1.
Brighton
–
Brighton /ˈbraɪtən/ is a seaside resort on the south coast of England. It is part of the county of East Sussex, within the historic county of Sussex. Archaeological evidence of settlement in the dates back to the Bronze Age, Roman. The ancient settlement of Brighthelmstone was documented in the Domesday Book, Brighton began to attract more visitors following improved road transport to London and becoming a boarding point for boats travelling to France. The town also developed in popularity as a resort for sea bathing as a purported cure for illnesses. Brighton continued to grow as a centre of tourism following the arrival of the railways in 1841. Many of the attractions were built in the Victorian era, including the Grand Hotel, the West Pier. Brighton attracted 7.5 million day visitors in 2015/16 and 4.9 million overnight visitors, Brighton has also been called the UKs hippest city, and the happiest place to live in the UK. Brightons earliest name was Bristelmestune, recorded in the Domesday Book, although more than 40 variations have been documented, Brighthelmstone was the standard rendering between the 14th and 18th centuries. Brighton was originally a shortened form, first seen in 1660, it gradually supplanted the longer name. Brighthelmstone was the official name until 1810, though. The name is of Anglo-Saxon origin, most scholars believe that it derives from Beorthelm + tūn—the homestead of Beorthelm, a common Old English name associated with villages elsewhere in England. The tūn element is common in Sussex, especially on the coast, an alternative etymology taken from the Old English words for stony valley is sometimes given but has less acceptance. Brighthelm gives its name to, among other things, a church, the town was originally split in half by the Wellesbourne, a winterbourne which was culverted and buried in the 18th century. Poet Horace Smith called it The Queen of Watering Places, which is widely used. Novelist William Makepeace Thackeray referred to Doctor Brighton, calling the one of the best of Physicians. London-by-Sea is well-known, reflecting Brightons popularity with Londoners as a resort, a commuter dormitory. The Queen of Slaughtering Places, a pun on Smiths description, the mid 19th-century nickname School Town referred to the remarkable number of boarding, charity and church schools in the town at the time
2.
Brighton and Hove
–
Brighton and Hove is a city in East Sussex, in South East England. At the 2011 census, it was Englands most populous seaside resort with a population of 273,400, the towns of Brighton and Hove formed a unitary authority in 1997 and in 2001 were granted city status by Queen Elizabeth II. Brighton is often referred to synonymously with the official Brighton and Hove although many still consider the two to be separate towns. Both Brighton and Hove became non-metropolitan districts of East Sussex, on 15 October 2004, Brighton and Hove was granted Fairtrade City status. Elections are held four years, with the last elections occurring on 7 May 2015. Brighton and Hove was the first ever council in the United Kingdom where the Green Party were both the largest group and led the council, in 2013 the council was obliged to finalise single status across its workforce, resulting in a strike of its refuse collectors and street cleaners. Their council reformed their allowances to equalise them with other staff at the organisation conducting similar work, the Leader of the Council and Labour minority administration since May 2015 is Councillor Warren Morgan. The mayor of Brighton and Hove for 2016-2017 is Councillor Pete West, geoff Raw is the current chief executive. In 2012 it was revealed that the Brighton and Hove unitary authority has been banned from accessing information from the Driver. This information is made available to local authorities for purposes such as enforcing parking fines. The first census of Brighton was in 1801, the resident population of Brighton and Hove at the 2011 census was 273,369 persons, 50% male and 50% female. The 2011 census found the composition of Brighton and Hove to be 89. 08% white,4. 13% Asian,3. 81% mixed race,1. 53% black and 0. 80% Arab. The 2011 census found the composition to be 42. 90% Christian,42. 42% nonreligious,2. 23% Muslim,1. 00% Buddhist,0. 98% Jewish. 1. 66% were adherents of other religion, while 8. 81% did not state their religion. In the 2001 census, Brighton and Hove had the highest percentage of citizens indicating their religion as Jedi among all areas of England. To all whom these Presents shall come Greeting, whereas We for divers good causes and considerations Us thereunto moving are graciously pleased to confer on the Towns of Brighton and Hove the status of a city. In witness whereof We have caused Our Letters to be made Patent Witness Ourself at Westminster the thirty first day of January in the forty ninth year of our reign, by Warrant under The Queens Sign Manual. The economy of the city is service-based with a emphasis on creative, digital
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Wetherspoons
–
