains an important cultural centre, especially for humanist disciplines. The city lies at 322 m above sea level, the Siena Cathedral, begun in the 12th century, is a masterpiece of Italian Romanesque-Gothic architecture. Its main façade was completed in 1380, the original plan called for an ambitiously massive basilica, the largest then in the world, with, as was customary, an east-west nave. However, the scarcity of funds, in due to war and plague, truncated the project
20.
Jacopo della Quercia
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Jacopo della Quercia was an Italian sculptor of the Italian Renaissance, a contemporary of Brunelleschi, Ghiberti and Donatello. He is considered a precursor of Michelangelo, Jacopo della Quercia takes his name from Quercia Grossa, a place near Siena, where he was born in 1374. He received his training from his father, Piero dAngelo. Jacopo della Quercia, a Sienese, must have seen the works of Nicola Pisano and Arnolfo di Cambio on the pulpit in the cathedral of Siena and his first work may have been at the age of sixteen, an equestrian wooden statue for the funeral of Azzo Ubaldini. He left with his father to Lucca, owing to party strife, in Pisa, della Quercia likely studied the huge collection of Roman sculptures and sarcophagi in the Camposanto. These and later made him a transitional figure in the history of European art. As in the case of Ghiberti, this development probably results from exposure to his contemporary, Della Quercias earliest work appears in the Lucca cathedral, Man of Sorrows and a relief on the tomb of St. Aniello. In 1401 he entered a competition to design the bronze doors for Florences Baptistery, the unsuccessful entrys whereabouts are unknown. In 1403 he sculpted the marble Virgin and Child for the Ferrara cathedral, another work from his period in Ferrara is the statuette of St. Maurelius. Back again in Lucca in 1406, he received the commission from the ruler, Paolo Guinigi. The richly dressed woman rests on top of the sarcophagus, delicately portrayed in a Gothic fashion, with her dog, symbol of conjugate fidelity, but his use of several nude putti at the flanks of the tomb clearly shows the classical influence of the Roman sarcophagi at Camposanto. This is a first, a harbinger of the incipient Renaissance, in 1406 he was asked to build a new fountain in the Piazza del Campo in Siena. It had to replace the original fountain with a statue of the goddess Venus and this pagan statue was blamed for an outbreak of the Black Plague. The statue was destroyed and buried outside the city walls to avert its evil influence and this prestigious commission shows that he was already being recognized as Sienas most prominent sculptor. The rectangular fountain, built in marble, was dedicated to the Virgin. Because he accepted also other commissions at the time, progress was slow. He started in 1414 and the fountain was finished in 1419. He carved the panels in the workshop for sculptors, next to the cathedral and this workshop is now converted into the Cathedral Museum
21.
Rhea Silvia
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Rhea Silvia /ˈriːə ˈsɪlviə/, and also known as Ilia /ˈɪliə/, was the mythical mother of the twins Romulus and Remus, who founded the city of Rome. Her story is told in the first book of Ab Urbe Condita of Livy and in fragments from Ennius, Annales, according to Livys account of the legend she was the daughter of Numitor, king of Alba Longa, and descended from Aeneas. Numitors younger brother Amulius seized the throne and killed Numitors son, then forced Rhea Silvia to become a Vestal Virgin, as Vestal Virgins were sworn to celibacy for a period of thirty years, this would ensure the line of Numitor had no heirs. However, Rhea Silvia conceived and gave birth to the twins Romulus and Remus and she claimed that the god Mars was the father of the children. When Amulius learned of the birth he imprisoned Rhea Silvia and ordered a servant to kill the twins, but the servant showed mercy and set them adrift on the river Tiber, which, overflowing, left the infants in a pool by the bank. There, a she-wolf, who had just lost her own cubs, subsequently Faustulus rescued the boys, to be raised by his wife Larentia. The god of the Tiber, Tiberinus, rescued Rhea Silvia, Romulus would go on to found Rome, overthrow Amulius, and reinstate Numitor as King of Alba Longa. Despite Livys euhemerist and realist deflation of this myth, it is clear that the story of her seduction by Mars continued to be widely accepted. Mars discovery of Rhea Silvia is a prototype of the scene, or discovery scene familiar in Roman art, Greek examples are furnished by Dionysus and Ariadne or Selene. The Portland Vase features a scene that has interpreted as a depiction of the invention, or coming-upon. In a version presented by Ovid, it is the river Anio who takes pity on her, the name Rhea Silvia suggests a minor deity, a demi-goddess of forests. e. The woman who had been seduced there, Rhea Silvia appears as a minor goddess in Rick Riordans fantasy novel The Mark of Athena. She and her husband Tiberinus assist demigod Annabeth Chase on her quest in Rome and she affects the appearance of Audrey Hepburn from the film Roman Holiday. Rhea Silva is used as a numerous times in the Doctor Who spin-off series Torchwood. Aeneas Founding of Rome Mars Rome Romulus and Remus Rhea Livy, the Dream of Ilia, Annales - Book 1
22.
