1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
Army National Guard
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The Army National Guard, in conjunction with the Air National Guard, is a militia force and a federal military reserve force of the United States. They are simultaneously part of two different organizations, the National Guard of the states, territories and the District of Columbia. The Army National Guard is divided into units stationed in each of the 50 states. Members or units of the Army National Guard may be ordered, temporarily or indefinitely, if mobilized for federal service, the member or unit becomes part of the Army National Guard of the United States, which is a reserve component of the United States Army. Individuals volunteering for active service may do so subject to the consent of their governors. Governors generally cannot veto involuntary activations of individuals or units for federal service, the President may also call up members and units of the Army National Guard, in its status as the militia of the several states, to repel invasion, suppress rebellion, or enforce federal laws. The Army National Guard of the United States is one of two organizations administered by the National Guard Bureau, the other being the Air National Guard of the United States. The Director of the Army National Guard is the head of the organization, Militia members were required to equip themselves, take part in regular training, and report to their units when called. This war resulted in hundreds of deaths, hundreds of Native Americans sold into slavery or scattered throughout North America, the militias of the Southern New England colonies fought Native Americans again in King Philips War from 1675 to 1676. This conflict led to the defeat of the Narragansets, further straining relationships between Native Americans and white Europeans, but enabling continued white settlement of New England. In addition, the colonists had little interest in paying the taxes to maintain permanent garrisons of British troops, the militias were also an early experiment in democracy, with company grade officers often elected by their men, and the higher officers appointed by colonial governors or legislatures. The colonies did not exert centralized control over the militias or coordinate their efforts, Training typically took place during musters each summer, with militia members reporting for inspection and undergoing several days of training in drill and ceremony. Militia members served throughout the Revolution, often near their homes, Militia units served in combat, as well as carrying out guard duty for prisoners, garrisoning of forts, and local patrols. On some occasions, militia members performed ineffectively, as at the Battle of Camden in North Carolina, on other occasions they performed capably, including the Battles of Lexington and Concord, Battle of Bunker Hill, Battle of Bennington, Battles of Saratoga, and Battle of Cowpens. Perhaps the most important role played by the militia was off the battlefield, during the period of the Articles of Confederation, the weak federal government reduced the Continental Army to a handful of officers and soldiers. The Articles of Confederation required each state to maintain a militia, such consent was not forthcoming in an era when the population still harbored a distrust of a standing army, so Congress largely left the defense of the new nation to the state militias. During the Constitutional Convention in 1787, Federalist delegates argued for a federal government. Federalists anticipated using the military to defend the country if it were attacked, anti-Federalists advocated limited federal government, and wanted continued state control over the militias
3.
Field artillery
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Field artillery is a category of mobile artillery used to support armies in the field. These weapons are specialized for mobility, tactical proficiency, long range, short range and this was in contrast to horse artillery, whose emphasis on speed while supporting cavalry units necessitated lighter guns and crews riding on horseback. Modern artillery has also advanced to rapidly deployable wheeled and tracked vehicles, thus, their role was limited to such functions as breaking sieges. Following the beginning of the era, the first field artillery came into being as metallurgy allowed thinner cannon barrels to withstand the explosive forces without bursting. However, there was still a risk of the constant changes of the battlefield conspiring to leave behind slow-moving artillery units - either on the advance, or more dangerously. Artillery units were particularly vulnerable to assault by light cavalry, which were used in this role. Only with a number of inventions, did the concept of field artillery really take off. One of the earliest documented uses of field artillery is found in the 14th-century Ming Dynasty treatise Huolongjing, the text describes a Chinese cannon called a thousand ball thunder cannon, manufactured of bronze and fastened with wheels. The book also describes another mobile form of artillery called a barbarian attacking cannon consisting of an attached to a two-wheel carriage. Before World War I, field artillery batteries fired directly at visible targets measured in distances of meters. Today, modern field batteries measure targets in kilometers and miles, most field artillery situations require indirect fire due to weather, terrain, night-time conditions, distance or other obstacles. Modern field artillery has three sections, All batteries have a Fire Support Man, Fire Direction Control. The FOs are forward with the infantry where they can see the targets and they call the FDC on the radio and transmit a request for fire in the format of CFF. The FDC calculates the CFF and send a deflection and elevation to the gun line, the gun line cranks the specified elevation and deflection on the howitzers, punch the artillery shell followed by the bag. Depending on the CFF, the gunline will fire the round when they are ready or when the FO calls and tells them to fire, the FO spots the round and sends a correction back to the FDC and the process starts all over again until its done. The batteries are many kilometres behind the FLOT and they plan a location where they can be Fire Capability for some certain amount of time and do multiple fire missions before needing to displace. In normal operations the FOs locate targets and transmits the CFF to the FDCs and they can also calculate defensive fire tasks. Because the calculations have already been done, the fire can be called down very quickly when it is needed, the advance party consists of the battery commander, his driver, first sergeant, gunnery sergeant, FDC guide, gun guides, and communications representatives
4.