J D Wetherspoon plc, branded as Wetherspoon and popularly known as Wetherspoons or Spoons, is a pub chain in the UK and Republic of Ireland, with its headquarters in Watford. Founded in 1979 by Tim Martin, the company owns just under 1,000 outlets, the chains pubs offer cask ale, hot food, low prices, long opening hours, and no music. The company also operates the Lloyds No.1 chain of bars, the chain is known for converting unconventional premises into pubs. Premises tend to be large by British pub standards, and use an open plan layout, the company is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE250 Index. Tim Martin opened his first pub in 1979, on Colney Hatch Lane in Muswell Hill, many of the other early Wetherspoon pubs were also in the western part of Haringey. The J D Wetherspoon name comes from one of Martins teachers in New Zealand who could not control his class, Martin chose the name when he was running his first pub in Muswell Hill. In the early 1990s, Wetherspoon began a policy of selling off its smaller or less profitable outlets. There are now around 100 ex-Wetherspoon pubs, and none of the earliest outlets in the chain are part of the estate. The oldest surviving Wetherspoon is The Rochester Castle in Stoke Newington, in 1998, Wetherspoon introduced oversized glasses and promoted the full pint. This initiative was withdrawn, supposedly because customers were still asking for top-ups. Wetherspoon claimed to be the large pub firm which opens all its pubs early in the morning, serving breakfast. Weekly food promotions include Steak club, Wing it Wednesday, Curry Club, the Sunday Club promotion was dropped in March 2016. Wetherspoon hosts two Ale Festivals in March/April and October each year and a Cider Festival in the summer, many Wetherspoon pubs are conversions of existing buildings, including, Theatres and cinemas Banks Post offices Swimming pools Churches Consequently, many Wetherspoon properties are listed buildings. In 2013, the chain opened its 900th pub, the first Wetherspoons pub in Ireland was The Spinning Mill in Ballymena, County Antrim, in Northern Ireland, which opened in 2000. The Republic of Irelands first Wetherspoon pub, The Three Tun Tavern, opened in Blackrock, in 2014, Wetherspoon controversially opened a pub at the Beaconsfield motorway service area on the M40. Wetherspoon also owns a chain of hotels in the UK, as of 2015, there are 34 hotels in England, Wales and Scotland. In 2014, it was reported that the company would open a pub and 100-room hotel in Camden Street, Dublin, Ireland. In 2015, Wetherspoon bought the Grade II* Listed Art Deco State Cinema in Grays, Essex which had been under threat of damage from vandalism, every Wetherspoon pub has a unique carpet, drawing on the location, building and name
5.
Clayton & Black
–
Clayton & Black were a firm of architects and surveyors from Brighton, part of the English city of Brighton and Hove. Their work encompassed new residential, commercial, industrial and civic buildings, shopping arcades, churches, schools, cinemas and pubs, later reconstituted as Clayton, Black & Daviel, the company designed some churches in the postwar period. Charles E. Clayton and Ernest Black, their sons Charles L. Clayton and Kenneth Black, elsewhere in Brighton and Hove, they designed buildings in the Flemish Renaissance, Arts and Crafts, Art Deco and François Premier Revival styles. Charles Edward Clayton was born in 1853 in Brighton, and Ernest Black, Clayton entered architectural practice in 1876 with George Holford, both studied under the Brighton architect Thomas Simpson. Black joined six years later, and Holfords involvement ceased the following year. Charles L. Clayton and Kenneth R. Black, sons of the partners, joined later. Charles E. Clayton, who made his home in Edburton near Brighton, the last record of the company was in 1974. Several other architects were articled to the firm at various times, John Owen Bond, Bernard Jessop, and George Stanley Hudson. Alford joined in the 1960s, during the Clayton, Black, Brighton and Hove were unusual among British towns and cities for the extent to which locally based architects received commissions for major buildings. The others were Thomas Lainson and John Leopold Denman, Clayton & Black were the most solidly commercial of these, and commercial buildings represent their best work. The practice was recorded at 152 North Street in Brighton in 1890, from 1904, the firm were based in offices at 10 Prince Albert Street—one of a terrace of four buildings on a road built in 1842 to improve links within The Lanes, the ancient heart of Brighton. The first recorded commission for the firm, around 1875–76, was a rebuild of Blenheim House in the centre of Brighton. This was one of old buildings on the west side of Brightons first fashionable area. Their next work was in Lansdowne Road, Furze Hill, Holland Road and Portland Road. On Holland Road, a major route, they were also responsible for shops, flats and a religious institute in 1898, a factory for Green & Company in 1911. From 1895, they were the surveyors to the Vallance Estate. At the same time, but back in Brighton, they built a convalescent home for French nationals who were patients at the French Hospital in London. The distinctive turreted structure is now Grade II-listed, between 1892 and 1900 they also built up Sackville Road, another important north–south route, with shops, houses and the vicarage of St Barnabas Church
6.
