1.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
2.
Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
3.
Soviet Air Forces
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The Soviet Air Forces was the official designation of one of the air forces of the Soviet Union. The other was the Soviet Air Defence Forces, the Air Forces were formed from components of the Imperial Russian Air Service in 1917, and faced their greatest test during World War II. The groups were involved in the Korean War, and dissolved along with the Soviet Union itself in 1991–92. Former Soviet Air Forces assets were divided into several air forces of former Soviet republics. March of the Pilots was its anthem, the All-Russia Collegium for Direction of the Air Forces of the Old Army was formed on 20 December 1917. This was a Bolshevik aerial headquarters initially led by Konstantin Akashev and it became the Directorate of the USSR Air Forces on 28 March 1924, and then the Directorate of the Workers-Peasants Red Army Air Forces on 1 January 1925. Gradually its influence on aircraft design became greater, from its earliest days, the force mimicked ground forces organization especially in the 1930s, by which time it was made up of air armies, aviation corps, aviation divisions, and aviation regiments. At first, the I-16 proved superior to any Luftwaffe fighters, however, the Soviets refused to supply the plane in adequate numbers, and their aerial victories were soon squandered because of their limited use. Later, Bf-109s delivered to Francos Spanish Nationalist air forces secured air superiority for the Nationalists, on 19 November 1939, VVS headquarters was again titled the Main Directorate of the Red Army Air Forces under the WPRA HQ. Between 1933 and 1938, the Soviet government planned and funded missions to break numerous world aviation records, not only did aviation records and achievements become demonstrations of the USSRs technological progress, they also served as legitimization of the socialist system. With each new success, Soviet press trumpeted victories for socialism, furthermore, Soviet media idolized record-breaking pilots, exalting them not only as role models for Soviet society, but also as symbols of progress towards the socialist-utopian future. The early 1930s saw a shift in focus away from collectivist propaganda. In the case of aviation, the government began glorifying people who utilized aviation technology instead of glorifying the technology itself. Pilots such as Valery Chkalov, Georgy Baydukov, Alexander Belyakov, in May 1937, Stalin charged pilots Chkalov, Baydukov, and Belyakov with the mission to navigate the first transpolar flight in history. On 20 June 1937, the aviators landed their ANT-25 in Vancouver, a month later, Stalin ordered the departure of a second crew to push the boundaries of modern aviation technology even further. The public reaction to the flights was euphoric. The media called the pilots Bolshevik knights of culture and progress, Soviet citizens celebrated Aviation Day on 18 August with as much zeal as they celebrated the October Revolution anniversary. Literature including poems, short stories, and novels emerged celebrating the feats of the aviator-celebrities, feature films like Victory, Tales of Heroic Aviators, and Valery Chkalov reinforced the positive hero imagery, celebrating the aviators individuality within the context of a socialist government
4.
Ukrainian Air Force
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The Ukrainian Air Force is a part of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. Ukrainian Air Force headquarters is located in the city of Vinnytsia, when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, a large number of aircraft were left on Ukrainian territory. Ever since, the Ukrainian air force has been downsizing and upgrading its forces, in spite of these efforts, the main inventory of the air force consists of Soviet-made aircraft. Currently 36,300 personnel and 144 aircraft are in service in the Ukrainian air force and air defense forces, all ICBMs and strategic bombers have been taken out of service. Since 1991s Ukrainian independence the air force has suffered from chronic underinvestment, the air force currently takes part in the War in Donbass. Following the 5 September 2014 ceasefire Ukraine Air Force has been forbidden from carrying out missions in the areas of Donbass. The major mission of the Air Force is to protect the air space of Ukraine, in peace-time, this is carried out by flying air-space control missions over the entire territory of Ukraine, and by preventing air space intrusion along the aerial borders. Every single day, more than 2,200 service personnel and civilian employees of the Air Force, employing 400 items of weapons, on average, the Ukrainian radar forces detect and track more than 1,000 targets daily. As a result, in 2006 two illegal crossings of the border were prevented and 28 violations of Ukrainian air space were prevented. Due to such increased strengthening of air control, the number of air space violations decreased by 35% compared to the previous year. Previously during the World War I on the Eastern Front, Pavlenko was in charge of air security of the Russian Stavka. Sometimes in 1918 the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic created its own aviation corps with the Ukrainian Galician Army headed by Petro Franko, in 1918 he organized an aviation school of the Ukrainian Galician Army Command Center which was active until 1920. Among the airplanes used by the Ukrainian aviation were Belgium-built SPAD S. VIIs, the Ukrainian Galician Army used Nieuport 17 biplanes. The Ukrainian Air Force was established on March 17,1992, the headquarters of the 24th Air Army of the Soviet Air Force in Vinnytsia served as the basis to create Air Force headquarters. Also present on Ukrainian soil were units of the former Soviet 5th, 14th, in addition, the 161st Maritime Fighter Aviation Regiment, at Limanskoye in Odessa Oblast, came under Ukrainian control. It had formerly been part of the 119th Maritime Fighter Aviation Division of the Black Sea Fleet, the new Air Force inherited the 184th Guards Heavy Bomber Aviation Regiment of Tupolev Tu-160 Blackjack which were based at Pryluky. Discussions with Russia concerning their return bogged down, the main bone of contention was the price. While Russian experts, who examined the aircraft at Pryluky in 1993 and 1996, assessed their technical condition as good, the negotiations led to nowhere and in April 1998, Ukraine decided to commence scrapping the aircraft under the Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Agreement
5.
Lviv
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Lviv, the largest city in western Ukraine and the seventh largest city in the country overall, is one of the main cultural centres of Ukraine. Named in honor of the Leo, the eldest son of Rus King Daniel of Galicia. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia from 1272 to 1349, from 1434, it was the regional capital of the Ruthenian Voivodeship in the Kingdom of Poland and was known as Lwów. In 1772, after the First partition of Poland, the city became the capital of the Habsburg Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria and was renamed to Lemberg, in 1918 in a short time was the capital of the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic. Between the wars, the city was again as Lwów and was the centre of the Lwów Voivodeship in the Second Polish Republic. After World War II, it part of the Soviet Union. Administratively, Lviv serves as the center of Lviv Oblast and has the status of city of oblast significance. Lviv was the centre of the region of Galicia. The historical heart of the city, with its old buildings and cobblestone streets, survived Soviet, the city has many industries and institutions of higher education such as Lviv University and Lviv Polytechnic. Lviv is also the home of many cultural institutions, including a philharmonic orchestra. The historic city centre is on the UNESCO World Heritage List, Lviv celebrated its 750th anniversary with a son et lumière in the center of the city in September 2006. Lviv is located on the edge of the Roztochia Upland, approximately 70 kilometers from the Polish border and 160 kilometers from the eastern Carpathian Mountains, the average altitude of Lviv is 296 meters above sea level. Its highest point is the Vysokyi Zamok,409 meters above sea level and this castle has a commanding view of the historic city centre with its distinctive green-domed churches and intricate architecture. The old walled city was at the foothills of the High Castle on the banks of the River Poltva, in the 13th century, the river was used to transport goods. Lvivs climate is continental with cold winters and mild summers. The average temperatures are −3.1 °C in January and 18.3 °C in July, the average annual rainfall is 745 mm with the maximum being in summer. Lviv approximately receives 1,804 hours of sunshine annually, archaeologists have demonstrated that the Lviv area was settled by the 5th century. The area between the Castle Hill and the river Poltva was continuously settled since the 9th century, in 1977 it was discovered that the Orthodox church of St. Nicholas had been built on a previously functioning cemetery
6.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
7.