Andrei Rublev
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Andrei Rublev is considered to be one of the greatest medieval Russian painters of Orthodox icons and frescos. Little information survives about the life of Andrei Rublev and it is not known where he was born. He probably lived in the Trinity-St, Sergius Lavra near Moscow under Nikon of Radonezh, who became hegumen after the death of Sergii Radonezhsky in 1392. The first mention of Rublev is in 1405 when he decorated icons and frescos for the Cathedral of the Annunciation of the Moscow Kremlin in company with Theophanes the Greek and his name was the last of the list of masters as the junior both by rank and by age. Theophanes was an important Byzantine master who moved to Russia, and is considered to have trained Rublev. Chronicles tell us that together with Daniil Cherni he painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir in 1408 as well as the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius between 1425 and 1427. After Daniils death, Andrei came to Moscows Andronikov Monastery where he painted his last work and he is also believed to have painted at least one of the miniatures in the Khitrovo Gospels. The only work authenticated as entirely his is the icon of the Trinity and it is based on an earlier icon known as the Hospitality of Abraham. Rublev removed the figures of Abraham and Sarah from the scene, in Rublevs art two traditions are combined, the highest asceticism and the classic harmony of Byzantine mannerism. The characters of his paintings are always peaceful and calm, after some time his art came to be perceived as the ideal of Eastern Church painting and of Orthodox iconography. Rublev died at Andronikov Monastery on 29 January 1430, Rublevs work influenced many artists including Dionisy. The Stoglavi Sobor promulgated Rublevs icon style as a model for church painting, since 1959 the Andrei Rublev Museum at the Andronikov Monastery has displayed his and related art. The Russian Orthodox Church canonized Rublev as a saint in 1988, the liturgical of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America remembers Rublev on January 29. In 1966, Andrei Tarkovsky made a film Andrei Rublev, loosely based on the artists life, western painting Andrei Rublev, a 1966 film by Andrei Tarkovsky loosely based on the painters life. Mikhail V. Alpatov, Andrey Rublev, Moscow, Iskusstvo,1972, gabriel Bunge, The Rublev Trinity, transl. Andrew Louth, St. Vladimirs Seminary Press, Crestwood, New York,2007, Sergius Golubtsov, Voplosh’enie bogoslovskih idey v tvorchestve prepodobnogo Andreya Rubleva. Viktor N. Lazarev, The Russian Icon, From Its Origins to the Sixteenth Century, priscilla Hunt, Andrei Rublev’s Old Testament Trinity Icon in Cultural Context, The Trinity-Sergius Lavr in Russian History and Culture, Readings in Russian Religious Culture, vol. 3, ed. Deacon Vladimir Tsurikov, 99-122, zur 600–Jahrfeier des grossen russischen Malers, vol
23.
Robert Campin
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Robert Campin, now usually identified with the Master of Flémalle, was the first great master of the Flemish Primitives. Campins identity and the attribution of the paintings in both the Campin and Master of Flémalle groupings has been a matter of controversy for decades. Campin was highly successful during his lifetime, and thus his activities are well documented, but he did not sign or date his works. A corpus of work attached to the unidentified Master of Flémalle, Campin was active by 1406 as a master painter in Tournai, in todays Belgium, and became that citys leading painter for 30 years. He had attained citizenship by 1410, and may have studied under Jan van Eyck and his fame had spread enough by 1419 that he led a large and profitable workshop. He became involved in the revolt of the Brotherhoods in the early 1420s, yet he maintained his standing and workshop until his death in 1444. He was successful in his lifetime, and the recipient of a number of civic commissions, Campin taught both Rogier van der Weyden and Jacques Daret. He was a contemporary of Jan van Eyck, and they met in 1427, campins best known work is the Mérode Altarpiece of c 1425-28. In 1408 he had purchased the house that he had been leasing since 1406 near the Tournai Cathedral, in 1410 he bought into the full citizenship. Records show a number of commissions from individuals and guilds, as well as from ecclesiastical. Campin owned several houses, purchased city bonds and invested in mortgages, between 1423 and 1429, the city government was dominated by the guilds. Campin was the deputy dean of the guild of goldsmiths and painters in 1423/24 and 1425, in 1427 he represented the guild on the city council. After restoration of the oligarchy of full citizens, the leaders of the guild regime, Campin was ordered to make a pilgrimage to Saint-Gilles and pay the fine. Campin was married to Ysabel de Stocquain and he had an affair with Laurence Polette, for which he was prosecuted in 1432 and sentenced to banishment for a year. Margaret of Burgundy, wife of the Count of Holland and sister of John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy intervened on his behalf, short time after the verdict Campin’s apprentices Rogier van der Weyden and Jacques Daret were accepted as masters into the guild of painters. However, the dated Werl Altarpiece shows he continued to work and he died in his adopted city of Tournai in 1444. Although heavily indebted to 14th century manuscript illumination, Campin displayed greater powers of realistic observation than any other painter before him. He was one of the first to experiment with the use of oil-based colours, in lieu of egg-based tempera, Campin used the new technique to convey strong, rounded characters by modelling light and shade in compositions of complex perspectives
24.
Lorenzo Monaco
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Lorenzo Monaco was an Italian painter of the late Gothic-early Renaissance age. He was born Piero di Giovanni in Siena, little is known about his youth, apart from the fact that he was apprenticed in Florence. He was influenced by Giotto and his followers Spinello Aretino and Agnolo Gaddi, in 1390 he joined the Camaldolese monastery of Santa Maria degli Angeli. He was thenceforth known as Lorenzo Monaco. In the 1390s he executed three panels of the Biblioteca Laurenziana for his convent, starting from around 1404 his works show the influence of the International Gothic, of Lorenzo Ghibertis earliest works and of Gherardo Starnina. From this period is the Pietà in the Gallerie dellAccademia in Florence and his works, often over a gilded background, showed in general a spiritual value, and usually did not feature profane elements. In 1414 he painted the Coronation of the Virgin, characterized by a number of saints. In the late part of his life, Lorenzo did not accept the early Renaissance innovations introduced by such as Masaccio. This is visible in the Adoration of the Magi of 1420–1422, giorgio Vasari includes a biography of Lorenzo Monaco in his Lives. According to the Florentine historian, he died from an unidentified infection, madonna of Humility, Treasure Museum of the Basilica of Saint Francis, Assisi Sienese School Pope-Hennessy, John & Kanter, Laurence B. The Robert Lehman Collection I, Italian Paintings, new York, Princeton, The Metropolitan Museum of Art in association with Princeton University Press. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Biography and works Italian Paintings, Florentine School, a collection catalog containing information about Monaco and his works
25.