Brigade
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A brigade is a major tactical military formation that is typically composed of three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment, two or more brigades may constitute a division. Brigades formed into divisions are usually infantry or armored, in addition to combat units, they may include combat support units or sub-units, such as artillery and engineers, and logistic units or sub-units. Historically, such brigades have sometimes been called brigade-groups, on operations, a brigade may comprise both organic elements and attached elements, including some temporarily attached for a specific task. Brigades may also be specialized and comprise battalions of a branch, for example cavalry, mechanized, armored, artillery, air defence, aviation, engineers. Some brigades are classified as independent or separate and operate independently from the division structure. The typical NATO standard brigade consists of approximately 3,200 to 5,500 troops, however, in Switzerland and Austria, the numbers could go as high as 11,000 troops. The Soviet Union, its forerunners and successors, mostly use regiment instead of brigade, a brigades commander is commonly a major general, brigadier general, brigadier or colonel. In some armies, the commander is rated as a General Officer, the brigade commander has a self-contained headquarters and staff. Some brigades may also have a deputy commander, the headquarters has a nucleus of staff officers and support that can vary in size depending on the type of brigade. On operations, additional specialist elements may be attached, the headquarters will usually have its own communications unit. In some gendarmerie forces, brigades are the organizational unit. The brigade as a military unit came about starting in the 15th century when the British army, as such a field army became larger, the number of subordinate commanders became unmanageable for the officer in general command of said army, usually a major general, to effectively command. In order to streamline command relationships, as well as effect some modicum of control, especially in regard to combined arms operations. The terms origin is found in two French roots, which together, meant roughly those who fight, the so-called brigada was a well-mixed unit, comprising infantry, cavalry and normally also artillery, designated for a special task. The size of such brigada ranged from a company of up to two regiments. The brigada was the forerunner of the battalion task force, battle group. The brigade was improved as a unit by the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus
5.