Order of the Red Banner
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The Order of the Red Banner was the first Soviet military decoration. The order was established on 16 September 1918, during the Russian Civil War by decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and it was the highest award of Soviet Russia, subsequently the Soviet Union, until the Order of Lenin was established in 1930. Recipients were recognised for extraordinary heroism, dedication, and courage demonstrated on the battlefield, the order was awarded to individuals as well as to military units, cities, ships, political and social organizations, and state enterprises. In later years it was awarded on the twentieth and again on the thirtieth anniversary of military service without requiring participation in combat. The Russian Order of the Red Banner was established during the Russian Civil War by decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of September 16,1918, the first recipient was Vasily Blyukher on September 28,1918. The second recipient was Iona Yakir, during the Civil War there existed similarly named orders and decorations established by the Soviet communist governments of several other constituent and nonconstituent republics. The August 1,1924 decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee established the all-Soviet Order of the Red Banner for deserving personnel of the Red Army, from 1918 till the late 1930s there was also a collective variant - the Revolutionary Red Banner of Honor. This was in the form of a military color awarded to distinguished Red Army, Soviet Air Force and it was more older than the order, having been established on August 3, a month and several weeks before. As a military decoration, The Order of the Red Banner recognised heroism in combat or otherwise extraordinary accomplishments of military valour during combat operations. Before the establishment of the Order of Lenin on April 5,1930, during World War II, under various titles, it was presented both to individuals and to units for acts of extreme military heroism. Nearly all well-known Soviet commanders became recipients of the Order of the Red Banner, the order was awarded to individuals as well as whole formations, which then added the prefix Red Banner to their official designations. Naval vessels also flew a special ensign, the Order of the Red Banner was also used as a long service award between 1944 and 1958 to mark twenty and thirty years of service in the military, state security, or police. This was surrounded by two golden panicles of wheat, at the bottom were the letters SSSR, additional awards of the Order bore a white enamelled shield with a silver sequence number at the bottom of the obverse. A recipient of three Orders of the Red Banner would wear a badge of the order followed by his second award bearing a number 2. The early variants of the Order were screw back badges to wear on clothing. Later variants hung from a standard Soviet pentagonal mount with a ring through the suspension loop, the mount was covered with an overlapping 24mm wide red silk moiré ribbon with 1. 5mm wide white edge stripes and a 7mm wide white central stripe. The Order of the Red Banner was worn on the side of the chest. If worn in the presence of Orders or medals of the Russian Federation, pavel Dybenko won 3 Orders of the Red Banner, his first in the 1921 bloody suppression of the naval rebellion in Kronstadt, his 2 others in 1922 in the suppression of peasants uprisings
8.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
9.
Post-Soviet states
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On March 11,1990, Lithuania was the first to declare its independence, with Estonia and Latvia following suit in August 1991. All three Baltic states claimed continuity from the states that existed prior to their annexation by the Soviet Union in 1944 and were admitted to the United Nations on 17 September 1991. The remaining 12 republics all subsequently seceded,12 of the 15 states, excluding the Baltic states, initially formed the CIS and most joined CSTO, while the Baltic states focused on European Union and NATO membership. The 15 post-Soviet states are divided into the following five groupings. Each of these regions has its own set of traits, owing not only to geographic and cultural factors. In addition, there are a number of de facto independent, the dissolution of the Soviet Union took place as a result and against the backdrop of general economic stagnation, even regression. In all, the process triggered severe economic declines, with Gross Domestic Product dropping by more than 40% overall between 1990 and 1995. This decline in GDP was much more intense than the 27% decline that the United States suffered in the wake of the Great Depression between 1930 and 1934. The economic shocks associated with wholesale privatization resulted in the deaths of roughly 1 million working age individuals throughout the former Soviet bloc in the 1990s, by 2007,10 of the 15 post-Soviet states had recovered and reached GDP greater than what they had in 1991. Only Moldova, Ukraine, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan had GDP significantly below the 1991 level, the recovery in Russia was marginal, with GDP in 2006-2007 just nudging above the 1991 level. Combined with the aftershocks of the 1998 economic crisis it led to a return of more interventionist economic policies by Vladimir Putins administration. Change in Gross Domestic Product in constant prices, 1991-2015 *Economy of most Soviet republics started to decline in 1989-1990, **The year when GDP decline switched to GDP growth. List of the present Gross domestic product, The post-Soviet states listed according to their Human Development Index scores, only organizations that are mainly composed of post-Soviet states are listed in this section, organizations with wider memberships are not discussed. The 15 post-Soviet states are divided in their participation to the blocs, Belarus, Russia. It was conceived as an organization to the USSR. It currently consists of nine of the 15 former Soviet republics, with one participating state, Georgia withdrew from the CIS in August 2008. The sole exception to the above has been their recent membership in the Community of Democratic Choice, the Central Asian states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan are members of the CIS and participate in several regional organizations that have Russia as a primary mover. Such organizations are the Eurasian Economic Community, Collective Security Treaty Organization, the last two groups only became distinct once Uzbekistan withdrew from GUAM and sought membership in EurAsEc and CSTO
10.
Volkhov Front
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The Volkhov Front was a major formation of the Red Army during the first period of the Second World War. It was formed as an expediency of an attempt to halt the advance of the Wehrmacht Army Group North in its offensive thrust towards Leningrad. Initially the front operated to the south of Leningrad, with its flank on Lake Ladoga. I. Zaporozhets, initially Sokolovs 26th Army and Galanins 59th Armies were allocated to the Fronts formation. The Front also included Meretskovs 4th Army and Klykovs 52nd Army, the Fronts air support was provided by the 14th Air Army of General-Major I. P. The 8th Army that was formed in early January was also added to the Front, initially the Front held a frontage of 250 km. The Fronts neighbouring formations were the 54th Army of the Leningrad Front, andrey Vlasov was named Deputy Commander under Meretskov and in charge of the 2nd Shock Army. On January 7,1942, he spearheaded the Lyuban Offensive Operation to break the Leningrad encirclement, crossing the Volkhov River Vlasovs army was successful in breaking through the German Eighteenth Army lines and penetrated 70–74 km deep inside the German rear area. The other armies, however, failed to provide the required support, with the counter-offensive in May 1942, the Second Shock Army was finally allowed to retreat, but by now, too weakened, it was annihilated. Vlasov was taken prisoner by the Wehrmacht troops on July 6,1942, the Front was disbanded and its elements reorganised as the Volkhov Operational Group and incorporated into the Leningrad Front on 23 April 1942. Tikhvinsk strategic offensive operation of 1941 Tikhvinsk-Kirishsk offensive operation of 1941 Malo-Vishersk offensive operation of 1941 Lyubansk offensive operation of 1942. A, on the service of the nation. At Leningrads Gates, The Story of a Soldier with Army Group North, Philadelphia, PA, Casemate,2006
11.
