1.
2/14th Battalion (Australia)
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The 2/14th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army that served during World War II. Part of the 21st Brigade, 7th Division, the battalion was raised from Second Australian Imperial Force volunteers drawn mainly from the state of Victoria. After the Japanese exhausted their supplies and began to fall back towards their beachheads on the north coast, the battalions final involvement in the war came in the landing on Balikpapan in 1945. The 2/14th was disbanded after the war, in early 1946, the battalion was assigned to the 21st Brigade, 7th Division, and would remain part of this formation throughout its existence. It had an strength of around 900 personnel, and most of those were drawn from the state of Victoria. Many of the initial recruits had previous military experience, having served in the Militia prior to volunteering for the 2nd AIF. In keeping with 2nd AIF recruitment practices, there were pairs of brothers who were early recruits, there was even one case of a father. C Company consisted largely of men from Ballarat and Melbournes inner suburbs, once the battalions complement of men had arrived at Puckapunyal and formation was complete, basic training began in May 1940. On 18 August, the battalion was presented its colours in a ceremony by members of the 14th Battalion. Later, they were moved to Dimra in January 1941, before being sent in April to Mersa Matruh, in Egypt, although no German attack came there, during their time at Maaten Bagush the battalion was subjected to aerial attack. It remained there until the end of May when the battalion was relieved by a South African battalion, following this, the battalion advanced along the coast towards Tyre, from where it evicted the French defenders before forcing a crossing over the Litani River. On 11 June, the 21st Brigades advance towards Sidon came up against determined resistance around the Zahrani River, the 2/14th Battalion found themselves up against troops from the French Foreign Legions 6th Foreign Infantry Regiment. For the next few days the battalion came under attack from Vichy French aircraft, conducting a 30-kilometre march during the heat of the day, the Australians approached Sidon through the mountains but arrived just after the town fell to the 2/27th Battalion. These attacks proved unsuccessful, and quite costly for the 2/14th, with 12 killed and 47 wounded on 24 June, the fighting around Jezzine continued until 29 June when the French began to withdraw. After this, the Australians regained the initiative and on 2 July the 2/14th Battalion left Jezzine to begin preparations for the Battle of Damour, between then and 9 July, the 2/14th were involved in a number of attacks, capturing French positions on Hills 243 and 567. On 12 July, a came into effect, ending the fighting. Later, in September, the battalion was transferred to the north to construct defensive positions near Tripoli in Lebanon, in December 1941, following the Japanese attacks on Pearl Harbor and in Malaya, the decision was made to bring the 6th and 7th Divisions back to Australia. In early January 1942, the 7th Division left Syria, where it had been undertaking garrison duties, the 2/14th were moved to a camp near Jerusalem, and during this time command of the battalion passed to Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Key, who had previously commanded the 2/8th Battalion
2.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
3.
Australian Army
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The Australian Army is Australias military land force. It is part of the Australian Defence Force along with the Royal Australian Navy, while the Chief of the Defence Force commands the ADF, the Army is commanded by the Chief of Army. The CA is therefore subordinate to the CDF, but is directly responsible to the Minister for Defence. Although Australian soldiers have been involved in a number of minor and major conflicts throughout its history, Australias largest peacekeeping deployment began in 1999 in East Timor, while other ongoing operations include peacekeeping on Bougainville, in the Sinai, and in the Solomon Islands. Humanitarian relief after 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake in Aceh Province, Indonesia, Operation Sumatra Assist, the 1st Division comprises a deployable headquarters, while 2nd Division under the command of Forces Command is the main home-defence formation, containing Army Reserve units. 2nd Divisions headquarters only performs administrative functions, the Australian Army has not deployed a divisional-sized formation since 1945 and does not expect to do so in the future. 1st Division carries out training activities and deploys to command large-scale ground operations. It does not have any combat units permanently assigned, Forces Command controls for administrative purposes all non-special-forces assets of the Australian Army. It is neither an operational nor a deployable command,1 Brigade – Multi-role Combat Brigade based in Darwin and Adelaide. 3 Brigade – Multi-role Combat Brigade based in Townsville,6 Brigade – Mixed brigade based in Sydney. 7 Brigade – Multi-role Combat Brigade based in Brisbane,16 Aviation Brigade – Army Aviation brigade based in Enoggera, Brisbane. 17 Combat Service Support Brigade – Logistic brigade based in Sydney, 2nd Division administers the reserve forces from its headquarters located in Sydney. 4 Brigade – based in Victoria,5 Brigade – based in New South Wales. 8 Brigade – based in New South Wales,9 Brigade – based in South Australia and Tasmania. 11 Brigade – based in Queensland,13 Brigade – based in Western Australia. Special Operations Command comprises a command formation of equal status to the commands in the ADF. It includes all of Armys special forces assets, the force will be known as the Amphibious Ready Element and will be embarked on the Navys new Canberra-class amphibious assault ships. Infantry, and some combat units of the Australian Army carry flags called the Queens Colour
4.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
5.
4th Brigade (Australia)
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The 4th Brigade is a brigade-level formation of the Australian Army. Originally formed in September 1914 for service during World War I, elements of the brigade served at Gallipoli, in 1921, the brigade was re-raised as a unit of Australias part-time military forces, based in the state of Victoria. During World War II the brigade served in the New Guinea, under the command of Colonel John Monash, at that time the brigade consisted of four infantry battalions which were raised from all Australian states, the 13th, 14th, 15th and 16th Battalions. Following initial training at Broadmeadows in Victoria, they embarked for overseas in the wave of Australian forces to be dispatched. They arrived in Egypt in early 1915, where they were assigned to the New Zealand, in April 1915, the brigade participated in the ANZAC landing at Gallipoli, arriving on the second day as the divisions reserve, before joining the eight-month campaign that followed. During the August Offensive, the brigade attacked Hill 971 and then, later, in December 1915 the decision was made to evacuate Gallipoli and subsequently the brigade was transported back to Egypt. Following this, the AIF underwent a period of reorganisation and expansion, as a part of this process, the 4th Brigade provided a cadre of experienced personnel to the newly formed 12th Brigade. At the same time, the brigade was reassigned to the 4th Division, assigned to the front line around Armentières, they undertook their first operation on 2 July, undertaking an unsuccessful raid. During the next two years, the brigade rotated in and out of the line along with the rest of the 4th Division. In April 1917, the took part in heavy fighting around Bullecourt where, on 11 April, they suffered heavy casualties. In April 1918, the 4th Brigade was involved in significant fighting around Villers-Bretonneux, the liberation was the third anniversary of ANZAC Day,25 April 1918. In commemoration of the sacrifices made by Australians, in 1926 the main street of the town was renamed Rue de Melbourne, the school, which was damaged during the fighting, was rebuilt with donations from Victorian school children and was subsequently called Victoria School. Later, in July, the 4th Brigade took part in the fighting around Le Hamel, the tactics used during the battle on 4 July 1918 were conceived by General John Monash and largely carried out by Australian infantrymen, along with a number of US troops. It was the scene of one of Allies greatest military victories during the war, on 12 August 1918 Monash was knighted in the field by King George V. In early October the rest of the Australian Corps was withdrawn from the line for rest, during the course of the war, eight members of the brigade received the Victoria Cross. These were, Albert Jacka, Martin OMeara, John Dwyer, Harry Murray, Henry Dalziel, Thomas Axford, Maurice Buckley, in 1921, Australias part-time military forces were re-organised to perpetuate the numerical designations and structure of the AIF formations that had existed during World War I. As a result, in May the 4th Brigade was re-raised as part of the Citizens Forces, where possible the decision was made to raise the new formations in the recruiting areas from where the World War I units had drawn their personnel. The four infantry battalions that were assigned to it at time were
6.
4th Division (Australia)
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The Australian 4th Division was formed in the First World War during the expansion of the Australian Imperial Force infantry brigades in February 1916. In addition to the experienced 4th Brigade were added the new 12th and 13th Brigades, from Egypt the division was sent to France. After the war ended and the AIF was demobilised, the division was dissolved, in 1921, the 4th Division name was reactivated as a Citizen Military Forces formation. The division performed home defence duties for most of World War II, the Australian government concurred and the Australian 4th Division was formed in this expansion of the Australian Imperial Force infantry brigades in February 1916. In addition to the experienced 4th Brigade there were added the new 12th and 13th Brigades, the 4th Division began forming in Egypt in February 1916. The new division included the 4th Infantry Brigade, 4th Field Company, 4th Field Ambulance, the 12th and 13th Infantry Brigades were formed by taking half the personnel of the 4th and 3rd Infantry Brigades. Delays in assembling the artillery meant that the division could not depart for France before June 1916, the division was initially stationed on the Suez Canal. In June 1916 it moved to France, taking part of the nursery sector near Armentières. Its stay there was brief and soon it was accompanying the First, in August 1916 it relieved the Second Division on the Pozières Heights and repulsed a major German counterattack. It then drove north to the outskirts of Mouquet Farm, a second tour of the Somme at Mouquet Farm followed in September and a third at Flers in October. On 11 April 1917 the division assaulted the Hindenburg Line in the First Battle of Bullecourt, the battle was a disaster and 1170 Australian prisoners were taken by the Germans. In June it participated in the Battle of Messines, in September it participated in the Battle of Polygon Wood. In March 1918 the division was rushed to the Somme region to stem the German Offensive, the Australian 3rd and 4th Divisions had been ordered to proceed to Amiens to strengthen the retreating British 5th Army. There it repulsed the advancing Germans in hard fought battles at Hebuterne, the Battle of Dernancourt involved the Australian 12th and 13th Brigades on the railway embankment and cuttings in Dernancourt, just south of Albert. The under strength Australian Brigades faced 4 German Divisions totalling about 25,000, situated on the western side of the Ancre River valley, the Australians formed a defensive line at the railway embankment, from which they held back German attacks. The Australian 48th Battalion soon found itself outflanked by German to its rear, the 48th was ordered to hold at all costs but by midday was facing annihilation and the senior officer ordered a withdrawal. Much like the actions at Bullecourt the previous year, the Australian battalion withdrew successfully and this action costs 12th and 13th Brigades 1,100 casualties. In April its 13th Infantry Brigade was involved in the counterattack at Villers-Bretonneux, on April 21, German deserters revealed that German attack preparations were nearing completion
7.
3rd Division (Australia)
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The 3rd Division was an infantry division of the Australian Army. Existing during various periods between 1916 and 1991, it is considered the longest serving Australian Army division and it was first formed during World War I, as an infantry division of the Australian Imperial Force and saw service on the Western Front in France and Belgium. During this time it fought battles at Messines, Broodseinde Ridge, Passchendaele, Amiens. After the war the division was demobilised in 1919 before being re-raised in 1921 as part of the Citizen Forces, throughout the 1920s and 1930s, the divisions establishment fluctuated due to the effects of the Great Depression and a general apathy towards military matters. In late 1944 they were sent to Bougainville to take part in their campaign of the war. There they undertook a series of advances across the island before the war came to an end in August 1945. Following the end of hostilities the division was disbanded in December 1945 as part of the demobilisation process, in early 1916, following the unsuccessful Gallipoli campaign, the decision was made to expand the size of the Australian Imperial Force. At the time there were two divisions in Egypt—the 1st and 2nd—and of these, one of them was split up to provide a cadre upon which to raise the 4th and 5th Divisions. Around this time the decision to raise a division from fresh volunteers in Australia was also made. In July the divisions artillery component was formed, consisting of three batteries of 18-pounders and one 4.5 inch howitzer battery, the process of raising and training took some time and consequently the division was not transferred to France until mid November 1916. Prior to this, however, the division endured proposals to break it up to provide reinforcements to the other four Australian divisions that were already in France. Although these threats passed, in early September 1916, following losses around Pozières, throughout October it seemed likely that further drafts would be siphoned away from the division, however, this did not occur and in early November two divisional exercises were undertaken. Finally, on 21 November 1916, the 3rd Division crossed the English Channel, under the command of Major General John Monash, the division was assigned to II ANZAC Corps. For the next two years they would part in most of the major battles that the Australians fought on the Western Front. These brigades were the 7th and the 8th and it was here, in early June 1917, that the division undertook its first major engagement of the war when it was committed to the fighting during the Battle of Messines. Monash tasked the 9th and 10th Brigades to provide the force for the 3rd Divisions part of the operation. In the engagements that followed the division largely played only a supporting role, following this, the divisions next major engagement came on 4 October 1917 when it took part in the Battle of Broodseinde Ridge. This time the 9th Brigade was held back in reserve, while the 10th and 11th Brigades led the division forward, a counterattack late in the day on the 11th Brigades position was turned back, sealing a stunning success for the 3rd Division
8.