Neoclassical architecture
–
Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century. In its purest form, it is a style derived from the architecture of classical antiquity, the Vitruvian principles. In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than chiaroscuro, Neoclassical architecture is still designed today, but may be labelled New Classical Architecture for contemporary buildings. In Central and Eastern Europe, the style is referred to as Classicism. Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of Étienne-Louis Boullée, the many graphite drawings of Boullée and his students depict spare geometrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullées ideas and Edmund Burkes conception of the sublime, the baroque style had never truly been to the English taste. The most popular was the four-volume Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell, the book contained architectural prints of famous British buildings that had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio. At first the book featured the work of Inigo Jones. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain, at the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic architect earl, Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, in 1729, he and William Kent, designed Chiswick House. This House was a reinterpretation of Palladios Villa Capra, but purified of 16th century elements and this severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of the Palladianism. In 1734 William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of Englands finest examples of Palladian architecture with Holkham Hall in Norfolk, the main block of this house followed Palladios dictates quite closely, but Palladios low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance. This classicising vein was also detectable, to a degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris. This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned façade for S, by the mid 18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of Classical influences, including those from Ancient Greece. The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to the 1750s, in France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann. The style was adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden. A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire, in France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the Louis XVI style, and the second in the styles called Directoire or Empire. The Scottish architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great in St. Petersburg, indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved an audience in the 1760s
7.
Listed building
–
A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
8.
National Provincial Bank
–
Considered one of the Big Five, it expanded during the 19th and 20th centuries and took over a number of smaller banking companies. It was based on Bishopsgate, at the junction with Threadneedle Street. The National Provincial Bank played a role in the development of commercial banking. Prior to the Act of 1826, English banks were permitted to have no more than six partners – hence the expression “private banks”, the only banks allowed to be joint stock were the Bank of England and the Scottish banks. The leading campaigner for change was Thomas Joplin a Newcastle timber merchant “with local experience of banking disasters”, the Act of 1826 permitted the establishment of joint stock banks but note issue was only allowed outside a radius of 65 miles of London. The 1826 Act was followed by the creation of new joint stock banks. What differentiated National Provincial was that it was established as a provincial bank, moreover, it was specifically structured to be a branch banking enterprise prepared to concentrate on a large number of smaller accounts rather than a small number of large accounts. Joplin left the management of the Irish Bank in 1828, financial support from his cousin George Angas was promised in 1829 and a company was formed in 1830. The first meeting resolved to establish a “system of banking …under the review of a board in London applied to the direction of country banking”. There were numerous delays but the National Provincial Bank of England was eventually launched in 1833, for more than thirty years the Bank operated as a country bank, with its headquarters in London, but not transacting banking business in the capital. Considerable dissension soon arose relating to the structure of the system and Joplin. The model for the system had been the Scottish one. Sources vary as to the number of acquisitions, their trading name. However, although they may have been strategic in their own locality and it was not until 1866 that the Bank opened for banking business in London by which time it had a nationwide network of 122 branches. The Bank ceased its provincial note issue and was appointed to the London Clearing House, by 1886 the National Provincial Bank had 165 branches and its network was second only to the London and County Bank. The bishops gate device was part of a representation of the banks address at 15 Bishopsgate in the City of London. It is surmounted by two squirrels supporting an urn, this alludes to The Flower Pot Inn which originally stood on the site of the entrance to the city office, in 1918 the National Provincial acquired the Union of London and Smith’s Bank, itself the product of recent amalgamations. The enlarged bank was renamed the National Provincial and Union Bank of England, although it refused to open branches in the provinces, it did develop an extensive overseas business
9.