Arkansas Army National Guard
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The Arkansas Army National Guard is a component of the Arkansas National Guard and the United States National Guard. National coordination of various state National Guard units are maintained through the National Guard Bureau, Arkansas Army National Guard units are trained and equipped as part of the United States Army. The same ranks and insignia are used and National Guardsmen are eligible to receive all United States military awards, the Arkansas National Guard also bestows a number of state awards for local services rendered in or to the state of Arkansas. The Arkansas Army National Guard is composed of approximately 8,000 soldiers, unlike Army Reserve members, National Guard members cannot be mobilized individually, but only as part of their respective units. For much of the decades of the 20th century, National Guard personnel typically served One weekend a month. The current forces formation plans of the US Army call for the typical National Guard unit to one year of active duty for every six years of service. More specifically, current Department of Defense policy is that individual Guardsman will be given 24 months between deployments of no more than 12 months each, when not activated for its Federal mission, the governor through the State Adjutant General commands Guard forces. The governor can call the Guard into action during local or statewide emergencies, such as storms, drought, the Arkansas National Guard traces its roots to the creation of the Territorial Militia in 1804. Interest in the Militia in Arkansas generally waxed and waned throughout the 19th century as various national emergencies arose, organizations existed at the county and city level, but regimental designations above the company level did not become stable until the closing years of the 19th century. During much of this local militia companies were supported by private funds. Arkansas provided troops for the War with Mexico, the American Civil War, in each case, in answer to the governors call, local militia companies would turn out and be formed into regiments or battalions for induction into federal service. The militia was also engaged in the violence that characterized the Reconstruction period following the Civil War. Arkansas National Guard troops participated in the Mexican Expedition in 1916–1917, when the Arkansas National Guard units were mustered into Federal Service for World War I, their state designations were removed and they were renumbered in accordance with a national System. Arkansas provided many units for World War II, both organizations work for the Adjutant General of Arkansas. The Adjutant General may be either a member of the Air National Guard or the Army National Guard, the 936th and 937th Field Artillery Battalions, along with several other Arkansas Army and Air National Guard units were mobilized again for service in the Korean War. Throughout the Cold War Arkansas National Guard units underwent multiple re-organizations in response to the nations Cold War strategy, no Arkansas National Guard Troops participated in the Vietnam War, but the state was called upon again to support Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm. The years following the first Persian Gulf War saw an increase in the use of National Guard units for service overseas to support various peace-keeping operations. During the 1980s Arkansas Nation Guard units made multiple training rotations to Honduras during a period of increased Marxist activity, following the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, the National Guard transitioned from the nations strategic reserve to a part of the operational force
6.
Alabama Army National Guard
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The Alabama Army National Guard is a component of the United States Army and the United States National Guard. National coordination of various state National Guard units are maintained through the National Guard Bureau, Alabama Army National Guard units are trained and equipped as part of the United States Army. The same ranks and insignia are used and National Guardsmen are eligible to receive all United States military awards, the Alabama Guard also bestows a number of state awards for local services rendered in or to the state of Alabama. Unlike Army Reserve members, National Guard members cannot be mobilized individually, new forces formation plans of the US Army were announced in early 2007 modifying the recent United States National Guard active duty callup pace. The new plan will nominally anticipate that each National Guard unit will serve one year of duty for every five years of service. Secretary of Defense Robert M. Gates imposed a limit to the length of for National Guard Soldiers. Callups by Alabama authorities for state emergencies are not included in this policy, the Alabama Army National Guard was originally formed in 1807. The Militia Act of 1903 organized the state militias into the present National Guard system. Both armies were made up of volunteer militia with regiments of both sides wearing blue and gray uniforms. The brunt of the Union attack fell on the Confederate left flank, Confederate Brig. Gen. Bernard Bee, having recently resigned from the U. S. Army and still wearing his blue uniform, realized that the armys left flank was seriously exposed. Gen. Bee ordered the Fourth Alabama Regiment to advance rapidly in order to plug the gap in the Confederate line, for over an hour, the Fourth Alabama held position and repulsed several Union regiments. The gallant stand of the Fourth Alabama stalled the Union advance, the regiment played a prominent part in the fighting all day and contributed to the Confederate victory. The Battle of First Manassas proved to both sides that the Civil War would be a bitterly contested struggle, the Fourth Alabama went on to fight in every major battle in the Eastern Theater of the Civil War and never surrendered its colors. The heritage and traditions of the Fourth Alabama are carried on by the 1st Battalion, 167th Infantry, the 31st Infantry Division had elements in Alabama for many years, though divisional HQ was in Jackson, MS. Following the inactivation, the Alabama Army National Guard was allotted the 31st Brigade, 30th Volunteer Armored Division, in 1973 or 1974 the 30th Armored Division was inactivated and Alabama was assigned a new major headquarters, the 31st Armored Brigade, with its headquarters at Northport. In 2002, the 31st Armored Brigade was inactivated, merging into the 149th Armored Brigade headquartered in Kentucky, Alabama was again assigned a new major headquarters, the 122nd Chemical Brigade, later redesignated as the 31st Chemical Brigade. 300 Alabama ARNG soldiers deployed to Iraq with the Combat Aviation Brigade, 36th Infantry Division, the previously active 142d Signal Brigade was inactivated in August 2008. On 13 February 2009, the comedian Sacha Baron Cohen tricked guard officers into allowing him to participate in training at the Alabama Military Academy at Fort McClellan, the officers were led to believe that Cohen was a reporter making a German TV documentary
7.