Aeroflot
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OJSC Aeroflot – Russian Airlines, commonly known as Aeroflot, is the flag carrier and largest airline of the Russian Federation. The carrier operates domestic and international passenger and services, mainly from its hub at Sheremetyevo International Airport, Aeroflot is one of the oldest airlines in the world, tracing its history back to 1923. During the Soviet era, Aeroflot was the Soviet national airline, following the dissolution of the USSR, the carrier has been transformed from a state-run enterprise into a semi-privatised company which ranked 19th most profitable airline in the world in 2007. Aeroflot is still considered the de facto national airline of Russia and it is 51%-owned by the Russian Government. As of September 2013, the Aeroflot Group had 30,328 employees, the company has embarked on a fleet modernisation programme, extensive route restructuring, and an image overhaul. The airline joined SkyTeam in April 2006, becoming the 10th member of the alliance, on 17 January 1921, the Sovnarkom of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic published About Air Transportation. The document signed by Lenin set out the regulations on air transport over the territory of the RSFSR. The document was significant as it was the first time that a Russian state had declared sovereignty over its airspace, in addition, the document defined rules for the operation of foreign aircraft over the Soviet Unions airspace and territory. After Lenin issued an order, a State Commission was formed on 31 January 1921 for the purpose of civil aviation planning in the Soviet Union. This was followed by the formation of Deruluft-Deutsch Russische Luftverkehrs A. G. in Berlin on 11 November 1921, as a joint venture between the Soviet Union and Germany. The company, whose aircraft were registered in both Germany and the Soviet Union, began operations on 1 May 1922 with a Fokker F. III flying between Königsberg and Moscow, the service was initially operated twice a week and restricted to the carriage of mail. On 3 February 1923 Sovnarkom approved plans for the expansion of the Red Air Fleet, the artist Alexander Rodchenko became involved in the ODVF at this time. He designed posters encouraging citizens to buy stock in Dobrolet and the famous Winged Hammer, regular flights by Dobrolet from Moscow to Nizhniy Novgorod commenced on 15 July 1923. During the same period, an additional two airlines were established, Zakavia being based in Tiflis, and Ukrvozdukhput based in Kharkov, during 1923 an agreement was signed establishing a subdivision of Dobrolet to be based in Tashkent, which would operate to points in Soviet Central Asia. Services between Tashkent and Alma Ata began on 27 April 1924, and by the end of 1924 the subdivision had carried 480 passengers and 500 kilograms of mail and freight, in March 1924, Dobrolet began operating flights from Sevastopol to Yalta and Yevpatoriya in the Crimea. Dobrolets route network was extended during the 1925–1927 period to include Kazan, plans were made for Dobrolet flights to Kharkov to connect with Ukrvozdukhput services to Kiev, Odessa and Rostov-on-Don. Expansion of air routes which had taken shape in the late 1920s, the agreement between the Soviet Union and Germany relating to Deruluft expired on 1 January 1937 and wasnt renewed, which saw the joint venture carrier ceasing operations on 1 April 1937. On that date Aeroflot began operations on the Moscow to Stockholm route, under the third Five-Year Plan, which began in 1938, civil aviation development continued, with improvements to airport installations being made and construction of airports being commenced
12.
Warsaw Pact
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The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, the regional economic organization for the communist states of Central and Eastern Europe. While the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to NATO, instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and in proxy wars. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and its largest military engagement was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968, which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than a month later. The Pact began to unravel in its entirety with the spread of the Revolutions of 1989 through the Eastern Bloc, beginning with the Solidarity movement in Poland, East Germany and Poland withdrew from the Pact in 1990. On 25 February 1991, the Pact was declared at an end at a meeting of defence, the USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although most of the former Soviet republics formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization shortly thereafter. Throughout the following 20 years, the seven Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO, in the Western Bloc, the Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance is often called the Warsaw Pact military alliance—abbreviated WAPA, Warpac, and WP. Therefore, although ostensibly an international collective security alliance, the USSR dominated the Warsaw Treaty armed forces, the strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by the desire of the Soviet Union to dominate Central and Eastern Europe. The Soviets wanted to keep their part of Europe theirs and not let the Americans take it from them and this policy was driven by ideological and geostrategic reasons. Ideologically, the Soviet Union arrogated the right to define socialism and communism, geostrategic principles also drove the Soviet Union to prevent invasion of its territory by Western European powers. Before the creation of the Warsaw Pact, Czechoslovak leadership, fearful of a rearmed Germany, sought to create a security pact with East Germany and these states protested strongly against the re-militarization of West Germany. The Warsaw Pact was primarily put in place as a consequence of the rearming of West Germany inside NATO, Soviet leaders, like many European countries on both sides of the Iron Curtain, feared Germany being once again a military power and a direct threat. The terrible consequences of German militarism remained a fresh memory among the Soviets, previously, in March 1954, the USSR, fearing the restoration of German militarism in West Germany, requested admission to NATO. The Soviet request to join NATO arose in the aftermath of the Berlin Conference of January–February 1954. James Dunn, who met in Paris with Eden, Adenauer and Robert Schuman, affirmed that the object should be to avoid discussion with the Russians, according to John Gaddis there was little inclination in Western capitals to explore this offer from USSR. But Eden, Dulles and Bidault opposed the proposal, the Soviets then decided to make a new proposal to the governments of the USA, UK and France to accept the participation of the USA in the proposed General European Agreement. Again all proposals, including the request to join NATO, were rejected by the UK, US, emblematic was the position of British General Hastings Ismay, supporter of NATO expansion, who said that NATO must grow until the whole free world gets under one umbrella. He opposed the request to join NATO made by the USSR in 1954 saying that the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force, in April 1954 Adenauer made his first visit to the USA meeting Nixon, Eisenhower and Dulles. Ratification of EDC was delaying but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that EDC would have to become a part of NATO, memories of the Nazi occupation were still strong, and the rearmament of Germany was feared by France too
13.
Ivano-Frankivsk International Airport
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Ivano-Frankivsk International Airport, Ukrainian Міжнародний аеропорт Івано-Франківськ is an airport in Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine, some 4.4 km by road from the town center. Ivano-Frankivsk airport is an airport and has maintained border and customs operations since 1992. The airport is located at the site of the village of Opryshivtsi. Its traffic capacity is claimed to be 400 passengers per hour, a second concrete runway,6,325 ft long, is now used by the military as a parking lot, and a large apron is still in use by the Ukrainian Air Force. Data current as of October 2006
14.