NatWest
–
National Westminster Bank, commonly known as NatWest, is a large retail and commercial bank in the United Kingdom. It was established in 1968 by the merger of National Provincial Bank, since 2000 it has been part of the Royal Bank of Scotland Group. Today it has more than 7.5 million personal customers and 850,000 small business accounts, in Ireland it operates through its Ulster Bank subsidiary. NatWest was named a runner-up for the Best Business Banking Provider category at the British Bank Awards 2016, the banks origins date back to 1658 with the foundation of Smiths Bank of Nottingham. Westminster Foreign Bank was restyled International Westminster Bank in 1973, duncan Stirling, outgoing chairman of Westminster Bank, became first chairman of the fifth largest bank in the world. In 1969 David Robarts, former chairman of National Provincial, assumed Stirlings position, in 1975 it was one of the first London banks to open a representative office in Scotland. It was a member of the Joint Credit Card Company which launched the Access credit card in 1972. The same banks, excluding Lloyds, were responsible for the introduction of the Switch debit card in 1988. Deregulation in the 1980s, culminating in the Big Bang in 1986, County Bank, its merchant banking subsidiary formed in 1965, acquired various stockbroking and jobbing firms to create the investment banking arm County NatWest. The Action Bank advertising campaign spearheaded a new marketing-led approach to business development, in 1982, the Frankfurt office of International Westminster Bank merged with Global Bank AG to form Deutsche Westminster Bank. In 1985, Banco NatWest España was formed and National Westminster Bank SA was incorporated in 1988, taking over the six branches in France. In 1989, International Westminster Bank was merged into National Westminster Bank by Act of Parliament, completed in 1980, the bank built the National Westminster Tower in London to serve as its international headquarters. Also worthy of note is National Westminster House in Birmingham, the building was sold to British Land in 2007, the banks expansion strategy hit trouble with the stock market crash of 1987 and involvement in the financial scandal surrounding the collapse of Blue Arrow. The Department of Trade and Industry report on the affair was critical of the management and resulted in the resignation of several members of the board. Later, the bank would divest its overseas subsidiaries, the North American operations were sold to Fleet Bank and Hong Kong Bank of Canada, and the Australian and New Zealand branches were sold to Salomon Smith Barney and the National Australia Bank. Thereafter the bank concentrated on its domestic business as the restyled NatWest Group. In 1993, the NatWest Tower was devastated by a Provisional IRA bomb, then, in 1997, NatWest Markets, the corporate and investment banking arm formed in 1992, revealed that a £50m loss had been discovered, revised to £90. 5m after further investigations. The banks move into complicated derivative products that it did not fully understand seemed to indicate poor management, by the end of 1997 parts of NatWest Markets had been sold, others becoming Greenwich NatWest in 1998
10.
English Heritage
–
English Heritage is a registered charity that manages the National Heritage Collection. This comprises over 400 of Englands historic buildings, monuments and sites spanning more than 5,000 years of history, within its portfolio are Stonehenge, Dover Castle, Tintagel Castle and the best preserved parts of Hadrians Wall. English Heritage also manages the London Blue Plaques scheme, which links influential historical figures to particular buildings and it was created to combine the roles of existing bodies that had emerged from a long period of state involvement in heritage protection. The British government gave the new charity an £80 million grant to establish it as an independent trust. Over the centuries, what is now called Heritage has been the responsibility of a series of state departments. There was the Kings Works after the Norman Conquest, the Office of Works, the Office of Woods, Forests, Land Revenues and Works, and the Ministry of Works. Responsibility subsequently transferred to the Ministry of Public Building and Works then to the Department of the Environment and now the Department for Culture, Media, the states legal responsibility for the historic environment goes back to the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882. Central government subsequently developed several systems of protection for different types of assets, introducing listing for buildings after WW2. The Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission was formed under the terms of the National Heritage Act 1983 on 1 April 1984, soon after, the commission gained the operating name of English Heritage by its first Chairman, Lord Montagu of Beaulieu. A national register of parks and gardens, was set up in 1984. Registration is a consideration in the planning process. In 2010–2011 it recorded 4.3 million unique online user sessions, in 2012 the section responsible for archive collections was renamed the English Heritage Archive. As a result of the National Heritage Act 2002, English Heritage acquired administrative responsibility for historic wrecks, the administration of the listed building system was transferred from DCMS to English Heritage in 2006. It was retained on grounds of performing a function which should remain independent from Government. However the department also suffered from budget cuts during the recession of the 2010s resulting in a deficit of £100 million. In June 2013 the British Government announced plans to provide an £80 million grant to enable English Heritage to become a self-financing charity, the national portfolio of historic properties remain in public ownership, but the new English Heritage will be licensed to manage them. The change occurred on 1 April 2015 with the planning and heritage protection functions remaining an independent, non-departmental public body. The new trust has a licence to operate the properties until 2023, English Heritage is the guardian of over 400 sites and monuments, the most famous of which include Stonehenge, Iron Bridge and Dover Castle
11.