142nd Field Artillery Regiment
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The regiment was created in 1917 from the former 2nd Arkansas Infantry. The 142nd Field Artillery shipped to France during World War I, the battalions served throughout the European Theater of Operations. The battalions were activated again for the Korean War and served throughout the war, following the Korean War the separate battalions resumed their former designations of 1–142nd FA and 2–142nd FA. The 142nd Field Artillery Brigade, including both battalions was activated for Operation Desert Storm, elements of the 142nd Fires Brigade have been activated for service in Operation Noble Eagle and Operation Iraqi Freedom. The 142nd Fires Brigade was instrumental in support and recovery operations located in New Orleans, Louisiana after hurricanes Katrina, in the winter of 1892 the Arkansas State Guard conducted its first annual encampment. An encampment was also conducted in the summer of 1893 at Hot Springs, the favorable publicity for these militia encampments led to efforts to improve the organization of the Guard probably resulted in the organization of new military companies. As Arkansas State Guard grew in number of companies, and plans were made to divide the state into two regiments shortly after the encampment of 1893. The division was not made until 16 January 1894, the dividing line was the thirty-fifth parallel of latitude. The 1st Regiment, Arkansas State Guards, command by Col. F. B. T. Hohenburg, comprised the part of the state. Companies in the 2nd Regiment were located at Van Buren, Magazine, Conway, Paragould, Marion, Newport, Fort Smith, Clarksville, Rector and Yellville. Lancelot Minor, a Newport attorney who had been active in support of the Newport militia company, was appointed Colonel of the 2nd Regiment, samples of the United States Army was assigned to the Arkansas State Guard during the period of reorganization. On 24 March 1894, Rev. R. B, willis, of Newport was named chaplain of the Second Regiment. In May 1894, Lieutenant George A. Hillhouse, of Newport, was appointed Major, in early March 1894 companies began receiving complete uniforms, blankets and Rifles. Colonel Minor and his staff were also supplied with appropriate uniforms, including a saber, belt. In January 1897 Governor Daniel W. Jones took office and appointed Brigadier General Arthur Neill as his Private Secretary, the new Governor and Adjutant General began a massive reorganization of the Arkansas State Guard. Two additional regiments of Infantry, another troop of cavalry, the state was divided into two military districts, with the Arkansas River being the dividing line. Shaver was commissioned and placed in command of the States Forces. Brigadier General C. R. Shaer was commissioned and placed in command of the Southern District, the units were poorly equipped and outdated equipment
8.