Lutsk Air Base
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Lutsk Military is an air base in Ukraine located 4 km north of Lutsk. It is a military base with a long tarmac with several reveted areas. It was home to 806th Fighter-Bomber Aviation Regiment which flew Su-17 aircraft as recently as 1992 and it currently serves as storage base for Sukhoi Su-24 bombers. From 1945 to 1992, the regiment was part of the 289th Division of the 57th Air Army, then the 14th Air Army, then the Air Forces of the Carpathian Military District, holm, 806th Bomber Aviation Regiment, accessed August 2011
15.
Kolomyia
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Kolomyia or Kolomyya, formerly known as Kolomea, is a city located on the Prut River in the Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast, in western Ukraine. It is administratively incorporated as a town of oblast significance and serves as the centre of the surrounding Kolomyia Raion. The city rests approximately halfway between Ivano-Frankivsk and Chernivtsi, in the center of the region of Pokuttya, with which it shares much of its history. The city is a railroad hub, as well as an industrial center. It is a center of Hutsul culture, at the turn of the 20th century the city was the most populous city in Stanislawow voivodeship. The settlement of Kolomyia was first mentioned by the Hypatian Chronicle in 1240, initially part of Kievan Rus, it later belonged to one of its successor states, the principality of Halych-Volhynia. On the order of Boroldai, the city fortress was burnt down in 1259, in 1340 it was annexed to Poland by King Casimir III, together with the rest of the region of Red Ruthenia. Sometime in the 1340s another fortress was erected here, in a short time the settlement became one of the most notable centres of commerce in the area. Because of that, the population rose rapidly, prior to 1353 there were two parishes in the settlement, one for Catholics and the other for Orthodox. In 1412 King Władysław Jagiełło erected a Dominican order monastery and a church there. About the same time, the king was forced by the war with the Teutonic Order to pawn the area of Pokucie to the hospodar of Moldavia, Alexander. Although the city remained under Polish sovereignty, the income of the offices in the area was given to the Moldavians. In 1405 the towns city rights were confirmed and it was granted with the Magdeburg Law and this move made the development of the area faster and Kołomyja, as it was called then, attracted many settlers from many parts of Europe. Apart from the local Ukrainians and Poles, many Armenians, Jews, in 1411 the fortress-city was given away for 25 years to the Vlach Hospodar Olexander as a gift for his support in the war against Hungary. In 1443, a year before his death, King Wladislaus II of Poland granted the city yet another privilege which allowed the burghers to trade salt, one of the most precious minerals of the Middle Ages. Since the castle fell into disarray, in 1448 King Casimir IV of Poland gave the castle on the hill above the town to Maria, widow of Eliah. In exchange, she refurbished the castle and reinforced it, in 1456 the town was granted yet another privilege. This time the king allowed the authorities to stop all merchants passing by the town
16.
Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast
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Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast is an oblast in western Ukraine. Its administrative center is the city of Ivano-Frankivsk, Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast is also known to Ukrainians by a deep-rooted alternative name, Prykarpattia. Along with the Lviv and Ternopil regions Prykarpattia is a component of the Carpathian Euroregion, during the times of the Second Polish Republic the area was known as Stanisławów Voivodeship and later, after the Soviet invasion of Poland, as Stanislav Oblast. Until the 20th century the center of the region was the city of Kolomyia. As with the rest of Ukraines oblasts Ivano-Frankivsk may also be known by its matronymical name Ivano-Frankivshchyna, however, that name did not receive general public acceptance and commonly Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast is almost always called Prykarpattya – a historic name for the same region. It is situated partly in the Eastern European Plain and partly Carpathian Foothills, the oblast may be divided into three regions, mountainous, pre-mountainous, and plains. The climate is mildly-continental and damp with cool summers and mild winters, the average monthly temperature in June is 18 °C with 12 to 16 °C in the mountains. The average monthly temperature in January is −4 °C with −6 °C in the mountains, average precipitation varies annually around 650 mm with 1,550 mm in the mountains. The region is situated two main regional tectonic plates, Carpathian fold belt and Volhynia-Podillya plate. The most prominent features of the first one are the Carpathian Mountains, the elevation of the oblast varies from 230m to 2, 061m above sea level. The mountains occupy almost one half of the whole Oblast and consist of two mountain ranges, the Gorgany and the Chornohora range. The rest of Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast is located within the Dniester river, the plains of the oblast are part of the Carpathian Foothills and Opillia Upland which are cut through by Dniester. The upland has a temperate-climate habitat mixed with grassland and woodland – also known as the forest steppe, the relief of the region consists mostly of rolling hills of 230-400m over the sea level. Near river valleys are common canyons and ravines, the Dniester flows mainly through the Halych Raion and along the administrative border between Ivano-Frankivsk and Ternopil Oblasts. The territory of the region within immediate proximity to the river is known as Opillia. Opillia, however, stretches far beyond the oblast and only two of its raions, Halych Raion and Rohatyn Raion, both located in the north. Relief in the consists of rolling hills uplands. Because of it near that area along Dniester relief shows forms of canyon, pokuttia Upland between Bystrytsia of Nadvirna and Prut River serves as drainage divide within the oblast between Dniester and Prut
17.
Armed Forces of Ukraine
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The Armed Forces of Ukraine is the military of Ukraine. They are the principal deterrent force against any aggression that could be shown against the state of Ukraine. The Armed Forces of Ukraine are composed of the Ukrainian Ground Forces, the Ukrainian Navy, the Ukrainian Air Force, Ukraines naval forces maintain their own small Ukrainian Naval Infantry force as well as their own Ukrainian Naval Aviation force. The Ukrainian Sea Guard is the coast guard service of Ukraine, initially these units received minimal funding coming from regional budgets and mostly relied on donations. In November 2014 most of the battalions were integrated into Ukraines Ground forces. National Guard of Ukraine serves as the reserve component of Armed Forces of Ukraine. Ukraines armed forces came close to France, which maintained a 229,000 man force and it was reported that Ukraines military swelled to 280,000 personnel. Hryhoriy Pedchenko reported that 51% of Ukraines enlisted personnel were contract soldiers, Military units of other states participate in multinational military exercises with Ukrainian forces in Ukraine regularly. Many of these exercises are held under the NATO co-operation program Partnership for Peace, since 3 June 2016 women are allowed to serve in combat units of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. The modern military in Ukraine was completely inherited from the Soviet Union, like other Soviet republics, it did not possess its own separate military command, as all military formations were uniformly subordinated to the central command of the Armed Forces of the USSR. Administratively the Ukrainian SSR was divided into three districts and most of the Black Sea Fleet naval bases were located on the coast of Ukraine. As the collapse of the Soviet Union took place in 1991, altogether the Armed Forces of Ukraine included about 780,000 personnel,6,500 tanks, about 7,000 combat armored vehicles,1,500 combat aircraft, and more than 350 ships. On 26 February 1991 a parliamentary Standing Commission for Questions of Security, on August 24,1991, the Ukrainian parliament, in adopting the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine, also enacted a short resolution About military formations in Ukraine. This took jurisdiction over all formations of the forces of the Soviet Union stationed on Ukrainian soil, and established one of the key agencies. On 3 September 1991 the Ministry of Defence commenced its duties, on 22 October 1991 units and formations of the Soviet Armed Forces on Ukrainian soil were nationalized. This was followed by two Laws of Ukraine that were adopted by the Supreme Council of Ukraine on December 6,1991, the government of Ukraine surrendered any rights of succession of the Soviet Strategic Deterrence Forces that were staged on the territory of Ukraine. Inherent in the process of creating a domestic military were political decisions by the Ukrainian leadership regarding the countrys non-nuclear, included in this region were Ukraines Mykolaiv, Kherson, Zaporizhia Oblasts, and the Autonomous Republic of Crimea. Another key event in the creation of the Ukrainian military was the 1992 Tashkent Treaty and this collective military proved impossible to develop because the former republics of the USSR all wished to go their own way, ripping the intricate Soviet military machine into pieces
18.