Jan van Eyck
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Jan van Eyck was a Flemish/Netherlandish painter active in Bruges. He is often considered one of the founders of Early Netherlandish painting school, the few surviving records of his early life indicate that he was born c. After Johns death in 1425 he was employed in Lille as court painter to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, until 1429 before moving to Bruges, where he lived until his death. Apart from the Ghent Altarpiece and the miniatures of the Turin-Milan Hours, about 20 surviving paintings are confidently attributed to him. Ten, including the Ghent altarpiece, are dated and signed with a variation of his motto, ALS IK KAN always written in Greek characters, Van Eyck painted both secular and religious subject matter, including altarpieces, single panel religious figures and commissioned portraits. His work includes single panels, diptychs, triptychs, and polyptych panels and he was well paid by Philip, who sought that the painter was secure financially and had artistic freedom and could paint whenever he pleased. Van Eycks work comes from the International Gothic style, but he soon eclipsed it, through his developments in the use of oil paint he achieved a new level of virtuosity. Van Eyck was highly influential and his techniques and style were adopted and refined by the Early Netherlandish painters, little is known of Jan van Eycks early life and neither the date nor place of his birth is documented. This suggests a date of birth of 1395 at the latest, however, his apparent age in the London probable self-portrait of 1433 suggests to most scholars a date closer to 1380. He was identified in the late 1500s as having been born in Maaseik and this claim is still considered credible on etymological grounds, considering that Van Eyck means of Eyck which is an old variant spelling of eik. He had a sister Margareta, and at least two brothers, Hubert and Lambert, both painters, but the order of their births has not been established. Another significant, and rather younger, painter who worked in Southern France and it is not known where Jan was educated, but he had knowledge of Latin and used the Greek and Hebrew alphabets in his inscriptions, indicating that he was schooled in the classics. This level of education was rare among painters, and would have made him attractive to the cultivated Philip. Van Eyck served John of Bavaria-Straubing, ruler of Holland, Hainault, by this time van Eyck had assembled a small workshop and was involved in redecorating the Binnenhof palace in The Hague. After Johns death in 1425 he moved to Bruges and came to the attention of Philip the Good c and his emergence as a collectable painter generally follows his appointment to Philips court, and from this point his activity in the court is comparatively well documented. He served as court artist and diplomat, and a was a member of the Tournai painters guild. On 18 October 1427, the Feast of St. Luke, he travelled to Tournai to attend a banquet in his honour, also attended by Robert Campin, a court salary freed him from commissioned work, and allowed a large degree of artistic freedom. Over the following decade van Eycks reputation and technical ability grew, unlike most of his peers his reputation never diminished and he remained well regarded over the following centuries
26.
Trinity (Andrei Rublev)
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The Trinity is an icon created by Russian painter Andrei Rublyov in the 15th century. It is his most famous work, and the most famous of all Russian icons, scholars believe that is it one of only two works of art that can be attributed to Rublyov with any sort of certainty. The Trinity depicts the three angels who visited Abraham at the Oak of Mamre, but the painting is full of symbolism and is interpreted as an icon of the Holy Trinity. At the times of Andrei Rublëv the Holy Trinity was the embodiment of unity, peace, harmony, mutual love. The icon was commissioned to honour the saint Sergius of Radonezh of the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius near Moscow, little is known about The Trinitys history, art historians can only make suggestions based on few known facts. Even the authorship of Rublev is questioned sometimes, various authors suggest different dates, such as 1408-1425, 1422-1423 or 1420-1427. The official version states 1411 or 1425-27, the Trinity is currently held in the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow. The Trinity was painted on a vertically aligned board and it depicts three angels sitting at a table. On the table, there is a cup containing the head of a calf, in the background, Rublev painted a house, a tree, and a mountain. The figures of angels are arranged so that the lines of their bodies form a full circle, the middle angel and the one on the left bless the cup with a hand gesture. There is no action or movement in the painting, the figures gaze into eternity in the state of motionless contemplation. There are sealed traces of nails from the icons riza on the margins, halos, the icon is based on a story from the Book of Genesis called Abraham and Sarahs Hospitality or The Hospitality of Abraham. When he saw them, Abraham ran from the tent door to meet them, Abraham ordered a servant-boy to prepare a choice calf, and set curds, milk and the calf before them, waiting on them, under a tree, as they ate. One of the angels told Abraham that Sarah would soon give birth to a son, art critics believe that Andrei Rublevs icon was created in accordance with this concept. He did not paint Abraham, Sarah, the scene of calfs slaughter, the angels were depicted as talking, not eating. The gestures of angels, smooth and restrained, demonstrate the nature of their conversation. The silent communion of the three angels is the centre of the composition, in Rublevs icon, the form that most clearly represents the idea of the consubstantiality of the Trinitys three hypostases is a circle. It is the foundation of the composition, at the same time, the angels are not inserted into the circle, but create it instead, thus our eyes cant stop at any of the three figures and rather dwell inside this limited space
27.
Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius
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The Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius is the most important Russian monastery and the spiritual centre of the Russian Orthodox Church. The monastery is situated in the town of Sergiyev Posad, about 70 km to the north-east from Moscow by the leading to Yaroslavl. The monastery was founded in 1337 by one of the most venerated Russian saints, Sergius of Radonezh, early development of the monastic community is well documented in contemporary lives of Sergius and his disciples. In 1355, Sergius introduced a charter which required the construction of buildings, such as refectory, kitchen. This charter was a model for Sergius numerous followers who founded more than 400 cloisters all over Russia, including the celebrated Solovetsky, Kirillov, and Simonov monasteries. St. Sergius supported Dmitri Donskoi in his struggle against the Tatars, at the outbreak of the battle, Peresvet died in a single combat against a Tatar bogatyr. The monastery was devastated by fire, when a Tatar unit raided the area in 1408, St. Sergius was declared patron saint of the Russian state in 1422. The same year the first stone cathedral was built by a team of Serbian monks who had found refuge in the monastery after the Battle of Kosovo, the relics of St. Sergius still may be seen in this cathedral, dedicated to the Holy Trinity. The greatest icon painters of medieval Russia, Andrei Rublev and Daniil Chyorny, were summoned to decorate the cathedral with frescoes, traditionally, Muscovite royals were baptized in this cathedral and held thanksgiving services here. In 1476, Ivan III invited several Pskovian masters to build the church of the Holy Spirit and this graceful structure is one of the few remaining examples of a Russian church topped with a belltower. The interior contains the earliest specimens of the use of glazed tiles for decoration, in the early 16th century, Vasily III added the Nikon annex and the Serapion tent, where several of Sergius disciples were interred. It took 26 years to construct the six-pillared Assumption Cathedral, which was commissioned by Ivan the Terrible in 1559, the cathedral is much larger than its model and namesake in the Moscow Kremlin. The magnificent iconostasis of the 16th–18th centuries features Simon Ushakovs masterpiece, interior walls were painted with violet and blue frescoes by a team of Yaroslavl masters in 1684. The vault contains burials of Boris Godunov, his family and several 20th-century patriarchs, as the monastery grew into one of the wealthiest landowners in Russia, the woods where it had stood were cut over and a village sprang up near the monastery walls. It gradually developed into the town of Sergiyev Posad. The cloister itself was a centre of chronicle-writing and icon painting. A shell-hole in the gates is preserved as a reminder of Wladyslaw IVs abortive siege in 1618. By the end of the 17th century, when young Peter I twice found refuge within the monastery from his enemies and these include a small baroque palace of the patriarchs, noted for its luxurious interiors, and a royal palace, with its facades painted in checkerboard design
28.
Tretyakov Gallery
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The State Tretyakov Gallery is an art gallery in Moscow, Russia, the foremost depository of Russian fine art in the world. In 1892, Tretyakov presented his famous collection of approximately 2,000 works to the Russian nation. The façade of the building was designed by the painter Viktor Vasnetsov in a peculiar Russian fairy-tale style. It was built in 1902–04 to the south from the Moscow Kremlin, during the 20th century, the gallery expanded to several neighboring buildings, including the 17th-century church of St. Nicholas in Tolmachi. In 1977 the Gallery kept a significant part of the George Costakis collection, Pavel Tretyakov started collecting art in the middle of 1850. The founding year of the Tretyakov Gallery is considered to be 1856, schilder and Skirmish with Finnish Smugglers by V. G. Kudyakov, although earlier, in 1854-1855, he had bought 11 graphic sheets and 9 pictures of old Dutch masters, in 1867 the Moscow City Gallery of Pavel and Sergei Tretyakov was opened. The Gallery’s collection consisted of 1,276 paintings,471 sculptures and 10 drawings of Russian artists, in August 1892 Tretyakov presented his art gallery to the city of Moscow as a gift. In the collection at time, there were 1,287 paintings and 518 graphic works of the Russian school,75 paintings and 8 drawings of European schools,15 sculptures. The official opening of the called the Moscow City Gallery of Pavel. The gallery was located in a mansion that the Tretykov family had purchased in 1851. As the Tretyakov collection of art grew, the part of the mansion filled with art and it became necessary to make additions to the mansion in order to store. Additions were made in 1873,1882,1885,1892 and 1902-1904, construction of the façade was managed by the architect A. M. In early 1913, the Moscow City Duma elected Igor Grabar as a trustee of the Tretyakov Gallery, on June 3,1918, the Tretyakov Gallery was declared owned by Russian Federated Soviet Republic and was named the State Tretyakov Gallery. Igor Grabar was again appointed director of the museum, with Grabar’s active participation in the same year, the State Museum Fund was created, which up until 1927 remained one of the most important sources of replenishment of the gallerys collection. In 1926 architect and academician A. V, shchusev became the director of the gallery. In the following year the gallery acquired the house on Maly Tolmachevsky Lane. After restructuring in 1928, it housed the administration, academic departments, library, manuscripts department
29.