Tennessee Army National Guard
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The Tennessee Army National Guard is a component of the United States Army and the United States National Guard. Nationwide, the Army National Guard comprises approximately one half of the US Armys available combat forces, National coordination of various state National Guard units are maintained through the National Guard Bureau. Tennessee Army National Guard units are trained and equipped as part of the United States Army, the same ranks and insignia are used and National Guardsmen are eligible to receive all United States military awards. The Tennessee Guard also bestows a number of awards for local services rendered in or to the state of Tennessee. State lawmakers set up the conditions under which the force would operate. Tennessee was among the first states to offer her full quota of soldiers for the Spanish–American War, the equipped Tennessee Guard units were mobilized. Four regiments were created, but only the 1st and 4th Regiments deployed overseas, in World War I, the 30th Infantry Division was deployed overseas. Tennessee personnel made up the 117th Infantry Regiment, the 114th and 115th Artillery, when the 30th Infantry Division reorganized on 11 September 1947 it was composed of Guard units from North Carolina and Tennessee. In 1954 it was reorganized as a North‑South Carolina division with the Tennessee portion reorganized and redesignated as the 30th Armored Division, the 30th Armored Division was inactivated on 1 December 1973, with its lineage carried by the 30th Armored Brigade and the 30th Support Group, TN ARNG. The 194th Engineer Brigade was activated as an entity of the Tennessee Army National Guard on 1 November 1973 and this occurred as a result of the major reorganization of the Tennessee ARNG which deactivated the 30th Armored Division. The numerical designation was derived from a former Engineer unit of the Tennessee Army National Guard, more than 3,600 Tennessee Guardsmen responded to Operations Desert Shield and Storm. The 196th Field Artillery Brigade was one of only two Army Guard combat units to see actual combat, the Tennessee Army deployed 17 units during the conflict. A few days prior to G-Day, Tennessee’s 212th Engineer Company, attached to the 101st Airborne Division, broke through the border berm into enemy territory, building a six-lane road. The unit traversed six miles before the war began, becoming the first unit of the 101st into Iraq. 30th Armored Brigade furled its colors in Jackson, Tennessee in the early 1990s, the colors were passed to the 230th Area Support Group in Dyersburg, TN. The 230th has been deactivated since their return from Camp Arifjan, volume 1 By Francis Bernard Heitman Encyclopedia of United States Army insignia and uniforms By William K. Emerson. US Army Lineage And Honors Information Bibliography of Tennessee Army National Guard History compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History Tennessee Military Department Official Site
9.
Pancho Villa Expedition
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The Pancho Villa Expedition—now known officially in the United States as the Mexican Expedition but originally referred to as the Punitive Expedition, U. S. The expedition was launched in retaliation for Villas attack on the town of Columbus, New Mexico, the declared objective of the expedition by the Wilson administration was the capture of Villa. The Constitutionalist forces used arms at the town of Parral to resist passage of a U. S. Army column, the U. S. mission was changed to prevent further attacks on it by Mexican troops and to plan for war in the eventuality it broke out. When war was averted diplomatically, the expedition remained in Mexico until February 1917 to encourage Carranzas government to pursue Villa, feeling betrayed, Villa began attacking U. S. nationals and their property in northern Mexico. On November 26,1915, Villa sent a force to attack the city of Nogales and in the course of the ensuing battle, engaged with American forces before withdrawing. On January 11,1916, sixteen American employees of the American Smelting and Refining Company were removed from a train near Santa Isabel, Chihuahua, brigadier General John J. Raids were so commonplace, however, that the rumor was not seen as credible. Ten civilians and eight soldiers were killed in the attack, the raiders burned the town, stole horses and mules, and seized machine guns, ammunition and merchandise, before fleeing back to Mexico. However, Villas soldiers had suffered losses, with at least sixty-seven dead. Many of the casualties were inflicted when the machine gun troop of the 13th Cavalry led by 2nd Lt. John P, about thirteen of Villas wounded later died of their wounds, and five wounded Villistas taken prisoner by the Americans were tried and hanged for murder. Local lore in Columbus holds that the attack may have been caused by a merchant in Columbus who supplied Villa with arms and ammunition. Villa is said to have several thousand dollars in cash for the weapons. The next day, acting on the recommendations of the commanders of his cavalry regiments and this can and will be done in entirely friendly aid to the constituted authorities in Mexico and with scrupulous respect for the sovereignty of that Republic. The 2nd Provisional Cavalry Brigade reached Colonia Dublán after dark on March 17, the entire squadron flew to the advanced camp at Colonia Dublán on March 19–20, losing two aircraft in the process. Pershing immediately sent the 7th Cavalry south just after midnight on March 18 to begin the pursuit, persistent winter weather through early April, particularly bitterly cold nights at high altitude, made both pursuit and logistics more difficult. An additional regiment of cavalry and two of infantry were added to the expedition in late April, bringing its size to 4,800 men. This was the first use of convoys in a U. S. military operation. His headquarters advanced as far as the 1st Aero Squadrons field at Satevó, southeast of Chihuahua City, before falling back at the end of April. Villa had a head start on the pursuit, all but ensuring that his forces would successfully break up into smaller bands
10.