Gallipoli Campaign
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The peninsula forms the northern bank of the Dardanelles, a strait that provided a sea route to the Russian Empire, one of the Allied powers during the war. Intending to secure it, Russias allies Britain and France launched an attack followed by an amphibious landing on the peninsula. The naval attack was repelled and after eight months fighting, with casualties on both sides, the land campaign was abandoned and the invasion force was withdrawn to Egypt. The campaign was one of the greatest Ottoman victories during the war, in Turkey, it is regarded as a defining moment in the nations history, a final surge in the defence of the motherland as the Ottoman Empire crumbled. In 1908, a group of officers, known as the Young Turks. The new régime implemented a program of reform to modernise the political and economic system. An enthusiastic supporter, Germany provided significant investment, German diplomats subsequently found increasing influence, despite Britain previously being the predominant power in the region, while German officers assisted in training and re-equipping the army. Despite this support, the resources of the Ottoman Empire were depleted by the cost of the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. In December 1913, the Germans sent a mission to Constantinople. The geographical position of the Ottoman Empire meant that Russia and her allies France, during the Sarajevo Crisis in 1914, German diplomats offered Turkey an anti-Russian alliance and territorial gains in Caucasia, north-west Iran and Trans-Caspia. The pro-British faction in the Cabinet was isolated due to the British ambassador taking leave until 18 August, as the crisis deepened in Europe, Ottoman policy was to obtain a guarantee of territorial integrity and potential advantages, unaware that the British might enter a European war. This action strained diplomatic relations between the two empires and the German government offered SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau to the Ottoman navy as replacements, by allowing the German ships to enter the Dardanelles, the Ottomans confirmed their links to Germany. In September, the British naval mission to the Ottomans, which had established in 1912 under Admiral Arthur Limpus, was recalled due to increasing concern that Turkey would soon enter the war. Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon of the Imperial German Navy took over command of the Ottoman navy, the German naval presence and the success of German armies on all fronts, gave the pro-German faction in the Ottoman government enough influence to declare war on Russia. On 27 October, Goeben and Breslau, having been renamed Yavûz Sultân Selîm and Midilli, sortied into the Black Sea, bombarded the Russian port of Odessa and sank several Russian ships. The Ottomans refused an Allied demand that they expel the German missions and on 31 October 1914, Russia declared war on Turkey on 2 November. The next day, the British ambassador left Constantinople and a British naval squadron off the Dardanelles bombarded the outer defensive forts at Kum Kale, a shell hit a magazine, knocked the guns off their mounts and killed 86 soldiers. Fighting also began in Mesopotamia, following a British landing to occupy the oil facilities in the Persian Gulf, the Ottomans prepared to attack Egypt in early 1915, aiming to occupy the Suez Canal and cut the Mediterranean route to India and the Far East
9.
Western Front (World War I)
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The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. This line remained unchanged for most of the war. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front, the attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire, as a result, no significant advances were made. In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of new technology, including poison gas, aircraft. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored, the German Armys Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front. In spite of the stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, belgiums neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London, this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914, Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August, Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August, for their part, the French had five armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities, on 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine, in keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back
10.
Unit Colour Patch
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Unit Colour Patches are currently worn on the slouch hat in the Australian Army to identify the wearers unit. Unit colour patches are approximately 40 millimetres x 40 millimetres in size and have a variety of colours. While some are recent creations many date back to World War I and it was an extension of an order allowing the posting of distinctive colour flags to denote HQ and unit lines, and these flags were used as the basic design for 1st Division colour patches. These were worn on the sleeve,1 inch below the shoulder seam, Divisional Order 81 decreed a rectangular patch 1.25 inches by 2. Each Infantry Brigade within each Division was assigned a colour and the Brigade HQ colour patches were the Divisional shape in the Brigade colour. Each Battalion in each Brigade was then assigned a colour, and the patch was split horizontally with the Battalion colour across the top of the field, light Horse, Artillery, Engineer and Medical units were also allocated colour patches. Light Horse patches were divided diagonally, in total over 300 individual patches were authorized during the war. Military Order 206/21 in 1921 authorised the use of Unit Colour Patches for the Citizen Military Forces, which was raised in May,1921. As this new organisation was based on the AIF, this order granted authority to the Citizen Military Forces to wear Regimental Colour Patches similar to those worn by corresponding units of the AIF. It also allowed for ex-members of the AIF serving in Citizen Military Forces to wear a miniature colour patch of the last AIF unit in which they served, with the raising of the Second AIF in World War II, the unit colour patch was continued. A grey background of the shape as the divisional patch was then included to denote a unit of the Second AIF. New shapes were used, for example with the T-shaped patches instituted by the units of the 9th Division in 1943 representing their key role in the Siege of Tobruk, over 800 separate patches were authorised during the war. At right is the patch of the 2/17th Battalion. As a unit within 9th Division of the 2nd AIF, 17th Battalion has a T-shaped colour patch representing the Siege of Tobruk, with the grey background of the 2nd AIF. The original series of patches was discontinued in 1949. The Series I range are known as the Heritage patches and are the pre-1949 patches maintained in a register with the Series I Extended, both are used in the Australian Army due to some units tracing their lineage to the First AIF units. The register also includes the patches for the Royal Australian Air Force, Colour Patches of the Australian Forces. The Australian Imperial Force in France,1916, official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918
11.
Battalion
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A battalion is a military unit. The use of the term varies by nationality and branch of service. Typically a battalion consists of 300 to 800 soldiers and is divided into a number of companies, a battalion is typically commanded by a lieutenant colonel. In some countries the word battalion is associated with the infantry, the term was first used in Italian as battaglione no later than the 16th century. It derived from the Italian word for battle, battaglia, the first use of battalion in English was in the 1580s, and the first use to mean part of a regiment is from 1708. The battalion must, of course, have a source of re-supply to enable it to sustain operations for more than a few days, the battalion is usually part of a regiment, brigade, or group, depending on the organizational model used by that service. The bulk of a battalions companies are often homogeneous with respect to type, a battalion includes a headquarters company and some sort of combat service support, typically organized within a combat support company. The term battalion is used in the British Army Infantry and some including the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. It was formerly used in the Royal Engineers, and was used in the now defunct Royal Army Ordnance Corps. Other corps usually use the term regiment instead, an infantry battalion is numbered ordinarily within its regiment. It normally has a company, support company, and three rifle companies. Each company is commanded by a major, the officer commanding, the HQ company contains signals, quartermaster, catering, intelligence, administration, pay, training, operations and medical elements. The support company usually contains anti-tank, machine gun, mortar, pioneer, mechanised units usually have an attached light aid detachment of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers to perform field repairs on vehicles and equipment. A British battalion in theatre during World War II had around 845 men in it, and, as of 2012, with successive rounds of cutbacks after the war, many infantry regiments were reduced to a single battalion. A battalion group or battlegroup consists of a battalion or armoured regiment with sub-units detached from other military units acting under the command of the battalion commander. In the Canadian Forces, most battalions are reserve units of between 100–200 soldiers that include an operationally ready, field-deployable component of approximately a half-company apiece, the nine regular force infantry battalions each contain three or four rifle companies and one or two support companies. Canadian battalions are generally commanded by lieutenant-colonels, though smaller reserve battalions may be commanded by majors, with the Dutch artillery units, the equivalent of a battalion is called an afdeling. Combat companies consist of infantry, combat engineers, or tanks, in the latter case, the unit is called an eskadron, which translates roughly to squadron
12.
First Australian Imperial Force
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The First Australian Imperial Force was the main expeditionary force of the Australian Army during World War I. It was formed on 15 August 1914, following Britains declaration of war on Germany, initially with a strength of one infantry division and one light horse brigade. The infantry division fought at Gallipoli between April and December 1915, being reinforced by a second division which was later raised. After being evacuated to Egypt the AIF was expanded to five infantry divisions, a sixth infantry division was partially raised in 1917 in the United Kingdom, but was broken up and used as reinforcements following heavy casualties on the Western Front. Meanwhile, two mounted divisions remained in the Middle East to fight against Turkish forces in the Sinai and Palestine. An all volunteer force, by the end of the war the AIF had gained a reputation as being a well-trained and highly effective military force, however, this reputation came at a heavy cost with a casualty rate among the highest of any belligerent for the war. After the war, the AFC evolved into the Royal Australian Air Force, after the war the achievements of the AIF and its soldiers, known colloquially as Diggers, became central to the national mythology of the Anzac legend. Generally known at the time as the AIF, it is referred to as the 1st AIF to it distinguish from the Second Australian Imperial Force raised during World War II. At the start of the war, Australias military forces were focused upon the part-time Militia, the small number of regular personnel were mostly artillerymen or engineers, and were generally assigned to the task of coastal defence. The Australian government pledged to supply 20,000 men organised as one division and one light horse brigade plus supporting units. Officially coming into being on 15 August 1914, the word imperial was chosen to reflect the duty of Australians to both nation and empire, the AIF was initially intended for service in Europe. Meanwhile, a separate 2, 000-man force—known as the Australian Naval, in addition, small military forces were maintained in Australia to defend the country from attack. Upon formation, the AIF consisted of one infantry division, the 1st Division. The 1st Light Horse Brigade was commanded by Colonel Harry Chauvel, the initial response for recruits was so good that in September 1914 the decision was made to raise the 4th Infantry Brigade and 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades. The 4th Infantry Brigade was commanded by Colonel John Monash, a prominent Melbourne civil engineer, the AIF continued to grow through the war, eventually numbering five infantry divisions, two mounted divisions and a mixture of other units. As the AIF operated within the British war effort, its units were organised along the same lines as comparable British Army formations. However, there were small differences between the structures of British and Australian units, especially in regards to the AIF infantry divisions support units. Hastily deployed, the first contingent of AIF was essentially untrained and suffered from widespread equipment shortages, in early 1915 the AIF was largely an inexperienced force, with only a small percentage of its members having previous combat experience
13.