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union was dissolved on December 26,1991. It was a result of the declaration number 142-Н of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union and that evening at 7,32, the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time and replaced with the pre-revolutionary Russian flag. Previously, from August to December, all the individual republics, the week before the unions formal dissolution,11 republics signed the Alma-Ata Protocol formally establishing the CIS and declaring that the Soviet Union had ceased to exist. The Revolutions of 1989 and the dissolution of the USSR also signalled the end of the Cold War, on the other hand, only the Baltic states have joined NATO and the European Union. Mikhail Gorbachev was elected General Secretary by the Politburo on March 11,1985, Gorbachev, aged 54, was the youngest member of the Politburo. His initial goal as general secretary was to revive the Soviet economy, the reforms began with personnel changes of senior Brezhnev-era officials who would impede political and economic change. On April 23,1985, Gorbachev brought two protégés, Yegor Ligachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov, into the Politburo as full members. He kept the power ministries happy by promoting KGB Head Viktor Chebrikov from candidate to full member and this liberalisation, however, fostered nationalist movements and ethnic disputes within the Soviet Union. Under Gorbachevs leadership, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1989 introduced limited competitive elections to a new central legislature, in May 1985, Gorbachev delivered a speech in Leningrad advocating reforms and an anti-alcohol campaign to tackle widespread alcoholism. Prices of vodka, wine, and beer were raised in order to make these drinks more expensive and a disincentive to consumers, unlike most forms of rationing intended to conserve scarce goods, this was done to restrict sales with the overt goal of curtailing drunkenness. Gorbachevs plan also included billboards promoting sobriety, increased penalties for public drunkenness, however, Gorbachev soon faced the same adverse economic reaction to his prohibition as did the last Tsar. The disincentivization of alcohol consumption was a blow to the state budget according to Alexander Yakovlev. Alcohol production migrated to the market, or through moonshining as some made bathtub vodka with homegrown potatoes. The purpose of these reforms, however, was to prop up the centrally planned economy, unlike later reforms. The latter, disparaged as Mr Nyet in the West, had served for 28 years as Minister of Foreign Affairs, gromyko was relegated to the largely ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, as he was considered an old thinker. In the fall of 1985, Gorbachev continued to bring younger, at the next Central Committee meeting on October 15, Tikhonov retired from the Politburo and Talyzin became a candidate. Finally, on December 23,1985, Gorbachev appointed Yeltsin First Secretary of the Moscow Communist Party replacing Viktor Grishin, Gorbachev continued to press for greater liberalization. The CTAG Helsinki-86 was founded in July 1986 in the Latvian port town of Liepāja by three workers, Linards Grantiņš, Raimonds Bitenieks, and Mārtiņš Bariss and its name refers to the human-rights statements of the Helsinki Accords
19.
Ministry of Defence (Ukraine)
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The Ministry of Defence of Ukraine was established on 24 September 1991, one month after Ukraines declaration of independence resolution. The ministry was in charge of all Soviet military forces reorganization on the territory of Ukrainian jurisdiction, president of Ukraine is Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. In 1994 Ukraine has voluntarily given up all nuclear weapons, the Ministry spent significant funds eliminating former nuclear powers, military bases and man-power equipment to meet Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe requirements. Once ratified by the Verkhovna Rada, the objectives of the ministry are preventing hostility, structuring the military. Ukrainian security policies are based on non-intervention, respect for the borders and sovereignty of other states. The first military executive office was created on June 28,1917 as part of the General Secretariat of Ukraine and was headed by Symon Petliura. The Russian Provisional Government refused to recognize it, but after the October Revolution the Secretariat of Military Affairs was re-established on November 12,1917, at the end of December 1917 Symon Petliura resigned in protest to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. At the same time, Bolsheviks established own executive branch as part of the Peoples Secretariat headed by Vasyl Shakhrai, on January 6,1918 Volodymyr Vynnychenko appointed Mykola Porsh to the vacant position. On January 25,1918 the general secretariats were reorganized into peoples ministries as Ukraine proclaimed its independence, Ministry of Military Affairs existed also during the regime of Hetman of Ukraine Pavlo Skoropadsky and until the exile of the Ukrainian National Government at the end of 1920. On January 24,1919 there was established the Peoples Commissariat of Military Affairs of the Ukrainian SSR, in summer of 1919 it was dissolved due to the military union that was signed between governments of the Ukrainian SSR and the Russian SFSR in April 1919. In 1944 there also existed the Peoples Commissariat of Defence of the Ukrainian SSR, in 1991, Ukraine inherited one of the largest military forces not only in the post-socialist area, but in all of Europe. This included 780,000 formerly Soviet military personnel, one army, four Air Force armies, a separate air defense army. Altogether, when established, the Armed Forces of Ukraine included more than 350 ships,1500 combat aircraft and this force was designed to confront NATO in full-scale warfare, using conventional and nuclear weapons. Hence, the became the first among the former Soviet republics to establish a ministry of defence. The ministry and the Ukrainian government subsequently, began establishing the different military branches, during the aggression of the Soviet Russia the national ministry was eliminated, while its Soviet counterpart was eventually liquidated by mid 1920s. The political preference of Ukraine authority on the non-nuclear and non-coalition state status was made to be the foundation of the Armed Forces organization process, therefore, between 1992 and 1997 the number of military personnel in Ukraine was nearly halved. Mostly related to control of the Armed Forces. In addition, Ukraine began its nuclear disarmament program in the early 90s
20.