39th Infantry Division (United States)
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The 39th Infantry Division was an infantry formation of the Army National Guard, originally formed as the 18th Division in 1917. The division consisted of troops from Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi, after training at Camp Beauregard, Louisiana, the division was deployed to France but did not see combat before the end of World War I. In July 1923 the division was re-designated as the 31st Infantry Division, the 39th Infantry Division was reactivated after World War II with troops from Louisiana and Arkansas and its headquarters in Louisiana. In 1967, the 39th Infantry Division was reorganized to become the 39th Infantry Brigade and its headquarters was in Little Rock, Arkansas and the unit consisted entirely of troops from the Arkansas Army National Guard. In July 1917, it was announced that National Guard units from Arkansas, Mississippi, Alexandria is the location of Camp Beauregard, named after General P. G. T. Beauregard, C. S. A. Upon transfer to Camp Beauregard, all National Guard units were stripped of their state designations, at this time the division of troops from Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi was re-designated the 39th Division. The 39th Delta Division was composed of, Sickness was a problem for the National Guard troops while at Camp Beauregard, in the later part of October 1917, measles kept the men from drilling. In January 1918, the National Guard Reserve was transferred to the active list, in the same month, the town of Alexandria was placed off limits, and soldiers could not visit other regiments because of an outbreak of meningitis. The off-limits order lasted until 6 March 1918, the soldiers were instructed in the use of deadly gases and then exposed to tear gas, which complicated the health concerns. The soldiers complained about the bugs and were anxious to go to France, by March 1918, the soldiers had received new Enfield rifles. Camp Beauregard was struck with Spanish influenza in early October 1918, all available facilities were used when the hospitals became overcrowded. The 39th Division was brought up to strength with the addition of soldiers from Ohio, Illinois, the entire 39th Division passed in review for the governors of Mississippi and Louisiana in April. The army units already engaged in theater were suffering from a personnel shortage, the army had no system for providing replacement soldiers for unit losses. In May 1918, the army offered privates the opportunity to volunteer for duty overseas by agreeing to transfer out of the 39th Division, in the rush to help end the war, officers resigned their commissions so they would qualify for duty overseas before the war was over. Shortly thereafter, Private Robert Springer was the first state guardsman to lose his life in France, approximately 20 percent of the soldiers of the 39th Division were allowed to volunteer to deploy as individual replacements. In June 1918 the individual replacements arrived in France, the officers remained at Camp Beauregard with the other 80 per cent that were still in training. At Camp Beauregard the division was brought to strength by the arrival of troops from Camp Zachary Taylor. It took 12 months for the entire 39th Division organization to reach France, the 39th Division, less its artillery units, left Camp Beauregard on 1 August, and sailed for overseas service on 6 August 1918
11.