Australian Army Reserve
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The Australian Army Reserve is a collective name given to the reserve units of the Australian Army. For the first half of the 20th century, due to a widespread distrust of permanent military forces in Australia, the reserve military forces were the primary focus of Australian military planning. Since then, Australian defence policy has focused more upon the Regular Army. Nevertheless, the transfer of forces from the states to the Commonwealth occurred on 1 March 1901. At the outset, the bulk of the Commonwealth military force was to be made up of part-time volunteers and this was arguably due to two factors. After the initial transfer of forces in March 1901, further progress was slow as administrative and legislative instruments took time to develop. Indeed, it was not until 1 March 1904 that the Defence Act 1903 was proclaimed, amidst a background of political manoeuvring and personal agendas, the military forces were eventually reorganised into a more or less unified command structure. The result of this review was the realisation of the need to build a defence force that could not only defend the nation. However, it was the main factor contributing to the decision to recruit the AIF on the basis of voluntary enlistment, regardless, it has been estimated that up to 50,000 militiamen subsequently enlisted in the First AIF during the war. During the precautionary stage on 2 August 1914, Citizens Forces units were called up to guard essential points and man coastal forts, the first Australian shots of both World War I and World War II were fired by the garrison at Fort Nepean. By June 1918,9,215 home service troops were on duty in Australia. From 1915, only skeleton garrisons were maintained at coastal forts, just before the end of World War I, Australias home forces were reorganised to perpetuate the numerical identities of the AIF units. This was done renumbering the infantry regiments that had formed in 1912. It was also decided that the Citizens Force would be re-organised along the lines of the AIF, adopting the divisional structure of the AIF units and maintaining their battle honours. Although the compulsory training scheme was retained, it was decided that it would only be focused on the populated areas. The result of this was that the course of only a year the strength of the Citizens Forces fell from 127,000 to only 37,000 in 1922. Throughout the 1920s, numbers decreased even further and although the structure was maintained. At this time it was decided to change the name of the force
14.
Victoria (Australia)
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Victoria is a state in southeast Australia. Victoria is Australias most densely populated state and its second-most populous state overall, most of its population is concentrated in the area surrounding Port Phillip Bay, which includes the metropolitan area of its state capital and largest city, Melbourne, Australias second-largest city. Prior to British European settlement, the area now constituting Victoria was inhabited by a number of Aboriginal peoples. With Great Britain having claimed the entire Australian continent east of the 135th meridian east in 1788, Victoria was included in the wider colony of New South Wales. The first settlement in the area occurred in 1803 at Sullivan Bay, and much of what is now Victoria was included in the Port Phillip District in 1836, Victoria was officially created as a separate colony in 1851, and achieved self-government in 1855. Politically, Victoria has 37 seats in the Australian House of Representatives and 12 seats in the Australian Senate, at state level, the Parliament of Victoria consists of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council. Victoria is currently governed by the Labor Party, with Daniel Andrews the current Premier, the personal representative of the Queen of Australia in the state is the Governor of Victoria, currently Linda Dessau. Local government is concentrated in 79 municipal districts, including 33 cities, although a number of unincorporated areas still exist, Victorias total gross state product is ranked second in Australia, although Victoria is ranked fourth in terms of GSP per capita because of its limited mining activity. Culturally, Melbourne is home to a number of museums, art galleries and theatres and is described as the sporting capital of Australia. The Melbourne Cricket Ground is the largest stadium in Australia, and the host of the 1956 Summer Olympics, Victoria has eight public universities, with the oldest, the University of Melbourne, having been founded in 1853. Victoria, like Queensland, was named after Queen Victoria, who had been on the British throne for 14 years when the colony was established in 1851. The first British settlement in the later known as Victoria was established in October 1803 under Lieutenant-Governor David Collins at Sullivan Bay on Port Phillip. In the year 1826 Colonel Stewart, Captain S. Wright, fly and the brigs Dragon and Amity, took a number of convicts and a small force composed of detachments of the 3rd and 93rd regiments. Victorias next settlement was at Portland, on the south west coast of what is now Victoria, edward Henty settled Portland Bay in 1834. Melbourne was founded in 1835 by John Batman, who set up a base in Indented Head, from settlement the region around Melbourne was known as the Port Phillip District, a separately administered part of New South Wales. Shortly after the now known as Geelong was surveyed by Assistant Surveyor W. H. Smythe. And in 1838 Geelong was officially declared a town, despite earlier white settlements dating back to 1826, days later, still in 1851 gold was discovered near Ballarat, and subsequently at Bendigo. Later discoveries occurred at sites across Victoria
15.
32nd Battalion (Australia)
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The 32nd Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army. It was first raised in 1915 as part of the Australian Imperial Force and was made up of personnel from South Australia. The battalion served in France and Belgium during the First World War before being disbanded in 1919 and it was re-raised in 1921 as the 32nd Battalion, a unit of the part-time Militia, and between the wars the battalion served as a home defence unit in Victoria. In July 1945, that battalion was disbanded, after the war, the battalion was not re-raised in its own right when the Citizens Military Force was formed in 1948, however, it was raised as an amalgamated unit known as the 58th/32nd Battalion. This unit remained in existence until 1960 when it was subsumed into the Royal Victoria Regiment, the battalions honours and traditions are now maintained by the 5th/6th Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment. The 32nd Battalion was raised on 9 August 1915 in Mitcham, South Australia and its first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Donald Coghill. Most the battalions recruits had previously worked as miners or farmers, after completing basic training, the battalion left Australia in November aboard the HMAT Geelong, bound for Egypt. In Egypt, the became part of the newly formed 8th Brigade. After a further period of training, the battalion was shipped to France in June 1916, the following month, after spending a short period in the Armentières sector, the battalion was committed to the front for the first time on 16 July 1916. Following the assault, the adopted a defensive posture, supporting further efforts around Zillebeke. In April, the 8th Brigade had been moved to the Somme, later, the Allies launched their own offensive around Amiens beginning on 8 August 1918. After this, the Australian Corps was removed from the line for rest, the 32nd Battalion received a large number of reinforcements from the all-Victorian 29th Battalion, which was subsequently disbanded. It was still out of the line when the Armistice was declared on 11 November 1918, during the battalions final series of battles, the battalion was led by Major Blair Wark, who was later awarded the Victoria Cross for his leadership and bravery. Throughout the conflict the battalion suffered 2,079 casualties of which 613 were killed, in March 1919, after most of its personnel had been repatriated to Australia, the battalion merged with the 30th Battalion before subsequently being disbanded. The same year, the motto, Audax Pro Patria, was approved. During this time, it was part of the 2nd Brigade, following Japans entry into the Second World War in December 1941, the battalion was called up for defensive duties. In September 1942, as part of an Army-wide reduction that came about because of over-mobilisation, in early 1943, the 14th/32nd Battalion carried out amphibious warfare training in Queensland before being deployed to the Buna–Gona area in New Guinea in July. The battalion would remain in mainland New Guinea and New Britain for the two years, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William Caldwell
16.
14th/32nd Battalion (Australia)
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The 14th/32nd Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army which served during the Second World War. It was formed in September 1942 by the amalgamation of the 14th and 32nd Battalions and was assigned to the 6th Brigade, 4th Division in Geraldton, in April 1945 it returned to Australia for rest and re-organisation and was disbanded later that year without seeing further combat. By mid-1942, a mobilisation of Australias military forces resulted in a manpower shortage in the Australian economy. As a result, on 12 October 1942, the 14th and 32nd Battalions, upon formation the battalion adopted the territorial title of the Prahran/Footscray Regiment and was assigned to the 6th Brigade, 4th Division. After this, the 14th/32nd Battalion was moved to the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland, to undertake amphibious landing and jungle warfare training in preparation for deployment overseas. In July 1943, they were sent to Port Moresby, New Guinea, although opposition to the landing was expected, the 14th/32nd Battalion arrived on the beach and found that the Japanese defenders had withdrawn further down the coast. This allowed the battalion to concentrate on the task of establishing a beachhead, as a part of this campaign, the 14th/32nd Battalion was assigned the task of advancing 75 miles along the coast from Jacquinot Bay to Henry Reid Bay. At Kalai the battalion moved into the Kamandran Mission where they received reports of a force of about 200 Japanese occupying a position at Gogbulo creek. Fighting patrols were sent out, but no contact was made, before they could launch an assault, however, the battalion was relieved by the 19th Battalion and on 28 February the 19th crossed the Mavelo. Following this the Japanese withdrew back towards the mountains around the Waitavalo and Tol Plantations, after initially being turned back by intense Japanese mortar and machine-gun fire, the 19th made a successful second attempt, forcing the Japanese back further towards Mount Sugi and Bacon Hill. As orders were passed for an attack to be made on this position, the Japanese position sat atop a 600-foot hill which rose steeply, up to 45 degrees in some places, from the jungle below. The Japanese defences were well-prepared though, and machine-gun and mortar fire from well-sited positions soon pinned down two platoons from B Company, at this point the situation became quite desperate for the attackers, and a number of Australian platoons found themselves embroiled in an intense battle. Finally, late in the day, after having lost 10 men killed, by nightfall the Australians, who had lost a further six men killed and 17 wounded, were in control of most of the position, although two Japanese positions were still holding out. On 18 March the attack was resumed and finally, by 3,00 pm, following the battle, the battalion continued patrolling operations beyond the Waitavalo–Tol area but no further contact was made. On 21 March when they were relieved once more by the 19th Battalion, a week later, on 28 March, the 13th Brigade began to relieve the units of the 6th Brigade, and over the following fortnight the transition took place. On 12 April the battalion returned to Kalai where they received the news that they were being returned to Australian for rest, on 7 May 1945 they embarked upon the troopship Duntroon, arriving in Brisbane a week later. With the war seen to be coming to a close, the Army decided to disband the 6th Brigade and its component units, and as a result, during the war the battalion lost 31 men killed or died on active service and a further 46 wounded. For their service during the Second World War, the 14th/32nd Battalion received the battle honours, South-West Pacific 1942–45
17.
Melbourne
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Melbourne is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in Australia and Oceania. The name Melbourne refers to an urban agglomeration spanning 9,900 km2, the metropolis is located on the large natural bay of Port Phillip and expands into the hinterlands towards the Dandenong and Macedon mountain ranges, Mornington Peninsula and Yarra Valley. It has a population of 4,641,636 as of 2016, and its inhabitants are called Melburnians. Founded by free settlers from the British Crown colony of Van Diemens Land on 30 August 1835, in what was then the colony of New South Wales, it was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837. It was named Melbourne by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Richard Bourke, in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne. It was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria, to whom Lord Melbourne was close, in 1847, during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s, it was transformed into one of the worlds largest and wealthiest cities. After the federation of Australia in 1901, it served as the interim seat of government until 1927. It is a financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. It is recognised as a UNESCO City of Literature and a centre for street art, music. It was the host city of the 1956 Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the main passenger airport serving the metropolis and the state is Melbourne Airport, the second busiest in Australia. The Port of Melbourne is Australias busiest seaport for containerised and general cargo, Melbourne has an extensive transport network. The main metropolitan train terminus is Flinders Street Station, and the regional train. Melbourne is also home to Australias most extensive network and has the worlds largest urban tram network. Before the arrival of settlers, humans had occupied the area for an estimated 31,000 to 40,000 years. At the time of European settlement, it was inhabited by under 2000 hunter-gatherers from three indigenous tribes, the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung and Wathaurong. The area was an important meeting place for the clans of the Kulin nation alliance and it would be 30 years before another settlement was attempted. Batman selected a site on the bank of the Yarra River. Batman then returned to Launceston in Tasmania, in early August 1835 a different group of settlers, including John Pascoe Fawkner, left Launceston on the ship Enterprize
18.