Ozerne Air Base
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Ozerne is an air base in Zhytomyr Oblast, Ukraine located 11 km southeast of Zhytomyr. The facility has angled taxiways, ramp space, and over 30 large revetments consistent with a bomber base, 15th Guards Heavy Bomber Aviation Division was stationed at the base from 1945 to 1994. In 1965 Ozernoye began receiving Tupolev Tu-22 aircraft, by 1967 it had 31 Tu-22 aircraft, and in 1968 it received Tu-22PD aircraft. A Tu-22 crash-landed here in 1969 due to a stall during the landing flare, units stationed at Ozernoye include, 894th Fighter Aircraft Regiment flying up to 38 MiG-23MLD, ML, and UB models from 1979-1992 and onwards. This regiment was subordinate to 28th Air Defence Corps of the 8th Air Defence Army, by 1994 under Ukraine resubordinated to Western Region Air Defence. 341st Heavy Bomber Aircraft Regiment flying Tu-22M2 from 1965 until the 1990s and Tu-22PD from 1968 until the 1990s, under 15th Guards Heavy Bomber Aviation Division from 1950 to 1992, and at least up to 1994. Currently the airfield is home to about 15 advanced fighter aircraft visible in Google Earth high-resolution imagery, the north airfield appears to contain a huge army salvage yard
21.
Dubno
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Dubno is a city located on the Ikva River in the Rivne Oblast of western Ukraine. Serving as the center of Dubno Raion, the city itself is also designated as a separate raion within the oblast. The city is located on intersection of two major European routes E40 and E84, in Soviet times it was home to the Cold War facility Dubno air base. The city is famous for its legendary fortress. The current estimated population is around 38,037, first mentioned in a chronicle of 1100, when it was in possession of Yaroslav the Wises grandson David of Brest, Dubno was even a seat of local princes for a short period of time. In the early 14th century it was annexed by Poland with the rest of Halych-Volynia, later, it became a notable royal stronghold guarding that countrys eastern border. Granted city rights in 1498, the town attracted foreign settlers, most notably Jewish. As such, it became the seat of one of the oldest and most vibrant Jewish communes in Central-Eastern Europe, since 14th century owned by the mighty Ostrogski family, who built the Dubno Castle during the times of Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski. Between 1489 and 1506 the castle was expanded by Konstanty Ostrogski. With the death of Janusz Ostrogski in 1619, the last of his kin, about that time it was again modernized to stand up to the standards of renaissance warfare and modernization of artillery. Finally, in 1753 it was sold to the Lubomirskis following the Treaty of Zdołbunów, in the 1780s the castle underwent yet another modernization and was rebuilt as a residential manor, mostly losing its fortified character. By that time, the town was the largest settlement of the Volhynian Voivodeship, annexed by Imperial Russia in 1795 during the Partitions of Poland, the town initially flourished as the szlachta register was moved there from Lwów. However, after the third partition it was moved to Kiev, in 1870 it was declared a Fortified Town, which imposed serious limitations on settlement and housing construction, further limiting the development. However, it remained a centre of commerce, most notably because of numerous Czech settlements around the town. The castle was ruined in 1915 during the World War I, Dubno also was the seat of Papal Eastern Seminary. In 1935 a large prison was started to be built, the third biggest in Poland at that time, between 1932 and 1939 the castle was being rebuilt in its original form, but the works were stopped by the outbreak of World War II. In 1937, its population was app,15,500, out of which Jews made 45%, Ukrainians 29%, and Poles 26%. Occupied by the Soviet Union following the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 1939, the uncompleted prison was taken over by the NKVD in December 1939 and was used for political prisoners from all parts of Soviet-annexed Poland
22.
Sknyliv air show disaster
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The accident killed 77 people and injured 543,100 of whom were hospitalised. It is the deadliest air accident in history. More than 10,000 spectators attended the Saturday air show, both pilots survived with minor injuries. 77 spectators were killed, including 28 children, another 100 were hospitalized for head injuries, burns, and bone fractures. Other injuries were severe and did not require hospitalization, a total of 543 people were injured during the incident. Following the disaster, the stated that the flight map they had received differed from the actual layout. On the flight recorder, one pilot asks, And where are our spectators. Others have suggested that the pilots were slow to react to automated warnings issued by the flight computer, Ukrainian president Leonid Kuchma publicly blamed the military for the disaster and dismissed the head of the air force, Volodymyr Strelnykov. The defense minister Volodymyr Shkidchenko sent in his resignation, but it was rejected by Kuchma, on 24 June 2005, a military court sentenced pilot Volodymyr Toponar and co-pilot Yuriy Yegorov to 14 and 8 years in prison, respectively. The court found the two pilots and three military officials guilty of failing to follow orders, negligence and violating flight rules. Two of the three officials were sentenced to up to six years in prison, and the last official received up to four years. In addition, Toponar was ordered to pay 7.2 million hryvnia in compensation to the families, the crews main flight trainer was acquitted for lack of evidence. Yegorov was released in 2008 after President Yushchenko issued a decree reducing his sentence to three and a half years, after the verdict was announced, Toponar said he planned to appeal, insisting the crash was due to technical problems and a faulty flight plan. Prosecutions Aerobatics After the Sknyliv Tragedy 2004 Article in Ukrainian Dzerkalo Tyznhya weekly Sydney Morning Herald article CNN article Amateur video footage of the accident
23.
1st Air Army
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The 1st Air Army was an Air Army in the Soviet Air Force which served during World War II. It was formed on May 10,1942, within the Soviet Western Front, after the war, it was reformed on July 1,1957, and was active until 1998. In 1942, the 1st Air Army fought alongside the troops of the Western Front, supporting them near Yukhnov, Gzhatsk, the Air Army later participated in the Rzhev-Sychevka, Rzhev-Vyazma, Oryol, Smolensk, Belarusian, Memel and East Prussian offensive operations. Pronin Major General Ivan M. Belov In 1957, the army was reformed by the amalgamation of the 29th Air Army and it served in the Far Eastern Military District until 1998. 33rd Hinganskaya Fighter-Bomber Aviation Division 229th Fighter-Bomber Aviation Regiment, Su-17, reequipped with Su-241990 and redesignated a Bomber Aviation Regiment. 83rd Bomber Aviation Division 277th Mlavsky Red Banner Bomber Aviation Regiment, 26th Guards Fighter-Bomber Aviation Regiment, Su-17. 523rd Orshanskiy Red Banner, Suvorov and Kutuzov Orders Recipient Fighter-Bomber Regiment, Su-17МЗ, regiments reporting directly to Army HQ included, 293rd Fighter-Bomber Aviation Regiment, Su-17. 799th Separate Reconnaissance Aviation Regiment, Su-24, in 1989 the 1st Air Army disbanded the headquarters of the 33rd Fighter-Bomber Aviation Division, and in 1994 the headquarters of the 303rd Fighter-Bomber Aviation Division. The 1st Air Army was merged with the 11th Air Defence Army in 1998 to form the 11th Air Force and Air Defence Army
24.