Democritus
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Democritus was an influential Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe. Democritus was born in Abdera, Thrace, around 460 BC, although and his exact contributions are difficult to disentangle from those of his mentor Leucippus, as they are often mentioned together in texts. Largely ignored in ancient Athens, Democritus is said to have been disliked so much by Plato that the latter wished all of his books burned and he was nevertheless well known to his fellow northern-born philosopher Aristotle. Many consider Democritus to be the father of modern science, none of his writings have survived, only fragments are known from his vast body of work. Democritus was said to be born in the city of Abdera in Thrace and he was born in the 80th Olympiad according to Apollodorus of Athens, and although Thrasyllus placed his birth in 470 BC, the later date is probably more likely. John Burnet has argued that the date of 460 is too early since, according to Diogenes Laërtius ix.41 and it was said that Democrituss father was from a noble family and so wealthy that he received Xerxes on his march through Abdera. Democritus spent the inheritance which his father left him on travels into distant countries and he traveled to Asia, and was even said to have reached India and Ethiopia. It is known that he wrote on Babylon and Meroe, he visited Egypt and he himself declared that among his contemporaries none had made greater journeys, seen more countries, and met more scholars than himself. He particularly mentions the Egyptian mathematicians, whose knowledge he praises, theophrastus, too, spoke of him as a man who had seen many countries. During his travels, according to Diogenes Laërtius, he acquainted with the Chaldean magi. Ostanes, one of the magi accompanying Xerxes, was said to have taught him. After returning to his land he occupied himself with natural philosophy. He traveled throughout Greece to acquire a knowledge of its cultures. He mentions many Greek philosophers in his writings, and his wealth enabled him to purchase their writings, Leucippus, the founder of atomism, was the greatest influence upon him. Diogenes Laertius says that he was friends with Hippocrates and he may have been acquainted with Socrates, but Plato does not mention him and Democritus himself is quoted as saying, I came to Athens and no one knew me. Aristotle placed him among the natural philosophers. The many anecdotes about Democritus, especially in Diogenes Laërtius, attest to his disinterest, modesty, and simplicity, one story has him deliberately blinding himself in order to be less disturbed in his pursuits, it may well be true that he lost his sight in old age. He was cheerful, and was ready to see the comical side of life
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Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
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Boucicaut Master
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The Boucicaut Master or Master of the Hours for Marshal Boucicaut was an anonymous French or Flemish miniaturist and illuminator active between 1400 and 1430 in Paris. He worked in the International Gothic style and he is named after his illustrated book of hours for Jean II Le Meingre Boucicaut, Marshal of France, created between 1410 and 1415, now in the Musée Jacquemart-André in Paris. The Master of Boucicaut was a contemporary of the Limbourg brothers and with them belonged to the most important and he was probably the head of a productive workshop or studio in which artists fulfilled commissions for the court, the aristocracy and wealthy citizens. It is known that the artist also collaborated with the equally active Bedford Master in Paris, the Boucicaut Master was advanced in terms of his depiction of light and perspective, based partly on developments in Italian painting. Based on style, many paintings and manuscripts are attributed to the artist, la peinture en France au début du XVe siècle, le maître des heures du Maréchal de Boucicaut. Illustrations by the Master of Boucicaut, Paris, France, Librarie de lArt Ancient et Moderne. Archived from the original on approx
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Uffizi
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The Uffizi Gallery is a prominent art museum located adjacent to the Piazza della Signoria in central Florence, region of Tuscany, Italy. The building of Uffizi complex was begun by Giorgio Vasari in 1560 for Cosimo I de Medici so as to accommodate the offices of the Florentine magistrates, hence the name uffizi, the construction was later continued by Alfonso Parigi and Bernardo Buontalenti and completed in 1581. The niches in the piers that alternate with columns filled with sculptures of artists in the 19th century. The Uffizi brought together under one roof the administrative offices, the Tribunal and the Archivio di Stato, the state archive. He commissioned from the architect Buontalenti the design of the Tribuna degli Uffizi that collected a series of masterpieces in one room, over the years, more sections of the palace were recruited to exhibit paintings and sculpture collected or commissioned by the Medici. The gallery had been open to visitors by request since the sixteenth century, because of its huge collection, some of its works have in the past been transferred to other museums in Florence—for example, some famous statues to the Bargello. A project was finished in 2006 to expand the exhibition space some 6,000 metres² to almost 13,000 metres². On 27 May 1993, a car exploded in Via dei Georgofili and damaged parts of the palace. The most severe damage was to the Niobe room and classical sculptures and neoclassical interior, the identity of the bomber or bombers are unknown, although it was almost certainly attributable to the Sicilian Mafia who were engaged in a period of terrorism at that time. Today, the Uffizi is one of the most popular tourist attractions of Florence, in high season, waiting times can be up to five hours. In early August 2007, Florence experienced a heavy rainstorm, the Gallery was partially flooded, with water leaking through the ceiling, and the visitors had to be evacuated. There was a more significant flood in 1966 which damaged most of the art collections in Florence severely. Here is a selection from the collection, The collection also contains some ancient sculptures, such as the Arrotino. Collections of the Uffizi Official website Uffizi – Google Art Project
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Taddeo di Bartolo