United States Army Coast Artillery Corps
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The U. S. Army Coast Artillery Corps was a corps level organization responsible for coastal, harbor, and anti-aircraft defense of the United States between 1901 and 1950. The CAC also operated heavy and railway artillery during World War I, as early as 1882 the need for heavy fixed artillery for seacoast defense was noted in Chester A. In 1885 the Endicott Board was convened under the subsequent Grover Cleveland administration and this board recommended a large-scale program of harbor defenses at 29 ports, including guns, mortars, and mine fields. Most of their recommendations were implemented and new defenses were constructed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers 1895-1905, as the defenses were constructed, each harbor or rivers installations were controlled by Artillery Districts, renamed Coast Defense Commands in 1913 and Harbor Defense Commands in 1925. An extensive fire control system was developed and provided for the forts of each Coast Artillery District, Army leaders realized that heavy fixed artillery required different training programs and tactics than mobile field artillery. Prior to 1901 each of the seven artillery regiments contained both heavy and light artillery batteries, in February 1901 the Artillery Corps was divided into two types, field artillery and coast artillery. The previous seven artillery regiments were dissolved, and 30 numbered companies of artillery and 126 numbered companies of coast artillery were authorized. 82 existing heavy artillery batteries were designated as coast artillery companies, the company-based organization was for flexibility, as each harbor defense command was differently equipped and a task-based organization was needed. The Coast Artillery would alternate between small unit and regimental organization several times over its history, the head of the Artillery Corps became the Chief of Artillery in the rank of brigadier general with jurisdiction over both types of artillery. The Coast Artillery became responsible for the installation and operation of the mine fields that were planted to be under observation, fired electrically. The mine component was considered to be among the armament of coastal defense works. In 1905, after the experiences of the Spanish–American War, President Theodore Roosevelt appointed a new board on fortifications and they updated some standards and reviewed the progress of the Endicott boards program. Most of the changes recommended by this board were technical, such as adding more searchlights, electrification, the board also recommended fortifications in territories acquired from Spain, Cuba and the Philippines, as well as Hawaii and a few other sites. Defenses in Panama were authorized by the Spooner Act of 1902, due to rapid development of the dreadnought battleship type, a new 14-inch gun was introduced in a few locations, primarily Los Angeles, the Philippines, and Panama. The Taft program fortifications differed slightly in construction and had fewer numbers of guns at a given location than those of the Endicott program. By the beginning of World War I, the United States had a defense system that was equal to any other nation. The rapidity of technological advances and changing techniques increasingly separated coastal defenses from field artillery, officers were rarely qualified to command both, requiring specialization. National Guard coast artillery units were formed by the states to attempt to bring the CAC up to strength in wartime
12.
United States Army Center of Military History
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The United States Army Center of Military History is a directorate within the Office of the Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Army. The center is responsible for the use of history and military records throughout the United States Army. Traditionally, this mission has meant recording the history of the army in both peace and war, while advising the army staff on historical matters. CMH is the organization leading the Army Historical Program. The center traces its lineage back to historians under the Secretary of War who compiled the Official Records of the Rebellion, a similar work on World War I was prepared by the Historical Section of the Army War College. They began publication of the United States Army in World War II series, since then, the Center has produced detailed series on the Armys role in the Korean and Vietnam Wars and has begun a series on the U. S. Army in the Cold War. These works are supplemented by monographs and other publications on a mix of topics and it has expanded its role in the areas of military history education, the management of the armys museum system, and the introduction of automated data-retrieval systems. The centers work with army schools ensures that the study of history is a part of the training of officers, much of this educational work is performed at field historical offices and in army museums. Under the direction of the chief of military history and his principal adviser and those works under way and projected are described in the Army Historical Program, an annual report to the Chief of Staff on the Army’s historical activities. All center publications are listed in the catalog Publications of the United States Army Center of Military History, CMH also serves as a clearinghouse for the oral history programs in the army at all levels of command. It also conducts and preserves its own oral history collections, including those from the Vietnam War, Desert Storm, in addition, the center’s end-of-tour interviews within the Army Secretariat and Staff provide a basis for its annual histories of the Department of the Army. As tangible representations of the mission, military artifacts and art enhance the soldier’s understanding of the profession of arms. CMH manages a system of more than 120 army museums and their holdings, current projects include the establishment of a National Army Museum at Fort Belvoir, Virginia, and a complementary Army Heritage and Educational Center at Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. The Chief of Military History is responsible for ensuring the use of military history in the teaching of strategy, tactics, logistics. This mission includes a requirement that military leaders at all levels be aware of the value of history in advancing military professionalism, in this effort, the chief of military history is assisted by a historical advisory committee that includes leading academic historians and representatives of the army school system. Staff rides enable military leaders to retrace the course of a battle on the ground, as one of the army’s major teaching devices, staff rides are particularly dependent on a careful knowledge of military history. Center historians lead rides directed by the Secretary of the Army and it administers the army’s Command History Program, to provide historical support to army organizations worldwide. To stimulate interest in history in the army and the nation
13.