4th Air and Air Defence Forces Army
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The 4th Air Army was a Soviet Air Force formation and from 1992 to 2009 was part of the Russian Air Force. From 1998 the army was designated the 4th Army of Air Forces and it was first established on 22 May 1942 from the Air Forces of the Soviet Southern Front, and fought on the Eastern Front until 1945. In 1949 it was redesignated the 37th Air Army and it was reformed on 4 April 1968 in Poland, and was active there with the Northern Group of Forces for over twenty years, shifting to the North Caucasus Military District in August 1992. The arrival of the Sukhoi Su-24 drastically changed its tasking in the 1980s, in February 1943 it was reorganized into 46th Guards Night Bomber Aviation Regiment and in October 1943 it became the 46th Taman Guards Night Bomber Aviation Regiment. In 1943, the Army supported the Kerch-Eltigen Operation and assisted in the battle for air superiority over the Kuban, two regiments that formed part of the Army, the 57th GIAP and 821st IAP, flew lend-lease Supermarine Spitfires in 1943 for a period. Alexander Pokryshkin was one of its members, and one of the most successful aces of WW2, on 17 July 1943 the 216 SAD/IAD was redesignated the 9th Guards Fighter Aviation Division. It was commanded by Colonel Alexander Pokryshkin from April 1944 to May 1945, in summer 1944 the Army covered the Separate Coastal Army during the Battle of the Crimea. It was then reassigned to the 2nd Belorussian Front and participated in Operation Bagration, the East Prussian Offensive, the East Pomeranian Offensive, overall during the war it flew about 300,000 sorties. After World War II the 4th Air Army remained in Poland, on 22 February 1968, in accordance with a decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR the 37th Air Аrmy was awarded the Order of the Red Banner. On 4 April 1968 the 37th Air Аrmy was redesignated again into the 4th Air Army which the army had during the Second World War. After the Su-24s started arriving, as part of General Nikolai Ogarkovs reforms,4 VA became an independent army with operative designation, the 24th Air Army of the South-Western Direction shared that status. Those were the air force armies with Su-27 fighters, tasked with cover of the Fencers. Over the border in the Kaliningrad Oblast, but still part of the Army, was the 132 Bomber Sevastopol Red Banner Air Division at Chernyakhovsk, following withdrawal from Poland from 1992 it became the aviation component of the North Caucasus Military District. On 22 August 1992, the headquarters of the 4th Red Banner VА was relocated to the city of Rostov-on-Don, on 16 June 1997 the President of the Russian Federation signed the decree About prime measures on reforming Armed forces of the Russian Federation and perfection of their structure. According to that decree, on the basis of the 4th Air Army, the 10th Bombardment Aviation Division, headquartered at Yeysk with up to 90 Su-24s in three regiments was part of the army during the 1990s. At some point between January 2001 and September 2005 the division headquarters disbanded, Yeysk airfield, the previous home of a training aviation institute directing around three regiments of L-39s, was turned over to Russian Naval Aviation in September 2009. In February 2004 regional command staff trainings took place in Kabardino-Balkaria,02.2006 comd staff exercises jointly with the 58th Army of the North Caucasus Military District. 8 Su-25 took part in Peace Mission 2007 joint Russia-Sino exercises, the commanding officer of the 4th Air Army from February 2007 was Lieutenant General Igor Miroshnichenko
25.
76th Air Army
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The 76th Air Army was a unit of the Soviet Air Forces from 1949–1980, and again from 1988-98. As the 13th Air Army, it was formed on 25 November 1942. 13th Air Armys initial components were the 275th Fighter Aviation Division, 276th Bomber Aviation Division, as the 13th Air Army, the formation participated in a number of offensives in 1943-45, Operation Iskra - 12–30 January 1943. 13th Air Army supported the 67th Armys attack, vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive - 13th Air Army,1,600 aircraft strong, made an attack on the German positions on 9 June 1944, a day before the main assault. Glantz also states that 13th Air Army provided pre-offensive fighter cover to discourage enemy aerial reconnaissance which might have uncovered the offensives maskirovka measures, the offensive lasted from 10 June to 9 August 1944. Narva Offensive Tallinn Offensive Moonsund Landing Operation During the war, the 13th Air Army made 120,000 sorties, ten units of the army were transformed into Guards units for their services. 151 pilots were awarded the Heroes of the Soviet Union, and one, the 13th Air Army had but one commander throughout World War II. Stepan Dmitrievich Rybalchenko appears initially to have been a General-Major upon his appointment as commander and he was promoted to General-Lieutenant с07.08.43, and General-Colonel с02.11.44. In May 1945, in the Lithuanian SSR, the division comprised three assault aviation regiments of Il-2s, the 448, 703rd, and 872nd. On 1 May 1945, according to BSSA on tashv. ru, the army consisted of, 5th Guards Bomber Aviation Corps 4 и5 гв. бад 14th Fighter Aviation Corps 284,313 нбад214,225,305 шад,336 иад99 гв. 330th Ostravskaya IAD was part of 13th and 76th Air Armies from 7.45 -1.49, and January 1949 -3.1952. In January 1949, 13th Air Army was redesignated as the 76th Air Army, 149th Bomber Aviation Division arrived back from Szprotawa, Poland,23.5.55 in July 1992 to supervise these three regiments, but was disbanded in 1998. Slugin, S. A. Вооруженные силы СССР после Второй Мировой войны, tomsk, Scientific and Technical Literature Publishing
26.
Special Purpose Command
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The Special Purpose Command was a formation of the Russian Air Force, the strongest among the tactical aviation and anti-aircraft groupings. Its zone of responsibility amounted to 1.3 million km², taking in 40 million people, as well as the countrys capital, on July 1,2009 it was superseded by the Aerospace Defense Operational Strategic Command. According to Krasnaya Zvezda of 16 December 2002, the former Moscow District of the VVS, interfax says the Moscow District was split into the reactivated 16th Air Army, a tactical force, and the Central Air Defence Zone, an air defense force. Pyotr Butowski, writing in 2004, seems to indicate that the Special Purpose Command is merely essentially a redesignation of the former Moscow District, the initial commanding officer of the KSpN was General Lieutenant Yuri Solovyov, later promoted to Colonel-General. The Moscow Air Defence District has a history, dating back to the Second World War. Until 1950, MiG-15 interceptor regiments were concentrated in the Moscow District to protect the capital against US bomber attack, after 1950 significant elements, the 64th Fighter Aviation Corps, were redeployed to fight in the Korean War. The districts commander was replaced shortly before the Mathias Rust affair in 1988 for insufficient support of Mikhail Gorbachevs perestroika policy. In the last days of the Soviet Union there was a considerable Soviet Air Defence Forces presence, also part of the force was a ground signals regiment, the 131st. 32nd Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment served in Cuba as part of Operation Anadyr during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1963, the regiment was temporarily renamed 213th Fighter Aviation Regiment while in Cuba. Joseph Stalins son Vasily Stalin commanded the Moscow district air forces in the early 1950s and he was succeeded by General Colonel Stepan Krasovsky, Lieutenant General Stepan Rybanov, and, later, Lieutenant General Igor Dmitriev and Nikolai Antoshkin. Also part of the Moscow District air forces was the 4th Centre for Combat Employment, Moscow district air defence had been provided during the Second World War by initially the Moscow PVO Corps Region. The Corps Region Headquarters, then formed the Moscow Front PVO from 6 April 1942 –10 July 1943, in turn, the Moscow Front PVO was redesignated as Headquarters, Special Moscow PVO Army. In 1948 the North-Western Air Defence District was redesignated the Moscow Air Defence Region, the corps were the 2nd, at Balashikha, 3rd at Rzhev, 7th at Kursk, and 16th at Gorky. One of the regiments was the 472nd Fighter Aviation Regiment at Kursk. The 7th Air Defence Corps was redesignated the 7th Air Defence Division in the early 1990s, tsarkov 1989–1991 – Colonel-General Viktor Prudnikov 1991–1998 – Colonel-General Anatoly Kornukov. The 16th Air Army was the most important formation of the Special Purpose Command, initially formed during the Second World War as a part of the Soviet Air Force, it was from c. 2002–2009 the tactical air force component of the Moscow Military District, headquartered at Kubinka. In 2009 the Russian Air Force was extensively reorganised, Combat Aircraft magazines June 2010 issue gives some details of the new structure. 10, Sept 7,1991 p415 Janes Information Group, the command will be established by the end of 2010 and located at Balashikha near Moscow, where the previous 1st Air Defence Corps was located
27.