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Taddeo di Bartolo, also known as Taddeo Bartoli, was an Italian painter of the Sienese School during the early Renaissance. He is among the artists profiled in Vasaris biographies of artists or Vite, vasari claims he is the uncle of Domenico di Bartolo. Taddeo di Bartolo was born in Siena, the exact year of Taddeo di Bartolos birth is unknown, but it’s been suspected to be between 1363-65. Around 1389 he entered the Sienese Guild of artists, where he mastered the art of painting among his Sienese colleagues, in 1389 Taddeo traveled to Collegarli, the San Miniato al Tedesco hills, and Pisa. The painting of The Virgin and Child Enthroned, signed and dated in 1390, in 1393, Taddeo traveled to San Gimignano, where he executed the altarpiece of the Virgin and Child and Saints for the Sardi and Campigli Chapel in San Francesco. The Virgin and Child With Saints showcases Taddeo’s earlier style, the thin, elegant figures, and flowing lines of the drapery patterns reflect influence from his Sienese predecessors, such as Simone Martini and Ambrogio Lorenzetti. From 1400-01, Taddeo worked at the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena where he created twelve small panels, of only nine exist today. These panels give reverence to Taddeo’s craftsmanship in smaller scale work, around 1401, Taddeo painted the celebrated altarpiece, Assumption of the Virgin and scenes from the Passion, in Montepulciano. The intention of this piece was for religious and devotional functions, Taddeo worked to accommodate the established conventions of altarpiece painting, while simultaneously stylizing the pieces to fit their respective site. In 1403, Taddeo was working in Perugia producing two works, now on display in their public gallery, the Virgin and Child with two Angels and St Bernard and Descent of the Holy Ghost. These two works showcase Taddeo’s superior talents, exhibiting delicate coloring and vast human expression, though, in 1406, Taddeo was commissioned to destroy all the paintings in the chapel of the Palazzo Pubblico, and repaint the inside. Many of these represent the Life of the Madonna, including the Death of the Virgin in which Jesus descends, takes her hand. In 1422 Taddeo di Bartolo died in Siena, much of his early work was in Pisa, where he was responsible for the frescoes of Paradise and Hell in the Cathedral there, and for paintings in the Palazzo Pubblico and the church of San Francesco. At the Collegiata di San Gimignano, Taddeo painted a fresco depicting The Last Judgment, the Museo Civico of San Gimignano, displays a painting by Taddeo depicting Saint Gimignano holding the town in his lap. A triptych of the Virgin and Child with St John the Baptist and St Andrew, a massive triptych, Assumption of the Virgin, painted in 1401, is displayed in the 16th-century Duomo of Santa Maria dellAssunta at Montepulciano. Taddeos Madonna with Child, Four Angels and Saint John the Baptist and Saint Andrew may be seen in the Oratory of the Company of Saint Catherine of the Night at Santa Maria della Scala, Siena. He also painted allegories and figures from Roman history, and the Funeral of the Virgin at the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena and his St Elizabeth of Hungry is on display in the Perkins Collection of the Basilica of St Francis in Assisi. A Madonna and Child, painted with tempera and oil on a panel, is located in the Wadsworth Atheneum
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Vestibule (architecture)
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The term applies to structures in both modern and historical architecture since ancient times. In modern architecture, vestibule typically refers to a room next to the outer door. In ancient Roman architecture, vestibule referred to an enclosed area between the interior of the house and the street. In contemporary usage, a vestibule constitutes an area surrounding the exterior door and it acts as an antechamber between the exterior and the interior structure. Often it connects the doorway to a lobby or hallway and it is the space one occupies once passing the door, but not yet in the main interior of the building. The residence of the White House in the United States is such an example, the difference in sizes between a vestibule and the following space is better illustrated by the - so called - entrance to the main gallery in the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum by Frank Lloyd Wright. Many government buildings mimic the architecture from which the vestibule originates. A purely utilitarian use of vestibules in modern buildings is to create an air lock entry. Such vestibules consist of merely a set of doors and a set of outer doors. An ATM vestibule is an area with automated teller machines that is accessible from the outside of a building. There may be an entrance to the vestibule which requires a card to open. Entrance to and exit from the car is through the side doors, in British usage the term refers to the part of the carriage where the passenger doors are located, this can be at the ends of the carriage or at the 1/4 and 3/4 of length positions. Vestibules were common in ancient Greek temples, due to the construction techniques available at the time, it was not possible to build large spans. Consequently, many ways had two rows of columns that supported the roof and created a distinct space around the entrance. In ancient Roman architecture, where the term originates, a vestibule was a space between the interior of a building and the street, the structure was a mixture between a modern hall and porch. Upon entering a Roman house or domus, one would have to pass through the vestibule before entering the atrium, from the 5th century on vestibules were used in churches in both the east and west. Genkan Propylaeum Antarala, vestibule in certain Hindu temples
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Coronation of the Virgin
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Christ, sometimes accompanied by God the Father and the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove, places a crown on the head of Mary as Queen of Heaven. In early versions the setting is a Heaven imagined as a court, staffed by saints and angels, in later versions Heaven is more often seen as in the sky. The subject is notable as one where the whole Christian Trinity is often shown together. Although crowned Virgins may be seen in Orthodox Christian icons, the coronation by the deity is not, Mary is sometimes shown, in both Eastern and Western Christian art, being crowned by one or two angels, but this is considered a different subject. The great majority of Roman Catholic churches had a side-altar or Lady chapel dedicated to Mary, the subject is still often enacted in rituals or popular pageants called May crownings, although the crowning is performed by human figures. The belief in Mary as Queen of Heaven obtained the sanction of Pope Pius XII in his encyclical Ad Caeli Reginam of October 11,1954. It is also the fifth Glorious Mystery of the Rosary, the Roman Catholic Church celebrates the feast every August 22, where it replaced the former octave of the Assumption of Mary in 1969, a move made by Pope Paul VI. The feast was celebrated on May 31, at the end of the Marian month. In addition, there are Canonical coronations authorized by the Pope which are given to specific Marian images venerated in a particular place. The scene is the episode in the Life of the Virgin. The scriptural basis is found in the Song of Songs, Psalms, a sermon wrongly believed to be by Saint Jerome elaborated on these and was used by standard medieval works such as the Golden Legend and other writers. The