John Monash
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General Sir John Monash, GCMG, KCB, VD was a civil engineer and an Australian military commander of the First World War. He commanded the 13th Infantry Brigade before the war and then, shortly after its outbreak, became commander of the 4th Brigade in Egypt, with whom he took part in the Gallipoli campaign. In July 1916 he took charge of the newly raised 3rd Division in northwestern France and in May 1918 became commander of the Australian Corps, Monash is considered one of the best Allied generals of the First World War and the most famous commander in Australian history. Monash was born in Dudley Street, West Melbourne, Victoria, on 27 June 1865 and he was born to Jewish parents, both from Krotoschin, in the Posen province, Kingdom of Prussia, the family name was originally spelt Monasch. The family spoke German as their native language, as might have been expected from a man brought up by cultivated German parents who had arrived in Australia barely two years before Johns birth, Monash spoke, read, and wrote German fluently. However, from 1914 until his death, Sir John Monash had no reason to attract attention to his German background. In 1874, the moved to the small town of Jerilderie in the Riverina region of New South Wales. Monash later claimed to have met the bushranger Ned Kelly during his raid there in 1879, Monash attended the public school and his intelligence was recognised. The family was advised to move back to Melbourne to let John reach his full potential and he was educated under Alexander Morrison at Scotch College, Melbourne, where he passed the matriculation examination when only 14 years of age. At age 16, he was dux of the school and he graduated from the University of Melbourne, a Master of Engineering in 1893, a Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws in 1895, and a Doctor of Engineering in 1921. On 8 April 1891, Monash married Hannah Victoria Moss, and their only child, Monash had previously engaged in an affair with Annie Gabriel, the wife of one of his colleagues, which ended as an active matter after his conscious choice of Vic for marriage. He worked as a engineer, and played a major role in introducing reinforced concrete to Australian engineering practice. He initially worked for private contractors on bridge and railway construction, following a period with the Melbourne Harbour Trust, in 1894 he entered into partnership with J. T. N. Anderson as consultants and contractors. He took a part in his profession and became president of the Victorian Institute of Engineers. Monash joined the university company of the militia in 1884, and he was promoted to captain in 1895, major in 1897, and in 1906 he became a lieutenant-colonel in the intelligence corps. He was colonel commanding the 13th Infantry Brigade in 1912, when the First World War broke out in August 1914, Monash became a full-time army officer, accepting an appointment as the chief censor in Australia. Monash did not enjoy the job, and was keen for a field command. In September, after the Australian Imperial Force was formed, he was appointed as the commander of the 4th Infantry Brigade, which consisted of four battalions, when the first contingent of Australian troops, the 1st Division, sailed in October, the 4th Brigade remained behind
19.
Broadmeadows, Victoria
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Broadmeadows is a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia,16 km north from Melbournes central business district. Its local government area is the City of Hume, at the 2011 Census, Broadmeadows had a population of 10,578. The Broadmeadows area, home to the Wurundjeri Aboriginal tribe prior to European settlement, was settled by pastoralists in the 1840s, the original Broadmeadows aka Old Broady is now known as Westmeadows, which lies to the west of the present Broadmeadows. The first Broadmeadows township was laid out by a Government survey in 1850, ardlie Street was its commercial centre with a hotel, the police station and the shire office. Broadmeadows centre was altered when the line and station were opened two kilometres to the original centres east in 1872. Shire loyalties clung to the old township until new civic offices were built near the station in 1928. Broadmeadows was the site of the camp for the reception. Broadmeadows had been identified as a site for military training in 1913. The camp was established in August 1914 at Mornington Park, a property loaned to the government by Mr R. G. Wilson, early on, Broadmeadows was predominantly a tented camp and conditions were quite spartan. These facilities, combined with wet weather and poor drainage resulted in an increase in sickness among recruits in autumn 1915. Broadmeadows Camp remained in use throughout the war, however, with facilities being progressively improved, the Housing Commission of Victoria began the building of a 2,226 ha. estate in the Broadmeadows area in 1949. Not until 1975 did it begin building in the vicinity of the old township, between 1975 and 1979 it built over 900 houses in the area. The first Broadmeadows Post Office opened on 1 January 1855, was renamed Broadmeadows West in 1955, the second Broadmeadows Post Office was renamed in 1956 from Broadmeadows East. It closed in 1968 the day Dallas became the third Broadmeadows Post Office, a later Broadmeadows East office, near Widford Street to the southeast of the station, opened in 1961, was renamed Broadmeadows South in 1969, and also remains open. The City hosted the cycling event at the 1956 Summer Olympics. Broadmeadows has a manufacturing industry, including a large Ford factory in Campbellfield. Meadows Primary School Broadmeadows Primary School Broadmeadows Valley Primary School St, just over half of Broadmeadows population was born in Australia and 37. 1% were born overseas. Around one third were born overseas in a non-English speaking country, the most common overseas countries of birth of Broadmeadows residents are Turkey, Iraq and Lebanon
20.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
21.
Albert Jacka
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Jacka was the first Australian to be decorated with the VC during the First World War, receiving the medal for his actions during the Gallipoli Campaign. He later served on the Western Front and was further decorated for his bravery. Upon the conclusion of the war, Jacka returned to Australia and entered business, establishing the electrical goods importing and exporting business Roxburgh and he was later elected to the local council, where he became the mayor of the City of St Kilda. Jacka never fully recovered from the wounds he sustained during his war service. Albert Jacka was born on a farm near Winchelsea, Victoria on 10 January 1893. His family moved to Wedderburn, Victoria when he was five years old and he was working for the Victorian State Forests Department when the First World War broke out. Jacka enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force on 18 September 1914 and he was assigned to the 14th Battalion, 4th Brigade, 1st Division and finished his training at Broadmeadows Camp. After Turkey became a German ally, the 1st Division was sent to Egypt to defend the Suez Canal, Jacka and his battalion arrived at Alexandria on 31 January 1915. Jacka fought in the Gallipoli Campaign that started on 25 April 1915, the NZ&A-held position, a series of trenches which became known as Courtneys Post, was where Jacka won the Victoria Cross. On 19 May 1915, the Turks launched an assault against the Anzac Line, capturing a section of the trench at Courtneys Post and it was then decided that while a feint attack was made from the same end, Jacka would attack from the rear. The party then proceeded to engage the Turks with rifle fire and he climbed out onto no mans land, entering the trench via the parapet. In the resulting conflict, Jacka shot five Turkish soldiers and bayoneted two others, forcing the remainder to flee the trench, he held the trench alone for the remainder of the night. Jackas platoon commander, Lieutenant Crabbe, informed him the morning that he would be recommended for his bravery. 465 Lance-Corporal Albert Jacka, 14th Battalion, Australian Imperial Forces, for most conspicuous bravery on the night of the 19th–20th May,1915 at Courtneys Post, Gallipoli Peninsula. Lance-Corporal Jacka, while holding a portion of our trench with four men, was heavily attacked. When all except himself were killed or wounded, the trench was rushed and occupied by seven Turks, Lance-Corporal Jacka at once most gallantly attacked them single-handed, and killed the whole party, five by rifle fire and two with the bayonet. After nine months of fighting and 26,111 Australian casualties, in Egypt, he passed through officer training school with high marks, and on 29 April 1916 was commissioned as a second lieutenant. Following the heavy casualties on the Somme, the 14th Battalion was transferred to the Pozières sector of the Somme offensive, Jackas division, on 23 July 1916, was involved in the attack of Pozières planned by Major General Harold Bridgwood Walker
22.
Victoria Cross
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The Victoria Cross is the highest award of the United Kingdom honours system. It is awarded for gallantry in the face of the enemy to members of the British armed forces and it was previously awarded to Commonwealth countries, most of which have established their own honours systems and no longer recommend British honours. It may be awarded to a person of any rank in any service. Since the first awards were presented by Queen Victoria in 1857 and these investitures are usually held at Buckingham Palace. The VC was introduced on 29 January 1856 by Queen Victoria to honour acts of valour during the Crimean War, since then, the medal has been awarded 1,358 times to 1,355 individual recipients. Only 15 medals,11 to members of the British Army, the traditional explanation of the source of the metal from which the medals are struck is that it derives from Russian cannon captured at the Siege of Sevastopol. Some research has suggested a variety of origins for the material, research has established that the metal for most of the medals made since December 1914 came from two Chinese cannons that were captured from the Russians in 1855. Owing to its rarity, the VC is highly prized and the medal has fetched over £400,000 at auction, a number of public and private collections are devoted to the Victoria Cross. The private collection of Lord Ashcroft, amassed since 1986, contains over one-tenth of all VCs awarded, following a 2008 donation to the Imperial War Museum, the Ashcroft collection went on public display alongside the museums Victoria and George Cross collection in November 2010. These are unique awards of honours system, recommended, assessed, gazetted and presented by each country. In 1854, after 39 years of peace, Britain found itself fighting a war against Russia. The Crimean War was one of the first wars with modern reporting, before the Crimean War, there was no official standardised system for recognition of gallantry within the British armed forces. This structure was limited, in practice awards of the Order of the Bath were confined to officers of field rank. Brevet promotions or Mentions in Despatches were largely confined to those who were under the notice of the commanders in the field. Other European countries had awards that did not discriminate against class or rank, France awarded the Légion dhonneur and The Netherlands gave the Order of William. There was a feeling among the public and in the Royal Court that a new award was needed to recognise incidents of gallantry that were unconnected with a mans lengthy or meritorious service. Queen Victoria issued a Warrant under the Royal sign-manual on 29 January 1856 that officially constituted the VC, the order was backdated to 1854 to recognise acts of valour during the Crimean War. Queen Victoria had instructed the War Office to strike a new medal that would not recognise birth or class, the medal was meant to be a simple decoration that would be highly prized and eagerly sought after by those in the military services
23.
Battle of Sari Bair
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The Gallipoli Campaign had raged on two fronts, Anzac and Helles, for three months since the invasion of 25 April 1915. With the Anzac landing a tense stalemate, the Allies had attempted to carry the offensive on the Helles battlefield at enormous cost for little gain, at Helles, the British and French were now to remain largely on the defensive. The battle should properly be known as the Battle of Kocaçimentepe which was the correct Turkish name for the ridge, the peak was known to the British as Hill 971 and they mistakenly applied the name for a lesser ridge to the main range. He was later reinforced with two Territorial Army divisions, the 53rd Division and the 54th Division and one division of dismounted yeomanry, the 2nd Mounted Division. The Suvla landing was to be made by the British IX Corps and his appointment was made based solely on seniority but his hesitancy during the preparations for the landing should have warned Hamilton that he was not a fit choice for the command. The Ottomans were well aware that a renewal of the offensive was imminent, consequently, the Fifth Army underwent a reorganisation resulting in an expansion to 16 divisions. Ten of these defended the existing battlefields, three divisions defended the Asian shore of the Dardanelles and three divisions of the Ottoman XVI Corps defended the Gulf of Saros north of Bulair at the neck of the peninsula. The Ottomans anticipated that the offensive would involve a breakout from Anzac but were unsure whether it would be north or south. A new British landing was considered likely but Suvla was not rated highly as a candidate. The Ottoman commanders also dismissed the possibility of an assault against the Sari Bair range due to the rugged terrain, the attack from the Anzac perimeter was directed against two peaks of the Sari Bair range, Chunuk Bair and Hill 971. Under the overall command of Major-General Alexander Godley, the force included the New Zealand and Australian Division. The plan was for two assaulting columns to march out of Anzac on the night of 6 August, the right-hand column, comprising the New Zealand Infantry Brigade under Brigadier-General Francis Johnston, would head for Chunuk Bair. Both objectives were expected to be captured by dawn, to distract the Ottomans from the impending offensive, on 6 August, at 5.30 p. m. an attack was made at Lone Pine by the infantry brigades of the Australian 1st Division. While the attack was successful in capturing the Ottoman trenches. Another costly diversion was carried out at Helles which resulted in a struggle over a patch of ground known as Krithia Vineyard. As was the case at Lone Pine, the British action at Helles did not restrain the Ottomans from sending reinforcements north to the Sari Bair range. The right column heading for Chunuk Bair had a simpler navigation task as their route was to some degree visible from the old Anzac perimeter. In what became known as the Battle of Chunuk Bair, the New Zealanders failed to capture the peak by the morning of 7 August, on the morning following the breakout, a number of other attacks were planned within the old Anzac perimeter
24.