Prudential plc
–
Prudential plc is a British multinational life insurance and financial services company headquartered in London, United Kingdom. It was founded in London in May 1848 as The Prudential Mutual Assurance Investment and Loan Association to provide loans to professional and its Prudential UK division has around 7 million customers and is a leading provider of life insurance and pensions in the UK. In December 2013 Prudential acquired the Ghanaian life insurance company, Express Life, Prudential subsequently rebranded the business as Prudential Ghana. In September 2014, it purchased Kenyan life insurer Shield Assurance, Prudential has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. It had a capitalisation of approximately £41,630 million as of 4 February 2015. Prudential has secondary listings on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange, New York Stock Exchange, the company was founded on 30 May 1848 in Hatton Garden in London as The Prudential Mutual Assurance Investment and Loan Association providing loans to professional and working people. The army of premium collection agents was for many years identified with the Prudential as the Man from the Pru and it moved to its traditional home at Holborn Bars in 1879 and converted to a limited company in 1881. The Prudential Assurance Company Limited was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1924, in 1986, Prudential acquired the American insurer Jackson National Life. In 1997, Prudential acquired Scottish Amicable, a business founded in 1826 in Glasgow as the West of Scotland Life Insurance Company, in 1998, Prudential set up Egg, an internet bank within the UK. The subsidiary reached 550,000 customers within nine months but had difficulty achieving profitability, in June 2000 an initial public offering of 21% was made to allow for further growth of the internet business but in February 2006 Prudential decided to repurchase the 21% share of Egg. Egg was subsequently sold to Citibank in January 2007, in 1999, M&G, a UK fund management company, was acquired. In June 2000, the Company was first listed on the New York Stock Exchange to help focus on the US market, in October 2004 Prudential launched a new subsidiary, PruHealth, a joint venture with Discovery Holdings of South Africa selling private medical insurance to the UK market. In April 2008 Prudential outsourced its back office functions to Capita, on 1 March 2010, Prudential announced that it was in advanced talks to purchase the pan-Asian life insurance company of AIG, American International Assurance for approximately £23 billion. The deal later collapsed and AIA ended up raising money in an IPO, in December 2013, Prudential announced the purchase of Ghana’s Express Life Company. Express Life was subsequently rebranded as Prudential Ghana, in September 2014, Prudential purchased Kenyan life insurer Shield Assurance and rebranded it as Prudential Kenya, further expanding the company’s presence in Africa. On 10 March 2015, it was announced that the CEO, Tidjane Thiam, would leave Prudential to become the next CEO of Credit Suisse. On 1 May 2015, it was announced that Mike Wells, head of the companys US business, would succeed Tidjane Thiam as CEO, the Company has four business units, Prudential UK, Europe & Africa, the business offers pensions, annuities, savings and investments. They are particularly known for the sale of with-profit bonds and pensions, corporate pension schemes, bulk annuities
12.