title Queen of Heaven, or Regina Coeli, for Mary goes back to at least the 12th century, the subject also drew from the idea of the Virgin as the throne of Solomon, that is the throne on which a Christ-child sits in a Madonna and Child. It was felt that the throne itself must be royal, in general the art of this period, often paid for by royalty and the nobility, increasingly regarded the heavenly court as a mirror of earthly ones. It was rapidly adopted and is prominent in the portals of French Gothic cathedrals such as Laon, Notre-Dame de Paris, Amiens and Reims, there are three examples extant on Devon roodscreen dados, at East Portlemouth, Holne, and Torbryan. Later God the Father often sits beside Christ, with the Holy Spirit hovering between them, and Mary kneeling in front of them. Christ and God the Father are normally differentiated by age, and to some extent by costume, God the Father often wearing a beehive-shaped crown, by the 15th century some more individual interpretations are found. From the High Renaissance onwards the subject is combined with an Assumption. The Coronation of the Blessed Virgin is also a subject of devotion throughout Christianity, the crown of Mary has been mentioned since the 6th century, as corona virginum
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Matteo di Giovanni
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Matteo di Giovanni was an Italian Renaissance artist from the Sienese School. Matteo di Giovanni di Bartolo was born in Borgo Sansepolcro around 1430 and his family relocated to Siena and he is firmly associated with the art of that city. Matteo was twice married—first in 1463 to a noble woman and, after her death, to a rich widow. Documentation concerning the early phases of Matteos life and career as an artist is scanty, the miniaturist Girolamo da Cremona and the Florentine painter Antonio del Pollaiolo also seemed to have contributed to Matteos distinctive style. In 1452, Matteo entered into partnership with the painter Giovanni di Pietro, Matteo and Giovanni also collaborated in the embellishment of organ shutters in the Siena Cathedral and in the decoration of the San Bernardino Chapel in that cathedral. For this prestigious commission Matteo painted three altarpieces, dating to the years 1460-62, these paintings offer a secure point from which to evaluate Matteos early style and to reconstruct his development as an artist. The three paintings in Pienza also help to explain the next phase in his style, the first of these altarpieces, a large Madonna and Saints signed Opus Matthei Johannis De Senis depicts the enthroned Madonna surrounded by Sts. During his mature period, Matteo began to paint idyllic and naturalistic landscape scenes employing delicate, Matteos brand of eclecticism tended to evolve from local taste and tradition. Matteo di Giovanni died in Siena in 1495 and he is credited with teaching Guidoccio Cozzarelli of Siena, an altarpice painter and miniaturist. Matteo di Giovannis lost altarpiece for SantAgostino, Asciano, pope-Hennessy, John & Kanter, Laurence B. The Robert Lehman Collection I, Italian Paintings, new York, Princeton, The Metropolitan Museum of Art in association with Princeton University Press. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Herbermann, Charles, ed. Matteo da Siena
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Lublin
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Lublin is the ninth largest city in Poland and the second largest city of Lesser Poland. It is the capital and the center of Lublin Voivodeship with a population of 349,103, Lublin is the largest Polish city east of the Vistula River, and is located approximately 170 kilometres to the southeast of Warsaw by road. One of the events that contributed to the citys development was the Polish-Lithuanian Union of Krewo in 1385. In 1474, Lublin, which was part of the Sandomierz region. Lublin also witnessed the early stages of Reformation in the 16th century, a Calvinist congregation was founded and certain groups of radical Arians also appeared in the city, making it an important national centre of Arianism. Until the partitions at the end of the 18th century, Lublin was a city of the Crown Kingdom of Poland. Its delegates and nobles had the right to participate in the Royal Election, although Lublin was not spared from severe destruction during World War II, its picturesque and historical Old Town has been preserved. The district is one of Polands official national Historic Monuments, as designated May 16,2007, the city is viewed as an attractive location for foreign investment and the analytical Financial Times Group has found Lublin to be one of the best cities for business in Poland. The Foreign direct investment ranking placed Lublin second among larger Polish cities in the Cost-effectiveness category, Lublin is also noted for its green spaces and a high standard of living. Archaeological finds indicate a presence of cultures in the area. A complex of settlements started to develop on the site of Lublin and in its environs in the 6th-7th centuries. Remains of settlements dating back to the 6th century were discovered in the center of todays Lublin on Czwartek Hill, the next period of the early Middle Ages was marked by intensification of habitation, particularly in the areas along river valleys. The settlements at the time were centered around the stronghold on Old Town Hill, when the tribal stronghold was destroyed in the 10th century, the center shifted to the north-east, to a new stronghold above Czechówka valley, and after the mid-12th century to Castle Hill. At least two churches are presumed to have existed in Lublin in the medieval period. One of them was most probably erected on Czwartek Hill during the rule of Casimir the Restorer in the 11th century. The castle became the seat of a Castellan, first mentioned in sources from 1224. The oldest historical document mentioning Lublin dates from 1198, so the name must have come into use some time earlier. The location of Lublin at the borders of the Polish lands gave it military significance
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Giacomo Jaquerio
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Giacomo Jaquerio was an Italian medieval painter, one of the main exponents of Gothic painting in Piedmont. He was active in his native town Turin, Geneva and other localities of Savoy, starting from 1429 he lived in Turin. For the princes of Acaja he frescoed the castle of Turin, also attributed to Jaquerio are two tables with the Stories of St. Peter in the Civic Museum of Ancient Art in Turin and a miniature of the Crucifixion in the Aosta Cathedral Museum. Giacomo Jaquerio e il gotico internazionale
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Pinerolo