Battle of Hill 60 (Gallipoli)
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The Battle of Hill 60 was the last major assault of the Gallipoli Campaign. It was launched on 21 August 1915 to coincide with the attack on Scimitar Hill made from the Suvla front by Major-General H. de B, de Lisles British IX Corps, Stopford having been replaced in the few days previous. Hill 60 was a low knoll at the end of the Sari Bair range which dominated the Suvla landing. Capturing this hill along with Scimitar Hill would have allowed the Anzac, two major attacks were made by Allied forces, the first on 21 August and the second on 27 August. Hill 60 commanded the low ground occupied by a line of outposts between the Allied forces at Anzac and Suvla. The hill was to be taken as part of an attack that stretched over a front from Hill 60 through Hetman Chair, Hill 70. The initial plan allocated the objective of Hill 60 to the New Zealand Mounted Rifles. To their left, the Connaught Rangers were to take the water wells at Kabak Kuyu, on the morning of 21 August, it was decided that the New Zealand artillery support, that had been planned to pre-empt the attack, would be diverted to support the Suvla offensive. The start time for the advance on Hill 60 was put back by 30 minutes, as a consequence Hill 60, and the area around it, received practically no bombardment and the attackers were guaranteed to face severe opposition because the Turks were alerted. The NZMR moved out at 3,30 with a 400-metre approach march to the Ottoman positions. A number of Turks, on seeing the advancing lines abandoned their front trench, ran back to their trenches and, by 3,45. Brigadier-General Andrew Hamilton Russell, the NZMR commander, ordered the Australians to push forward and requested that the Connaughts assist on the left flank. Although only A Company was ordered forward, the Connaughts had become very mixed, the survivors consolidated their position in the first-line trench, and were relieved by the Gurkhas from 5,15, leaving the Connaughts to concentrate on securing and fortifying the wells. The right flank was still having difficulties, from Hill 100 down to Hill 60, the Turkish trenches and artillery commanded the Kaiajik Dere valley which 4 Aust and the Hampshires had to cross. Those that survived the crossing had dug in at 5 pm, an artillery shell had set undergrowth on fire, burning many of the wounded to death. The Connaughts joined up with the NZMR to their right by 7 pm, on 22 August, the attack was reinforced by the Australian 18th Battalion which was part of the newly arrived Australian 2nd Division. The men were fresh and healthy, in stark contrast to the veteran troops, attacking only with the bayonet, they suffered 383 casualties, out of 750 men, in their dawn attack on Hill 60. The assault resumed on 27 August and further progress was made up the slope, on the evening of 27 August 1915, the 9th Light Horse Regiment, of the Australian 3rd Light Horse Brigade, were sent in as reinforcements
25.
46th Battalion (Australia)
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The 46th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army. Originally raised in 1916 for service during the First World War and it was re-raised as a part-time unit of the Citizens Forces in 1921 and in 1927 adopted the title of the Brighton Rifles, before becoming part of the Militia in 1929. During the Second World War the 46th served in a role before being amalgamated with the 29th Battalion in August 1942 to form the 29th/46th Battalion. After a period of rotating through the line throughout the winter of 1916–17 and it was at Bullecourt, on 11 April 1917, that the battalion suffered its worst losses of the war. The remainder of 1917 was spent in Belgium, where the 46th fought two more actions at Messines and Passchendaele. In early 1918, it was transferred south to France where it played a role during the German Spring Offensive. Later in the year, it took part in the final Allied offensive that began around Amiens in August 1918 and they remained out of the line until the armistice came into effect on 11 November 1918. Following the end of hostilities, the battalion was disbanded in April 1919, during its service throughout the war, the battalion lost 590 men killed and 1,939 wounded. A total of 16 battle honours were awarded to the 46th Battalion for its involvement in the war, as a result, in May 1921 the 46th Battalion was re-raised in Victoria and attached to the 4th Brigade, within the 3rd Military District. Upon formation, the battalion drew personnel from the 2nd Battalion, 46th Infantry Regiment and parts of the 14th Infantry, in 1927, territorial designations were adopted and the battalion took on the designation of the Brighton Rifles due to its association with Brighton, Victoria. Its motto – Prorsum Simulque – was approved the same year, in order to break with the previous system, the decision was made to adopt the name of the Militia in order to emphasise the voluntary nature of service. During the inter-war period, the battalion formed alliances with the Duke of Cornwalls Light Infantry, the Rand Light Infantry, following this, the 46th Battalion undertook a number of training camps as the Militia were called up for periods of continuous training throughout 1940 and 1941. The 46th Battalion was one of those chosen to be amalgamated and, as a result, in August 1942. The 29th/46th would later go on to serve in New Guinea during the Huon Peninsula campaign in 1943–44 and then the New Britain campaign in 1945, before being disbanded in 1946. After the war, although the 46th Battalion was not re-raised, Second World War, South West Pacific 1943–45, Liberation of Australian New Guinea, and Gusika–Fortification Point
26.
Battle of Arras (1917)
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The Battle of Arras was a British offensive on the Western Front during World War I. From 9 April to 16 May 1917, British troops attacked German defences near the French city of Arras on the Western Front, the British achieved the longest advance since trench warfare had begun, surpassing the record set by the French Sixth Army on 1 July 1916. The British advance slowed in the few days and the German defence recovered. The battle became a stalemate for both sides and by the end of the battle the British Third and First armies had suffered about 160,000 casualties. For much of the war, the armies on the Western Front were at a stalemate. The Allied objective from early 1915 was to break through the German defences into the ground beyond. The British attack at Arras was part of the French Nivelle Offensive, the aim of the French offensive was to breathrough the German defences in forty-eight hours. At Arras the British were to re-capture Vimy Ridge, dominating the plain of Douai to the east, advance towards Cambrai, the British effort was a relatively broad front assault between Vimy in the north-west and Bullecourt to the south-east. After a long preparatory bombardment, the Canadian Corps]] of the First Army in the north fought Battle of Vimy Ridge and took the ridge. The Third Army in the centre advanced astride the Scarpe River and in the south, the British armies then engaged in a series of small-scale operations to consolidate the new positions. Although these battles were successful in achieving limited aims, they were costly successes. When the battle ended on 16 May, British Empire troops had made significant advances but had been unable to achieve a breakthrough. At the beginning of 1917, the British and French were still searching for a way to achieve a breakthrough on the Western Front. Both battles consumed enormous quantities of resources while achieving virtually no strategic gains on the battlefield, the mid-war years were momentous times. Governing politicians in Paris and London were under pressure from the press. The casualties from the battles of Gallipoli, the Somme and Verdun had been high, British Prime Minister, H. H. Asquith, resigned in early December 1916 and was succeeded by David Lloyd George. The United States Congress finally declared war on Imperial Germany on 6 April 1917, in March, the German army in the west, withdrew to the Hindenburg line in Operation Alberich, which negated the tactical assumptions underlying the plans for the French offensive. Until French troops advanced to compensate during the Battles of Arras, they encountered no German troops in the assault sector, the French government desperately needed a victory to avoid civil unrest but the British were wary of proceeding, in view of the rapidly changing tactical situation
27.
Spring Offensive
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The Germans had realised that their only remaining chance of victory was to defeat the Allies before the overwhelming human and matériel resources of the United States could be fully deployed. They also had the advantage in numbers afforded by the nearly 50 divisions freed by the Russian surrender. There were four German offensives, codenamed Michael, Georgette, Gneisenau, once this was achieved, it was hoped that the French would seek armistice terms. The other offensives were subsidiary to Michael and were designed to divert Allied forces from the offensive on the Somme. No clear objective was established before the start of the offensives and once the operations were underway, the Allies concentrated their main forces in the essential areas, while leaving strategically worthless ground, devastated by years of combat, lightly defended. The Germans were unable to move supplies and reinforcements fast enough to maintain their advance, the fast-moving stormtroopers leading the attack could not carry enough food and ammunition to sustain themselves for long and all the German offensives petered out, in part through lack of supplies. By late April 1918, the danger of a German breakthrough had passed, the German Army had suffered heavy casualties and now occupied ground of dubious value which would prove impossible to hold with such depleted units. In August 1918, the Allies began a counter-offensive with the support of 1–2 million fresh American troops and using new artillery techniques, the German government and Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, nominally the Chief of the General Staff, were not party to the planning process. Eventually it was decided to launch Operation Michael near Saint-Quentin, at the hinge between the French and British armies, and strike north to Arras, the main reason for the choice was tactical expediency. The ground on this sector of the front would dry out much sooner after the winter and spring rains and it was also a line of least resistance as the British and French armies were weak in the sector. However, these remained only secondary and weaker operations, subordinate to Michael, the constant changing of operational targets once the offensive was underway gave the impression the German command had no coherent strategic goal. Any capture of an important strategic objective, such as the Channel ports, the success of Operation Michael led German infantry to advance too far from its supply bases and railheads. The stormtrooper units leading the advance carried supplies for only a few days, the advance was slowed by supply shortages, which gave Allied commanders more time to reinforce the threatened areas and to slow the advance still more. The stormtrooper tactic was to attack and disrupt enemy headquarters, artillery units, each major formation creamed off its best and fittest soldiers into storm units, several complete divisions were formed from these elite units. The Germans also failed to arm their forces with a mobile force, such as cavalry. This tactical error meant the infantry had to keep up a tempo of advance. Notwithstanding the effectiveness of the stormtroopers, the following German infantry often made attacks in large traditional waves, to enable the initial breakthrough, Lieutenant Colonel Georg Bruchmüller, a German artillery officer, developed the Feuerwalze, an effective and economical creeping barrage scheme. There were three phases, first, a bombardment on the enemys command and communications, then, destruction of their artillery
28.
Hundred Days Offensive
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The offensive essentially pushed the Germans out of France, forcing them to retreat beyond the Hindenburg Line, and was followed by an armistice. The term Hundred Days Offensive does not refer to a battle or unified strategy. The Spring Offensive of the German Army on the Western Front had begun on 21 March 1918 with Operation Michael and had petered out by July, the Germans had advanced to the river Marne but failed to achieve a decisive breakthrough. When Operation Marne-Rheims ended in July, the Allied supreme commander Ferdinand Foch ordered a counter-offensive which became known as the Second Battle of the Marne, the Germans, recognising their untenable position, withdrew from the Marne towards the north. For this victory, Foch was granted the title Marshal of France, Foch considered the time had arrived for the Allies to return to the offensive. The American Expeditionary Force, was present in France in large numbers, pershing was keen to use his army in an independent role. The Somme was chosen as a site for the offensive for several reasons. As in 1916, it marked the boundary between the BEF and the French armies, in this case defined by the Amiens–Roye road, also the Picardy countryside provided a good surface for tanks, which was not the case in Flanders. Finally, the German defences, manned by the German 2nd Army, were relatively weak, the Battle of Amiens opened on 8 August 1918, with an attack by more than 10 Allied divisions—Australian, Canadian, British and French forces—with more than 500 tanks. Through careful preparation, the Allies achieved surprise, the attack, led by the British Fourth Army, broke through the German lines and tanks attacked German rear positions, sowing panic and confusion. By the end of the day, a gap 15 mi wide had been created in the German line south of the Somme, the Allies had taken 17,000 prisoners and 330 guns. Total German losses were estimated to be 30,000 men, while the Allies had suffered about 6,500 killed, wounded, the collapse in German morale led Erich Ludendorff to dub it the Black Day of the German Army. The advance continued for three days but without the spectacular results of 8 August, since the rapid advance outran the supporting artillery. During those three days, the Allies had managed to gain 12 mi but most of that had occurred on the first day, as a result of the Germans adding reinforcements. On 10 August, the Germans began to pull out of the salient that they had managed to occupy during Operation Michael in March, haig refused and prepared to launch a fresh offensive by the Third Army at Albert, which opened on 21 August. The offensive was a success, pushing the German 2nd Army back over a 34 mi front, Albert was captured on 22 August. The attack was widened on the south, by the French Tenth Army starting the Second Battle of Noyon on 17 August, capturing the town of Noyon on 29 August. On 26 August, to the north of the initial attack, with the front line broken, a number of battles took place as the Allies forced the Germans back to the Hindenburg Line
29.