Midland Bank
–
Midland Bank Plc was one of the Big Four banking groups in the United Kingdom for most of the 20th century. The bank was founded as the Birmingham and Midland Bank in Union Street, Birmingham and it expanded in the Midlands, absorbing many local banks, and merged with the Central Bank of London Ltd. in 1891, becoming the London City and Midland Bank. After a period of expansion, including the acquisition of many smaller banks. By 1934 it was the largest deposit bank in the world, on 10 June 2015, HSBC announced that it would be rebranding its UK branches. HSBC chairman Douglas Flint described the Midland brand as odds-on favourite for a return to the high street, in September 2015, it was announced that the Midland Bank name would not be revived and the UK branch network would be branded HSBC UK. Midland Bank was founded by Charles Geach, its first manager in Union Street, Birmingham, England, Geach had formerly worked at the Bank of England, he secured the business support and capital backing of leading merchants and manufacturers in Birmingham. In the 1830s and 1840s, Midland occupied an important niche in Birmingham business, Midland acquired Stourbridge Old Bank in 1851 and Nichols, Baker and Crane of Bewdley in 1862. Both firms had been pioneers of banking in the West Midlands, the origins of the Stourbridge bank can be traced back to 1762, from the 1880s, it expanded its customer base by opening new branches and acquiring other banks. In 1891 it acquired the Central Bank of London and, in 1898, by 1918, with deposits of £335 million, it ranked as the largest bank in the world. Edward Hopkinson Holden led the bank at this time first as Managing Director from 1898 to 1908 and then as Chairman and he oversaw more than 20 bank amalgamations between 1891 and 1918, and opened new branches throughout England and Wales. Holden also expanded overseas, it was the first British bank to set up a foreign department and, by 1919. From 1907, these correspondents included The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, after the First World War, the leading British banks entered an agreement with the government that they would not attempt further amalgamations without Treasury approval. As a result, Midland turned its attention to expanding its network, adding new banking services, mechanising its systems. In 1958 it acquired Forward Trust, which became a leader in installment finance, in 1967 Midland acquired a share in Montagu Trust, the owner of Samuel Montagu & Co. and thereby became the first British clearing bank to own a London merchant bank. Samuel Montagu, with its own history dating back to 1853, through the acquisition of Samuel Montagu & Co, Midland also gained a majority share in Guyerzeller Bank AG in Switzerland. Further diversification followed in 1972, when Midland was the member of the consortium that acquired the Thomas Cook travel business. After becoming sole owner in 1977, Midland sold its interest in 1992, in 1974 Midland started to open branches or representative offices in overseas countries and to acquire other international banks. In 1980 Midland acquired a controlling interest in Trinkaus & Burkhardt KGaA, in 1984 in a bid to grab market share Midland scrapped current account charges
13.
Retail banking
–
Retail banking, also known as consumer banking, is the provision of services by a bank to individual consumers, rather than to companies, corporations or other banks. Services offered include savings and transactional accounts, mortgages, personal loans, debit cards, the term is generally used to distinguish these banking services from investment banking, commercial banking or wholesale banking. It may also be used to refer to a division or department of a bank dealing with retail customers, in the U. S. the term commercial bank is used for a normal bank to distinguish it from an investment bank. This separation was repealed in the 1990s, commercial bank can also refer to a bank or a division of a bank that mostly deals with deposits and loans from corporations or large businesses, as opposed to individual members of the public. S. Private banks manage the assets of high-net-worth individuals, offshore banks are banks located in jurisdictions with low taxation and regulation. Many offshore banks are essentially private banks, postal savings banks are savings banks associated with national postal systems
14.
Hove
–
Hove /ˈhoʊv/ is a town on the south coast of England, immediately to the west of its larger neighbour Brighton, with which it forms the unitary authority Brighton and Hove. It forms a conurbation with Brighton and some smaller towns. As part of government reform, Brighton and Hove were merged, to form the borough of Brighton. In 2000, the new borough officially attained city status, Hove is bordered by Brighton to the east and Portslade-by-Sea in the west, the distance between the boundaries being some 2.25 mi. During mid 19th-century building work near Palmeira Square, workmen levelled a substantial burial mound, a prominent feature of the landscape since 1200 BC, the 20 feet -high tumulus yielded, among other treasures, the Hove amber cup. Made of translucent red Baltic Amber and approximately the size as a regular china tea cup. There are entries for Brighton and Portslade and small settlements like Hangleton. Hove is an ancient coastal settlement with St Andrews Church being established in the 12th century, Hove remained insignificant for centuries, consisting of just a single street running north-south some 250m from the church, which by the 16th century was recorded as being in ruins. Hangleton Manor is a well-preserved 16th-century flint manor building and it is believed to have been built c.1540 for Richard Belingham, twice High Sheriff of Sussex, whose initials are carved into a fireplace, and whose coat of arms adorns a period plaster ceiling. The Manor is currently serving as a pub-restaurant and whilst it was once on open downland, however, The Ship Inn had been built at the seaward end of the street in around 1702. The census of 1801 recorded only 101 residents, by 1821, the year the Prince Regent was crowned George IV, Hove was still a small village but the population had risen to 312. The dwellings were still clustered on either side of Hove Street and this isolated location was ideal for smuggling and there was considerable illicit activity. Hove smugglers became notorious, with often being stored in the now partially repaired St. Andrews Church. Tradition has it that The Ship Inn was a rendezvous for the smugglers. In 1818 there was a battle on Hove beach between revenue men and smugglers, from which the latter emerged as the victors. As part of the drive by Parliament to combat smuggling. Also at the bottom of Hove Street was the bull-ring, at a bull-bait in 1810 the bull escaped, scattering spectators before being recaptured and dragged back to the ring. This was the last bull-bait to take place in Hove, the fertile coastal plain west of the Brighton boundary had significant deposits of brickearth and by c.1770 a brickfield had been established on the site of what would become Brunswick Square
15.