Gulf War
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The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991
14.
Arkansas Army National Guard and the Korean War
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The history of the Arkansas Army National Guard and Korean War begins with the reorganization of the Arkansas Army National Guard following World War II. During this period, the Arkansas Air National Guard became a component of the Arkansas National Guard. The Arkansas Army National Guard provided Field Artillery and Medical units in support of operations in Korea. The 39th Infantry Division was reconstituted on 30 September 1946 and it was composed of units Arkansas and Louisiana, with its headquarters stationed at Jackson Barracks in New Orleans, Louisiana and the Arkansas portion headquartered in Little Rock, Arkansas. It arrived in Korea February 10,1951 and fired its first combat mission March 30,1951, the unit provided fire support to 3rd, 25th and 1st Republic of Korea Division as well as the 1st Cavalry Division. The 936th fired 348,547 combat rounds in Korea and suffered 10 killed in action and 28 wounded in action, the battalion was deactivated September 25,1954. The battalion was awarded battle streamers for the campaigns, First U. N. Counteroffensive CCF Spring Offensive UN Spring Offensive UN Summer – Fall Offensive Second Korean Winter. The 937th Field Artillery Battalion was mobilized on the day as the 936th and moved to Fort Hood. It arrived in Korea on the ship as the 936th. The battalion went in to line with the I Corps on April 30 near Uijongbu, during the Chinese Spring Drive the battalion fell back to Seoul and was moved to IX Corps. Battery A continued with X Corps and was attached to the 1st Marine Division, on May 17,1952 the Battalion was attached to 2nd Division, IX Corps. For the action with 2nd Division, Battery C and Headquarters Battery received the Distinguished Unit Citation, the battalion continued in general support to IX Corps from July 28,1953 until October 9,1954. The 937th fired 223,400 combat rounds in Korea and suffered 13 killed in action and 156 wounded in action, the battalion was deactivated November 26,1954. The 217th Medical Company was mobilized August 2,1950, and underwent training at Fort Benning, the Company departed Fort Lawton, Washington, for January 15,1951, and arrived in Yokohama, Japan on February 2,1951. The unit then moved to Kyoto, Japan for training until May 3,1951, the unit arrived in Pusan, Korea May 4,1951. The 217th conducted its basic mission of air evacuation of patients to Japan in an area from Pusan north to Seoul, Headquarters Platoon and 1st Platoon were stationed at the K-9 Airbase near Pusan. 2nd Platoon was stationed near Pusan, the 3rd Platoon was stationed near Uljomgby and 4th Platoon was stationed near Chucuhon and Yomdgumgpo, many Soldiers who were drafted were later assigned to mobilized Guard units. Corporal Donald Osbourn Captain Paul Blew Private First Class Fred Rose, Jr
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Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
United States of America
Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 142nd Field Artillery Brigade
1st Battalion, 117th Field Artillery Regiment- affiliated with the 142nd FAB but routinely under the administrative control of the Alabama Army National Guard's 226th Maneuver Enhancement Brigade
1st Battalion, 142nd Field Artillery Regiment- Arkansas Army National Guard
1st Battalion, 181st Field Artillery Regiment- affiliated with the 142nd FAB but routinely under the administrative control of the Tennessee Army National Guard (This unit may have inactivated in 2017).
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the