Battle of Amiens (1918)
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Allied forces advanced over 11 kilometres on the first day, one of the greatest advances of the war, with Henry Rawlinsons British Fourth Army playing the decisive role. The battle is notable for its effects on both sides morale and the large number of surrendering German forces. This led Erich Ludendorff to describe the first day of the battle as the day of the German Army. On 21 March 1918, the German Army had launched Operation Michael and these offensives were intended to translate this advantage into victory. Operation Michael was intended to defeat the right wing of the British Expeditionary Force, a final effort was aimed at the town of Amiens, a vital railway junction, but the advance had been halted at Villers-Bretonneux by British and Australian troops on 4 April. By the end of the Marne-Rheims offensive, the German manpower advantage had been spent and their supplies, the Allied generalissimo, General Ferdinand Foch, ordered a counteroffensive which led to the Second Battle of the Marne, after which victory he was promoted to Marshal of France. The Germans, recognising their untenable position, withdrew from the Marne to the north, Foch now tried to move the Allies back onto the offensive. Foch disclosed his plan on 23 July 1918, following the Franco-American victory at the Battle of Soissons, the plan called for reducing the Saint-Mihiel salient and freeing the railway lines that ran through Amiens from German shellfire. The commander of the British Expeditionary Force, Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, when the British retreat had ended in April, the headquarters of the British Fourth Army under General Sir Henry Rawlinson had taken over the front astride the Somme. On 30 May, all the Australian infantry divisions were united under the corps HQ, Rawlinson had submitted Monashs proposals to Haig in July and Haig had forwarded them to Foch. At a meeting on 24 July, Foch agreed to the plan but insisted that the French First Army, Rawlinson opposed this as his and Monashs plans depended on the large-scale use of tanks to achieve surprise, by avoiding a preliminary bombardment. The French First Army lacked tanks and would be forced to bombard the German positions before the advance began. Eventually, it was agreed that the French would participate, and it was also agreed to advance the proposed date of the attack from 10 August to 8 August, to strike the Germans before they had completed their withdrawal from the Marne salient. Rawlinson had already finalised his plans in discussion with his Corps commanders on 21 July, for the first time, the Australians would attack side by side with the Canadian Corps. Both had a reputation for aggressive and innovative tactics and a record of success over the past two years. The tactical methods had been tested by the Australians in a local counter-attack at the Battle of Hamel on 4 July, the German defenders of Hamel were deeply dug in, and their position commanded a very wide field of fire. Similar positions had resisted capture for two months in the Battle of the Somme, the Australians had used surprise rather than weight at Hamel. The artillery had opened only at the moment the infantry and tanks advanced
30.
Armistice
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An armistice is a formal agreement of warring parties to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, since it may constitute only a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace and it is derived from the Latin arma, meaning arms and -stitium, meaning a stopping. The United Nations Security Council often imposes, or tries to impose, armistices are always negotiated between the parties themselves and are thus generally seen as more binding than non-mandatory UN cease-fire resolutions in modern international law. An armistice is a modus vivendi and is not the same as a peace treaty, the 1953 Korean War Armistice Agreement is a major example of an armistice which has not been followed by a peace treaty. Armistice is also different from a truce or ceasefire, which refer to a cessation of hostilities for an agreed limited time or within a limited area. A truce may be needed in order to negotiate an armistice, under international law an armistice is a legal agreement which ends fighting between the belligerent parties of a war or conflict. The Hague II Treaty, says If duration is not fixed, the parties can resume fighting as they choose and this is in comparison to a fixed duration armistice, where the parties can renew fighting only at the end of the particular fixed duration. Most countries changed the name of the holiday after World War II, to veterans of that. Most member states of the Commonwealth of Nations adopted the name Remembrance Day, archived from the original on 2 February 2007. The Expanded Cease-Fires Data Set Code Book
31.
Demobilization
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Demobilization or demobilisation is the process of standing down a nations armed forces from combat-ready status. This may be as a result of victory in war, or because a crisis has been peacefully resolved, the opposite of demobilization is mobilization. Forceful demobilization of an enemy is called demilitarization. The British armed forces were demobilised according to an age-and-service scheme, the phrase demob happy refers to demobilization and is broadly applied to the feeling of relief at imminent release from a time-serving burden, such as a career. In the Russian language it is known as dembel and has become a tradition in the Soviet and post-Soviet Armed Forces. A United States equivalent is short-timers disease, comparable to senioritis among United States high-school students, 19th of April Movement Demobilization of United States armed forces after World War II Demob suit Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration Military discharge
32.
Order of the Bath
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The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for appointing a knight. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath, George I erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order. Prior to 1815, the order had only a class, Knight Companion. Recipients of the Order are now usually senior officers or senior civil servants. Commonwealth citizens who are not subjects of the Queen and foreign nationals may be made Honorary Members, in the Middle Ages, knighthood was often conferred with elaborate ceremonies. These usually involved the taking a bath during which he was instructed in the duties of knighthood by more senior knights. He was then put to bed to dry, clothed in a special robe, he was led with music to the chapel where he spent the night in a vigil. At dawn he made confession and attended Mass, then retired to his bed to sleep until it was fully daylight, in the early medieval period the difference seems to have been that the full ceremonies were used for men from more prominent families. Knights Bachelor continued to be created with the form of ceremony. The last occasion on which Knights of the Bath were created was the coronation of Charles II in 1661. From at least 1625, and possibly from the reign of James I, Knights of the Bath were using the motto Tria iuncta in uno, and wearing as a badge three crowns within a plain gold oval. These were both adopted by the Order of the Bath, a similar design of badge is still worn by members of the Civil Division. Their symbolism however is not entirely clear, the three joined in one may be a reference to the kingdoms of England, Scotland and either France or Ireland, which were held by English and, later, British monarchs. This would correspond to the three crowns in the badge, another explanation of the motto is that it refers to the Holy Trinity. The prime mover in the establishment of the Order of the Bath was John Anstis, Garter King of Arms, the Court remained the centre of the political world. The King was limited in that he had to choose Ministers who could command a majority in Parliament, the leader of an administration still had to command the Kings personal confidence and approval. A strong following in Parliament depended on being able to supply places, pensions, the attraction of the new Order for Walpole was that it would provide a source of such favours to strengthen his political position
33.
Distinguished Service Order
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Instituted on 6 September 1886 by Queen Victoria in a Royal Warrant published in the The London Gazette on 9 November, the first DSOs awarded were dated 25 November 1886. It is typically awarded to officers ranked major or higher, during the First World War,8,981 DSOs were awarded, each award being announced in The London Gazette. The order was established for rewarding individual instances of meritorious or distinguished service in war, after 1 January 1917, commanders in the field were instructed to recommend this award only for those serving under fire. Prior to 1943, the order could be only to someone mentioned in despatches. The order is given to officers in command, above the rank of captain. A number of junior officers were awarded the DSO. In 1942, the award of the DSO was extended to officers of the Merchant Navy who had performed acts of gallantry while under enemy attack. Since 1993, its award has been restricted solely to distinguished service and it has, however, despite some very fierce campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan, remained an officers-only award and it has yet to be awarded to a non-commissioned rank. Recipients of the order are known as Companions of the Distinguished Service Order. They are entitled to use the post-nominal letters DSO, one or more gold medal bars ornamented by the Crown may be issued to DSO holders performing further acts of such leadership which would have merited award of the DSO. The bars are worn as clasps on the ribbon of the original award. The medal signifying its award is a cross, enamelled white. In the centre, within a wreath of laurel, enamelled green, is the crown in gold upon a red enamelled background. On the reverse is the royal cypher in gold upon a red enamelled ground, within a wreath of laurel, a ring at the top of the medal attaches to a ring at the bottom of a gold suspension bar, ornamented with laurel. At the top of the ribbon is a gold bar ornamented with laurel. The red ribbon is 1.125 in wide with blue edges. The medals are issued unnamed but some recipients have had their names engraved on the reverse of the suspension bar, the bar for an additional award is plain gold with an Imperial Crown in the centre. The back of the bar is engraved with the year of the award, a rosette is worn on the ribbon in undress uniform to signify the award of a bar
34.
Order of the British Empire
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There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of, the order. Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire were at first made on the nomination of the United Kingdom, the self-governing Dominions of the Empire, nominations continue today from Commonwealth countries that participate in recommending British honours. Most members are citizens of the United Kingdom or the Commonwealth realms that use the Imperial system of honours and awards. Honorary knighthoods are appointed to citizens of nations where the Queen is not head of state, occasionally, honorary appointees are, incorrectly, referred to as Sir or Dame – Bill Gates or Bob Geldof, for example. In particular, King George V wished to create an Order to honour many thousands of those who had served in a variety of non-combatant roles during the First World War, when first established, the Order had only one division. However, in 1918, soon after its foundation, it was divided into Military. The Orders motto is For God and the Empire, at the foundation of the Order, the Medal of the Order of the British Empire was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. In 1922, this was renamed the British Empire Medal, in addition, the BEM is awarded by the Cook Islands and by some other Commonwealth nations. The British monarch is Sovereign of the Order, and appoints all members of the Order. The next most senior member is the Grand Master, of whom there have been three, Prince Edward, the Prince of Wales, Queen Mary, and the current Grand Master, the Duke of Edinburgh. The Order is limited to 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross,845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8,960 Commanders. There are no limits applied to the number of members of the fourth and fifth classes. Foreign recipients, as members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the Order as full members do. Though men can be knighted separately from an order of chivalry, women cannot, and so the rank of Knight/Dame Commander of the Order is the lowest rank of damehood, and second-lowest of knighthood. Because of this, Dame Commander is awarded in circumstances in which a man would be created a Knight Bachelor, for example, by convention, female judges of the High Court of Justice are created Dames Commander after appointment, while male judges become Knights Bachelor. The Order has six officials, the Prelate, the Dean, the Secretary, the Registrar, the King of Arms, the Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England, serves as the Orders Prelate. The Dean of St Pauls is ex officio the Dean of the Order, the Orders King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, as are many other heraldic officers. From time to time, individuals are appointed to a higher grade within the Order, thereby ceasing usage of the junior post-nominal letters
35.