Transcaucasian Military District
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The Transcaucasian Military District, a military district of the Soviet Armed Forces, traces its history to May 1921 and the incorporation of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia into the USSR. It was disbanded by being redesignated as a Group of Forces in the early 1990s after the Soviet Union collapse and it was originally formed from the Red Armys Separate Caucasian Army, which became the Red Banner Caucasian Army in August 1923. On 17 May 1935 the Red Banner Caucasus Army was redesignated the Transcaucasian Military District, the Georgian, Armenian, and Azerbaijani national formations, plus units from the 11th Soviet Red Army, all joined the new district about this time. On 1 August 1941 the 46th Army was formed from the 3rd Rifle Corps headquarters, 45th Army was formed from the 23rd Rifle Corps. 45th and 46th Armies guarded the Turkish border, the 44th Army was formed from the 40th Rifle Corps and the 47th Army formed from the 27th Mechanized Corps. Both armies were deployed on the Iranian border, on 23 August, the military district became the Transcaucasus Front. District headquarters was subordinated to the military council and directed the formation of new units. It was disbanded on 14 September 1941, on 28 January 1942, the military district was reformed when the Caucasian Front was divided into the Transcaucasian Military District and the Crimean Front. The district was commanded by Ivan Tyulenev and included the 45th and 46th Armies, as well as 4 rifle divisions, on 28 April 1942, the district became the second formation of the Transcaucasian Front. On 9 July 1945, the Tbilisi and Baku Military Districts were formed from the Transcaucasian Front, Tbilisi Military District Headquarters was based in Tbilisi and was formed from the Transcaucasian Front headquarters. The district controlled forces in the Georgian and Armenian SSRs, the district controlled forces in the Azerbaijan SSR and Dagestan ASSR. It was commanded by Colonel general Vladimir Kolpakchi, former 69th Army commander, in October 1945, Army General Ivan Maslennikov took command. On 15 November 1945, control of forces in the Nakhichevan ASSR was transferred from the Tbilisi Military District to the Baku Military District, lieutenant General Mikhail Ozimin became Tbilisi Military District commander in April 1946. In May 1946, both became part of the Transcaucasian Military District, commanded by Maslennikov. After the war the Transcaucasus Front reverted to being a part of the Headquarters Transcaucasus Military District, in 1979 Scott and Scott reported the District headquarters address as Tbilisi-4, Ulitsa Dzneladze, Dom 46. The District became part of the Southern Direction, headquartered in Baku and including the North Caucasus and Turkestan Military Districts, in the late 1970s, the equipment was partly handed over to Armenia - traditions, honors and awards were transferred to the 5209th Weapons and Equipment Storage Base. 127th Motor Rifle Division, Leninakan 164th Motor Rifle Division, Yerevan - disbanded June 1992 and it was made up of 2 aviation divisions and six independent aviation regiments. On 26 September 1992 the district was disbanded, according to Michael Holm, another, earlier report said on 1 January 1993, the District became the Group of Russian Forces in the Transcaucasus
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Long Range Aviation
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Long Range Aviation is the branch of the Soviet Air Forces and Russian Air Force tasked with long-range bombardment of strategic targets with nuclear weapons. During the Cold War, it was the counterpart to the Strategic Air Command of the United States Air Force, the first three Air Armies, designated Air Armies of Special Purpose were created between 1936 and 1938. 2nd Army was created on 15 March 1937 in the Far East, somewhat later, the 3rd Air Army was created in the North Caucasus Military District. On 5 November 1940 these were reformed as the Long Range Bombardment Aviation of the Stavka of the Red Army due to poor performance during the Winter War with Finland. ADD was placed under the command of Alexander Golovanov, in addition, ADD was widely used to support guerrillas in the occupied territory of the USSR and Yugoslavia. Throughout its existence, the LRA was part of the Reserve of the Supreme High Command and it only received orders from the Supreme Commander, Iosef Stalin. The basis of the fleet were long-range Ilyushin Il-4 bombers, though Petlyakov Pe-8s. During the Battle of Stalingrad, the LRA, having taken crippling losses over the past 18 months, was restricted to flying at night, the Soviets flew 11,317 night sorties over Stalingrad and the Don-bend sector between 17 July and 19 November 1942. These raids caused damage and were of nuisance value only. Five long-range bomber corps were established which had in service at times nearly 3000 aircraft. Pilots of heavy aircraft struck the cities of Danzig, Königsberg, Kraków, Berlin, Helsinki, Tallinn, the LRA took an active part in the operations in the Baltic States. On March 9,1944 about 2000 and 1500 explosive incendiary bombs were dropped on residential areas of Tallinn, results of two Soviet air raids, 40% of the buildings in the city destroyed,463 dead,649 injured and about 20,000 homeless citizens. Harju Street was especially hard hit, along with the theater Estonia, from 6 to 8 March 1944 the historical part of Narva was virtually wiped out, in the same month Tartu, Tapa and Jõhvi were also bombed. In the period July–December 1944, the LRA made more than 7,200 sorties, in December 1944 the LRA was transferred to the Red Army Air Force and converted into the 18th Air Army. As the 1940s closed and the Cold War dawned, the Soviet Union scrambled to develop an instrument of deterrence against the United States, the only substantial aircraft that it was equipped with was the Tupolev Tu-4, an exact copy of the B-29 Superfortress. This was fielded in 1949, and brought the first threat of attack to the United States, however, the Tu-4 was incapable of returning to the Soviet Union, and the Soviet aviation engineering establishment worked to develop an aircraft capable of round-trip operation. The outcome of competition was the highly successful Tupolev Tu-95, which entered service in the 1955-1956 period. It continues in service with the Russian Federation, myasischevs contribution was the Myasishchev M-4, but this aircraft fell below expectations
Order of the Red Banner