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Pinerolo is a town and comune in Piedmont, northwestern Italy,50 kilometres southwest of Turin on the river Chisone. The Lemina torrent has its source at the boundary between Pinerolo and San Pietro Val di Lemina, the town of Pinerolo was one of the main crossroads in Italy, and was therefore one of the principal fortresses of the dukes of Savoy. Its military importance was the origin of the military school that still exists today. The fortress of Fenestrelle is nearby, later Pinerolo was ruled by the abbot nullius of Pinerolo who ran the abbey of Abbadia Alpina, even after the city had established itself as a municipality under the government of Thomas II of Savoy. From 1235, Amadeus IV of Savoy exercised over the town a kind of protectorate which became absolute in 1243, when French troops invaded Piedmont, Pinerolo was conquered and it remained under their control until 1574. With the treaty of Cherasco it again fell to France, the 2011 Tour de France featured a stage in the area. It is around Pinerolo that revolves the economy of the waldensian valleys, several industries have their base in this area, particularly mechanical, paper making, chemical and textile industries, and also absorb manpower from the nearby centres. Moreover, Pinerolo is the center of the surrounding mountain area. The agriculture and the breeding of the livestock are conducted with advanced techniques, the Man in the Iron Mask was imprisoned in Pinerolo starting from 1669. The venue Pinerolo Palaghiaccio hosted curling events at the 2006 Winter Olympics, the Uruguayan football team Peñarol takes its name from the Montevideo neighbourhood of Peñarol, which in turn takes its name from this town. Gap, France, since 1963 Traunstein, Germany, since 1986 San Francisco, Argentina, since 1996 Derventa, Bosnia and Herzegovina, since 2005 Diocese of Pinerolo
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Donatello
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Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi, better known as Donatello, was an early Renaissance sculptor from Florence. He worked with stone, bronze, wood, clay, stucco and wax, and had several assistants, with four perhaps being a typical number. Though his best-known works were mostly statues in the round, he developed a new, very shallow, type of bas-relief for small works, and a good deal of his output was larger architectural reliefs. Donatello was the son of Niccolò di Betto Bardi, who was a member of the Florentine Arte della Lana, Donatello was educated in the house of the Martelli family. He apparently received his artistic training in a goldsmiths workshop. While undertaking study and excavations with Filippo Brunelleschi in Rome, work that gained the two men the reputation of treasure seekers, Donatello made a living by working at goldsmiths shops. In 1409–1411 he executed the colossal seated figure of Saint John the Evangelist, which until 1588 occupied a niche of the old cathedral façade and this work marks a decisive step forward from late Gothic Mannerism in the search for naturalism and the rendering of human feelings. The face, the shoulders and the bust are still idealized, while the hands, in 1411–13, Donatello worked on a statue of St. Mark for the guild church of Orsanmichele. In 1417 he completed the Saint George for the Confraternity of the Cuirass-makers, the elegant St. George and the Dragon relief on the statues base, executed in schiacciato is one of the first examples of central-point perspective in sculpture. From 1423 is the Saint Louis of Toulouse for the Orsanmichele, Donatello had also sculpted the classical frame for this work, which remains, while the statue was moved in 1460 and replaced by Incredulity of Saint Thomas by Verrocchio. Between 1415 and 1426, Donatello created five statues for the campanile of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, also known as the Duomo. These works are the Beardless Prophet, Bearded Prophet, the Sacrifice of Isaac, Habbakuk, and Jeremiah, from the late teens is the Pazzi Madonna relief in Berlin. In 1425, he executed the notable Crucifix for Santa Croce, this work portrays Christ in a moment of the agony, eyes and mouth partially opened, the body contracted in an ungraceful posture. From 1425 to 1427, Donatello collaborated with Michelozzo on the monument of the Antipope John XXIII for the Battistero in Florence. Donatello made the recumbent bronze figure of the deceased, under a shell, in 1427, he completed in Pisa a marble relief for the funerary monument of Cardinal Rainaldo Brancacci at the church of SantAngelo a Nilo in Naples. In the same period, he executed the relief of the Feast of Herod, the relief is mostly in stiacciato, with the foreground figures are done in bas-relief. Around 1430, Cosimo de Medici, the foremost art patron of his era and this is now Donatellos most famous work, and the first known free-standing nude statue produced since antiquity. Also from this period is the disquietingly small Love-Atys, housed in the Bargello, some have perceived the David as having homo-erotic qualities, and have argued that this reflected the artists own orientation
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Bargello
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The Bargello, also known as the Palazzo del Bargello, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, or Palazzo del Popolo, is a former barracks and prison, now an art museum, in Florence, Italy. The word bargello appears to come from the late Latin bargillus, during the Italian Middle Ages it was the name given to a military captain in charge of keeping peace and justice during riots and uproars. In Florence he was hired from a foreign city to prevent any appearance of favoritism on the part of the Captain. The position could be compared with that of a current Chief of police, the name Bargello was extended to the building which was the office of the captain. The palace was built to house first the Capitano del Popolo and later, in 1261, the podestà and this Palazzo del Podestà, as it was originally called, is the oldest public building in Florence. This austere crenellated building served as model for the construction of the Palazzo Vecchio, in 1574, the Medici dispensed with the function of the Podestà and housed the bargello, the police chief of Florence, in this building, hence its name. When Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor Peter Leopold was exiled, the makeshift Governor of Tuscany decided that the Bargello should no longer be a jail, the original two-story structure was built alongside the Volognana Tower in 1256. The third story, which can be identified by the blocks used to construct it, was added after the fire of 1323. The building is designed around a courtyard with an external staircase leading to the second floor. An open well is found in the center of the courtyard, the Bargello opened as a national museum in 1865, displaying the largest Italian collection of gothic and Renaissance sculptures. The museum houses masterpieces by Michelangelo, such as his Bacchus, Pitti Tondo, Brutus, benvenuto Cellini is represented with his bronze bust of Cosimo I. There are a few works from the Baroque period, notably Gianlorenzo Berninis 1636-7 Bust of Costanza Bonarelli, the museum also has a fine collection of ceramics, textile, tapestries, ivory, silver, armours and old coins. Honolulu Hales interior courtyard, staircase, and open ceiling were modeled after the Bargello