Distinguished Conduct Medal
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The Distinguished Conduct Medal, post-nominal letters DCM, was established in 1854 by Queen Victoria as a decoration for gallantry in the field by other ranks of the British Army. It is the oldest British award for gallantry and was a second level military decoration, the medal was also awarded to non-commissioned military personnel of other Commonwealth Dominions and Colonies. Prior to the institution of this decoration, there had been no medal awarded by the British government in recognition of acts of gallantry in the Army. One known prior award for acts of gallantry by other ranks was the unofficial Sir Harry Smiths Medal for Gallantry, although the British government initially disapproved of Sir Harrys institution of the medal, it subsequently paid for it and thereby gave it recognition, but not official status. Recipients of the Distinguished Conduct Medal are entitled to the post-nominal letters DCM, a Bar to the medal, introduced in 1881, could be awarded in recognition of each subsequent act of distinguished conduct for which the medal would have been awarded. During the First World War, the concern arose that the number of medals which were being awarded would devalue the prestige of those already awarded. The Military Medal for bravery in battle on land was instituted on 25 March 1916. The lesser Military Medal was usually awarded for bravery from this date, around 25,000 Distinguished Conduct Medals were awarded during the First World War, while approximately 1,900 were awarded during the Second World War. The medal could also be awarded to personnel serving in any of the Sovereigns forces in the British Empire. It remained an exclusively Army award until 1942, when other ranks of the Royal Navy, Royal Air Force, in May 1894, Queen Victoria authorised Colonial governments to adopt various military medals and to award them to their local military forces. The Colony of Natal and the Cape Colony introduced this system in August and September 1894 respectively, other territories which made use of the opportunity were Australia, Canada and New Zealand. In respect of the Distinguished Conduct Medal, two versions are known to have been awarded, both King Edward VII versions. A territorial version of the Distinguished Conduct Medal was also approved for the Union of South Africa in 1913, More than 300 members of the Union Defence Forces were awarded the applicable British versions of the decoration during the two World Wars. These three decorations were replaced by the Conspicuous Gallantry Cross, to serve as the second award for gallantry for all ranks of all the Arms of the Service. The medal was struck in silver and is a disk,36 millimetres in diameter and 3 millimetres thick, the suspender of all versions of the medal is an ornamented scroll pattern. The manner of attachment of the suspender to the medal varied between medal versions and, on early versions, allows the medal to swivel, all medals awarded bear the recipient’s number, rank, name and unit on the rim. From 1902, after the accession of King Edward VII, the effigy of the reigning monarch replaced the trophy of arms, King Edward VII – EDWARDVS VII REX IMPERATOR. King George V, bareheaded – GEORGIVS V BRITT, OMN, REX ET IND, King George V, crowned – GEORGIVS•V•D•G•BRITT•OMN•REX•ET•INDIÆ•IMP•
36.
Military Cross
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The Military Cross is the third-level military decoration awarded to officers and other ranks of the British Armed Forces, and used to be awarded to officers of other Commonwealth countries. The MC is granted in recognition of an act or acts of gallantry during active operations against the enemy on land to all members. In 1979, the Queen approved a proposal that a number of awards, including the Military Cross, the award was created on 28 December 1914 for commissioned officers of the substantive rank of Captain or below and for Warrant Officers. In August 1916, Bars were awarded to the MC in recognition of the performance of acts of gallantry meriting the award. In 1931 the award was extended to Majors and also to members of the Royal Air Force for actions on the ground, the MC now serves as the third-level award for gallantry on land for all ranks of the British Armed Forces. 46 mm max height,44 mm max width, ornamental silver cross with straight arms terminating in broad finials, suspended from plain suspension bar. Obverse decorated with crowns, with the Royal Cypher in centre. Reverse is plain, but from 1938 the name of the recipient, the ribbon width is 32 mm and consists of three equal vertical moire stripes of white, purple, and white. During World War I, Acting Captain Francis Wallington of the Royal Field Artillery was the first person to be awarded the MC, during World War II Captain Sam Manekshaw, Indian Army, was leading a counter-offensive operation against the invading Japanese Army in Burma. During the course of the offensive, he was hit by a burst of machine-gun fire, Major General D. T. Cowan spotted Manekshaw holding on to life and was aware of his valour in face of stiff resistance from the Japanese. Fearing the worst, Major General Cowan quickly pinned his own Military Cross ribbon on to Manekshaw saying, the first posthumous Military Cross was that awarded to Captain Herbert Westmacott, Grenadier Guards for gallantry in Northern Ireland during the period 1 February 1980 to 30 April 1980. The first woman to be awarded the Military Cross was Private Michelle Norris of the Royal Army Medical Corps, Norris was awarded her medal personally by Queen Elizabeth II on 21 March 2007 as the result of her actions in Iraq on 11 June 2006. Able Seaman Kate Nesbitt, second woman, first in the Royal Navy, sergeant Michael Lockett MC was the first holder of the MC to be killed in action since World War II. Database of Australian Awardees at the Australian Government Honours website Search recommendations for the Military Cross on The UK National Archives website, the Kings Own Royal Regiment Museum, Military Cross
37.
Military Medal
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The medal was established on 25 March 1916. It was the other ranks equivalent to the Military Cross, which was awarded to commissioned officers and, rarely, to warrant officers, the MM ranked below the Distinguished Conduct Medal, which was also awarded to non-commissioned members of the Army. According to Frank Richards, when the medal was first introduced, Richards writes, There were no grants or allowances with the Military Medal, which without a shadow of a doubt had been introduced to save awarding too many DCMs. With the DCM went a money-grant of twenty pounds, and a man in receipt of a life pension who had won the DCM was entitled to an extra sixpence a day on to his pension. After the new decoration was introduced, for every DCM awarded there were fifty Military Medals, the old regular soldiers thought very little of the new decoration. Recipients of the Military Medal are entitled to use the post-nominal letters MM, over 115,000 awards were made for actions during the First World War. Additionally, over 5,700 bars were awarded, as well as 180 second bars, during the Second World War, over 15,000 awards of the MM were made. In 1993, the Military Medal was discontinued, since then, the Military Cross has been awarded to personnel of all ranks within the British honours system. Several Commonwealth nations, such as Australia, New Zealand and Canada, have established their own systems in the post Second World War era. The medal and ribbon had the features, A circular silver medal of 36 mm diameter. The obverse bears the effigy of the reigning monarch, the reverse has the inscription FOR BRAVERY IN THE FIELD in four lines, surrounded by a laurel wreath, surmounted by the Royal Cypher and Imperial Crown. The suspender is of a scroll type. The ribbon is blue,1.25 inches wide, with five equal centre stripes of white, red, white, red. Silver, laurelled bars are authorised for subsequent awards, over 135,000 people have been awarded the Military Medal. Among the more notable recipients are, Walter Bingham, Jewish refugee from Nazi Germany who served in Normandy, ian Bailey, who was awarded the medal as a Corporal in The Parachute Regiment during the Falklands War, and went on to become a Captain. Geoffrey Bingham, Australian theologian and author, mairi Chisholm, British volunteer ambulance driver. Douglas Clark, British rugby league footballer and wrestler, william Coltman, who was also awarded the Victoria Cross, and was the most highly decorated NCO of the First World War. Robert Gaspare Consiglio, Special Air Service member killed during Bravo Two Zero patrol, ernest Albert Corey, the only person to be awarded the MM four times
38.
British Empire Medal
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The British Empire Medal is a British medal awarded for meritorious civil or military service worthy of recognition by the Crown. The current honour was created in 1922 to replace the original medal, the British Empire Medal, which may be awarded posthumously, is granted in recognition of meritorious civil or military service. Recipients are entitled to use the post-nominal letters BEM, the honour is divided into civil and military medals in a similar way to the Order of the British Empire itself. While recipients are not technically counted as members of the Order, between 1993 and 2012, the British Empire Medal was not awarded to subjects of the United Kingdom, although it continued to be awarded in some Commonwealth realms during that time. The practice of awarding the British Empire Medal to subjects of the United Kingdom was resumed in June 2012, to coincide with the Queens Diamond Jubilee, the Medal of the Order of the British Empire was first established in 1917, along with the Order of the British Empire. The medal was part of the Order and could be awarded for meritorious service or for gallantry. It was awarded to 2,015 people,800 of whom were from foreign countries, in 1922, the original medal was discontinued and split into two separate honours, which still formed part of the Order of the British Empire. These two honours were known as the Medal of the Order of the British Empire for Meritorious Service, of these medals, the EGM was awarded for acts of bravery, until it was replaced by the George Cross in 1940. The BEM was awarded in circumstances as the lower classes of the Order of the British Empire. On 24 September 1940, the George Cross was established and the EGM was revoked by Royal Warrant the same day, recipients of the BEM were not affected by these changes. This was done so that the BEM for bravery would honour the same classes of people who were awarded the BEM for other services, more senior recipients would generally receive an appointment to the Order of the British Empire itself. Unlike the GC and GM, the BEM for Gallantry could not be awarded posthumously and was replaced in 1974 with the Queens Gallantry Medal. Again, recipients of the BEM for services other than acts of bravery were not affected by these changes, the BEM continued to be awarded to subjects of the United Kingdom until 1992. Those awarded the honour did not receive it from the monarch in person, while awards of the BEM therefore ceased to be made to subjects of the United Kingdom, the medal continued to be awarded in the Commonwealth realms, such as the Bahamas and the Cook Islands. This would start beginning in 2012, to coincide with the Queens Diamond Jubilee, in the 2012 Birthday Honours, released on 16 June 2012, the BEM was awarded to 293 people. Recipients of the British Empire Medal Search recommendations for the British Empire Medal on The UK National Archives website, British Empire Medal on the Veterans Affairs Canada site
39.
Meritorious Service Medal (United Kingdom)
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The Meritorious Service Medal was instituted on 19 December 1845 for the British Army, to recognise meritorious service by non-commissioned officers. Recipients were also granted an annuity, the amount of which was based on rank, during 1916–1919, army NCOs could be awarded the medal immediately for meritorious service in the field. They could also be awarded the medal for acts of non-combat gallantry, awards for gallantry ceased after 7 September 1928, as they were honoured by the Empire Gallantry Medal. The medal for Royal Marines was instituted in 1849, for gallantry or for distinguished service, as a gallantry medal, it was superseded by the Naval Conspicuous Gallantry Medal. As with the Army, during 1916–1919 NCOs of the Royal Marines could be awarded the medal in the field, since 1977, the Royal Marines medal is only awarded for long service and is identical to the Royal Navys. The Royal Air Force version of the medal was instituted in 1918 and it was superseded in 1928 by the Empire Gallantry Medal. Awards of the medal again in 1977 using the same criteria as the Army. The Royal Navys medal was instituted in 1919, for not in the face of the enemy and for meritorious service by petty officers. As a gallantry award, it was superseded by the Empire Gallantry Medal in 1928 and it is now awarded to senior NCOs in the Royal Navy, Royal Marines, Womens Royal Naval Service and Queen Alexandras Royal Naval Nursing Service. The first woman to be awarded the medal was Warrant Officer Marion Dickson Mackay in 1966, to be awarded the MSM, an individual must have good, faithful, valuable and meritorious service, with conduct judged to be irreproachable throughout. Officers of any service can also be considered for the immediately after being commissioned, provided they meet the other criteria. Recipients were entitled to use the post-nominal letters MSM, a Bar to the medal was instituted by Royal Warrant on 23 November 1916, that could be awarded to holders of the Meritorious Service Medal for subsequent acts of gallantry. The medal has the profile on one side, on the other a small crown. The recipients name, rank and unit is inscribed on the rim, if a sovereign is shown in naval uniform, then the medal was awarded for service at sea or with a Naval or Royal Marines unit on land. The design varied slightly by monarch, with George V having at least two variations, while George VI had variations in legend. King Edward VII An effigy of the King in Field Marshals uniform, legend, EDWARDVS VII REX IMPERATOR King George V An effigy of the King in Field Marshals uniform, facing left. Legend, GEORGIVS V BRITT, OMN, REX ET IND, IMP, King George V A crowned coinage effigy, facing left. Legend, GEORGIVS * V * D * G * BRITT * OMN REX * ET * INDIAE * IMP * King George VI A bareheaded effigy, facing left
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Mentioned in dispatches
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In a number of countries, a servicemembers name must be mentioned in dispatches as a condition for receiving certain decorations. In the British Armed Forces, the despatch is published in the London Gazette, for 1914–1918 and up to 10 August 1920, the decoration consisted of a spray of oak leaves in bronze. This decoration was established in 1919, but it had retroactive effect. From 1920 to 1993, the decoration consisted of a bronze oak leaf. In a change introduced in 2014 to the British Armed Forces, prior to this change, even if the soldier was mentioned in dispatches more than once, only a single such decoration was worn. In Britain, since 1993, the decoration is a silver oak leaf. In each case the decoration is pinned or sewn diagonally on to the campaign medal ribbon. If no campaign medal is awarded, the oak leaf is worn on the left breast of the dress uniform, prior to 1979, a mention in dispatches was one of the three awards that could be made posthumously, the others being the Victoria Cross and George Cross. The 1979 reform removed the all or nothing lottery, soldiers can be mentioned multiple times. The British First World War Victoria Cross recipient John Vereker, later Field Marshal Viscount Gort, was mentioned in dispatches nine times, the Australian general Gordon Bennett was mentioned in dispatches a total of eight times during the First World War, as was Field Marshal Sir John Dill. Similarly, the equivalents of the MiD for acts of bravery by civilians, the reformed and comprehensive system is now as follows, The Commendation for Gallantry is now the fourth level decoration for gallantry. The Commendation for Brave Conduct recognises acts of bravery carried by soldiers not directly fighting the enemy, a mention in dispatches – in French, Citation à lordre du jour – gives recognition from a senior commander for acts of brave or meritorious service, normally in the field. The Mention in dispatches is among the list of awards presented by the Governor General of Canada, personnel can be mentioned in dispatches posthumously and multiple awards are also possible. A recipient of a mention in a dispatch is entitled to wear an emblem and they are also issued with an official certificate from the Ministry of Defence. The emblem, which was regarded as a decoration, was worn on the ribbon of the Victory Medal, only one emblem was worn, irrespective of the number of times a recipient had been mentioned. The Afrikaans rendition of mentioned in dispatches is Eervolle Vermelding in Berigte, the mention in dispatches was one of only four awards which could be made posthumously. The others were the Victoria Cross, the George Cross, the oak leaf emblem was worn on the ribbon of the War Medal 1939–1945. The Kings Commendation was denoted by a bronze King Protea flower emblem worn on the ribbon of the Africa Service Medal and it could be awarded posthumously and was the equivalent of a mention in dispatches for services rendered away from the battlefield
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Battle honour
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In European military tradition, military units may be acknowledged for their achievements in specific wars or operations of a military campaign. These honours usually take the form of a place and a date, theatre honours could be listed and displayed on regimental property but not emblazoned on the colours. Since battle honours are emblazoned on colours, artillery units. These honour titles were permitted to be used as part of their official nomenclature, similar honours in the same tenor include unit citations. Battle honours, theatre honours, honour titles and their ilk form a part of the variety of distinctions which serve to distinguish military units from each other. For the British Army, the need to adopt a system to recognise military units battlefield accomplishments was apparent since its formation as an army in the later part of the 17th century. Although the granting of battle honours had already been in place at the time, before then, a regiments colours were practical tools for rallying troops in the battlefield and not quite something for displaying the units past distinctions. The first battle honour to be awarded in the British Army was granted to the 15th Hussars for the Battle of Emsdorf in 1760, thereafter, other regiments received battle honours for some of their previous engagements. The battle honour is held by the successor regiment, the Princess of Waless Royal Regiment. During these early years of the British standing army, a regiment needed only to engage the enemy with musketry before it was eligible for a battle honour, thus in 1882, a committee was formed to adjudicate applications of battle honour claims. This committee, later called the Battles Nomenclature Committee, still maintains its function in the British Army today. A battle honour may be granted to infantry/cavalry regiments or battalions, as well as ships and squadrons, they are granted to sub-units such as companies. Battle honours are presented in the form of a name of a country, region, or city where the units distinguished act took place. Not every battle fought will automatically result in the granting of a battle honour, conversely, a regiment or a battalion might obtain more than one battle honour over the course of a larger operation. Similarly, while in Korea, Princess Patricias Canadian Light Infantry earned both Kapyong and Korea 1951–1953, supporting corps/branches such as medical, service, ordnance, or transport do not currently receive battle honours. However and uniquely the Royal Logistic Corps has five battle honours inherited from its previous transport elements, Commonwealth artillery does not maintain battle honours as they carry neither colours nor guidons—though their guns by tradition are afforded many of the same respects and courtesies. However, both the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers were in 1832 granted by King William IV the right to use the Latin Ubique, meaning everywhere and this is worn on the cap badge of both the Corps of Royal Engineers and the Royal Regiment of Artillery. The practice was extended to these same regiments and corps in the successor Commonwealth armed forces
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Conscription in Australia
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Conscription in Australia, or mandatory military service also known as national service, has a controversial history dating back to the first years of nationhood. Australia currently only has provision for conscription during times of war, the legislation did not allow soldiers to be conscripted for overseas service. This legislation was passed through the support of the Protectionist Party. John Barrett, in his study of boyhood conscription, Falling In, noted, since universal was a misnomer, about half that number were exempted from training, or perhaps never registered, reducing the group to 175,000. Under Labor prime minister Billy Hughes, full conscription for overseas service was attempted during WWI through two plebiscites, the first plebiscite was held on 28 October 1916 and narrowly rejected conscription with a margin of 49% for and 51% against. A second plebiscite was held on 20 December 1917 and defeated by a greater margin, the question put to Australians was, Are you in favour of the proposal of the Commonwealth Government for reinforcing the Commonwealth Forces overseas. After the failure of the first plebiscite, Billy Hughes left the Australian Labor Party parliamentary caucus, the remainder of the Labor Party, under their new leader Frank Tudor, then expelled Hughes and all who had followed him. Following the split, Labor stayed out of office for ten years, H. Coombe of the Daily Herald. The young John Curtin, at the time a member of the Victorian Socialist Party, was also arrested, anti-conscriptionist publications, were seized by government censors in police raids. Other notable opponents to Conscription included the Catholic Archbishop of Melbourne Daniel Mannix, the Queensland Labor Premier Thomas Ryan, Vida Goldstein, most trade unions actively opposed conscription. The County Cork born Archbishop Mannix stated that Ireland had been wronged by Great Britain than Belgium had been by Germany. Many people thought positively of conscription as a sign of loyalty to Britain, however, trade unions feared that their members might be replaced by cheaper foreign or female labour and opposed conscription. Some groups argued that the war was immoral, and it was unjust to force people to fight. The conscription issue deeply divided Australia with large meetings held both for and against, the womens vote was seen as important with large womens meetings and campaign information from both sides aimed at women voters. The campaigning for the first plebiscite was launched by Hughes at a huge meeting at the Sydney Town Hall where he outlined the Governments proposals. This was followed by a huge meeting at the Melbourne Town Hall on 21 September. An anti-conscription stop work meeting called by five trade unions held on the Yarra Bank mid-week on 4 October attracted 15,000 people and it was passed on 21 September 1916 and mandatory registration and enrolment commenced while the first plebiscite campaign was underway. By 5 October The Age reported that of 11607 men examined,4581 were found fit, the Age noted, in the article Influence of the IWW, that the great bulk of the opposition to conscription is centred in Victoria
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Washington Naval Treaty
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It limited the construction of battleships, battlecruisers and aircraft carriers by the signatories. The numbers of categories of warships, including cruisers, destroyers and submarines, were not limited by the treaty. The naval treaty was concluded on February 6,1922, ratifications of that treaty were exchanged in Washington on August 17,1923, and it was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on April 16,1924. Subsequent to the treaty, other arms limitation conferences sought to increase limitations of warship building. The terms of the Washington treaty were modified by the London Naval Treaty of 1930, by the mid-1930s, Japan and Italy renounced the treaties, making naval arms limitation an increasingly untenable position for the other signatories. Immediately after World War I, the United Kingdom had the worlds largest and most powerful navy, followed by the United States, the three nations had been allied for World War I, but a naval arms race seemed likely for the next few years. The arms race began in the United States, president Woodrow Wilsons administration announced successive plans for the expansion of the US Navy from 1916 to 1919 that would have resulted in a massive fleet of 50 modern battleships. At the time, it was engaged in building six battleships, the Japanese started work on four battleships and four battlecruisers, all much larger and more powerful than those of the classes preceding. The 1921 British Naval Estimates planned four battleships and four battlecruisers, the U. S. public was largely unwelcoming of the new arms race. Britain could also ill afford any resumption of construction, given the exorbitant price of naval construction. In late 1921, the US government became aware that Britain was planning a conference to discuss the situation in the Pacific. To forestall the conference and satisfy domestic pressure for a disarmament conference. At the first plenary session held November 21,1921, US Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes presented his countrys proposals, Hughes provided a dramatic beginning for the conference by stating with resolve, The way to disarm is to disarm. The ambitious slogan received enthusiastic public endorsement and likely shortened the conference while helping ensure his proposals were largely adopted and he subsequently proposed the following, A ten-year pause or holiday in the construction of capital ships, including the immediate suspension of all capital ship building. The scrapping of existing or planned capital ships to give a 5,5,3,1.75,1.75 ratio of tonnage with Britain, ongoing limits of both capital ship tonnage and the tonnage of secondary vessels with the 5,5,3 ratio. The proposals regarding capital ships were largely accepted by the British delegation and it would no longer be possible for Britain to have adequate fleets in the North Sea, the Mediterranean, and the Far East simultaneously. The facts provoked outrage from parts of the Royal Navy, nevertheless, there was huge pressure on Britain to agree. The risk of war with the United States was increasingly regarded as merely theoretical, Naval spending was unpopular in both Britain and its dominions
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Prahran, Victoria
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Prahran is an inner suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia,5 km south-east of Melbournes Central Business District. Its local government area is the City of Stonnington, at the 2011 Census, Prahran had a population of 11,191. Prahran is a part of Greater Melbourne, with shops, restaurants. The area of Prahran, centred along Commercial Road was one of Melbournes gay villages, the shopping street Chapel Street is a mix of upscale fashion boutiques and cafes. Greville Street, once the centre of the Melbournes hippie community, has many cafés, bars, restaurants, bookstores, clothing shops, Prahran takes its name from Pur-ra-ran, a compound of two Aboriginal words, meaning land partially surrounded by water, in 1837 by George Langhorne. The proximity of the Yarra River and a swamp to the southwest explains that description, in 1837 George Langhorne named the area Pur-ra-ran, a compound of two Aboriginal words, meaning land partially surrounded by water. When he informed the Surveyor-General Robert Hoddle of the name, it was written as Prahran, Prahran Post Office opened on 1 April 1853. Large emporiums sprang up along Chapel Street, Prahran also became a major entertainment area. The Lyric theatre, built on the corner of Victoria Street in 1911, the Royal was the second old theatre built. The Empress, another theatre on Chapel Street, was destroyed by fire in 1971. The site was operated by the clothes and homewares chain Waltons for the next decade and was later developed into the Chapel Street Bazaar. Further complementing the high rise developments was a low density development between Bangs and Bendigo Streets, in the 1970s, the suburb began to gentrify, with much of the remaining old housing stock being renovated and restored. The area had a substantial Greek population and many took advantage of the rise in property values during the 1980s, paving the way for further development and it was during the 1990s that solidification of the areas homosexual community occurred. Many gay and gay-friendly businesses, including bars, clubs and bookstores were found along Commercial Road, in Prahran,61. 2% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were England 4. 2%, Greece 3. 5%, New Zealand 3. 4%, China 1. 6%, Prahran is home to a large collection of architecturally significant commercial buildings, with many on the Victorian Heritage Register. Retains the original arcade, but decorative roof was removed in the 1950s, also known locally as Birdland due to pigeons which once bred in the recessed balconies of the building and the large eagles which adorn the facade, but are now screened by chicken wire. Was a Dan Murphys cellar for many years, but currently a JB HiFi store, reads Emporium - Built in 1914 on the corner of Chapel Street and Commercial Road. Its twin beacons, which sit atop large copper domes, were once visible like lighthouses for miles around
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Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
Australia
United Kingdom – The West Yorkshire Regiment.[11]