163 North Street, Brighton
–
It now houses a bookmakers shop. One of many works by local architecture firm Clayton & Black. English Heritage has listed it at Grade II for its architectural and historical importance, North Street formed the northern boundary of the ancient fishing village of Brighthelmston, from which the town of Brighton developed. It was part of the route out of Brighton towards London. By about 1800 it was considered the commercial area of Brighton. The first of several road widening schemes was completed in 1879, it cleared most buildings from the side of the street and encouraged the development of large banks. The architecture firm Clayton & Black had been based in Brighton since the 1870s, by the early 20th century they had designed a wide range of buildings in the town and in neighbouring Hove, where they also carried out surveying work. Their portfolio included churches, schools, residential buildings, a convalescent home, other banks and financial institutions followed, and the north side of North Street has been dominated by them ever since. From 21 April 1936, the building was shared with a branch of Martins Bank, a weather vane decorated with a liver bird—part of the banks logo—was added to the roof. The branch closed on 5 March 1957 when a new one was opened elsewhere on North Street, by 1987, the building was occupied by a branch of the Leeds Permanent Building Society. On 1 August 1995, this merged with the Halifax Building Society. The building now houses a branch of Metrobet, a bookmaker with several branches in London,163 North Street was listed at Grade II by English Heritage on 26 August 1999. This status is given to nationally important buildings of special interest, as of February 2001, it was one of 1,124 Grade II-listed buildings and structures, and 1,218 listed buildings of all grades, in the city of Brighton and Hove. The building is within the Valley Gardens Conservation Area, one of 34 conservation areas in the city of Brighton and this was designated by Brighton Council in 1973 and covers 92.84 acres. 163 North Street has been praised for its design. The building has a roof of slate tiles, and the walls are faced entirely in delicate pink granite. This entrance bay has a door set in a deep Tuscan-columned porch with a protruding arched pediment. This tower also has a clock face, the four-storey outer bays have their own entrances set in small porches with arched fanlights
16.
Westminster Bank
–
Considered one of the Big Five, it expanded during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and took over a number of smaller banking companies. In 1834, the London and Westminster Bank was the first firm founded under the auspices of the Bank Charter Act 1833, as a result, the bank opened only six London branches in its first three years and no additional offices were established until nearly 20 years later. London and Westminster made its first acquisition in 1847, when it bought Young & Son, in about 1870 it acquired Unity Joint-Stock Bank, and mergers with Commercial Bank of London and Middlesex Bank had been arranged in 1861 and 1863 respectively. By 1909 London and Westminster had opened or acquired 37 branches in, yet, despite this expansion effort, the bank felt the effects of competition from provincial banks like Lloyds and Midland. These two banks had already established large regional branch networks and were encroaching upon the London market. The Surrey, Kent and Sussex Banking Company had been established at Southwark in 1836 and soon had branches in places like Croydon, Brighton, Maidstone and it was renamed the London and County Banking Co. in 1839. By 1875 it had over 150 branches and was the largest British bank, the resulting entity was named the London County and Westminster Bank. The bank itself also directly established offices in Madrid, Barcelona, Antwerp, Brussels, Bilbao, all the Spanish branches were closed in 1923–4 due to deteriorating economic conditions in Spain and discrimination against foreign banks. Control of the branches was exercised from London, although between 1940 and 1944 contact with them was lost due to the German occupation. Birkbeck Building and Freehold Land Society, formed in 1851, developed a large deposit-taking business that developed into banking activity, cheque books were issued from 1858 and by 1872 the business was trading under the title of Birkbeck Bank. In 1910, when its balance sheet totalled £12.26 million and it had 112,817 accounts, continuing rumours about its financial position and a climate of depreciation in gilt-edged securities, led to a suspension of payments. In 1911 its goodwill and premises were purchased from the receiver by London County, in 1917, bank officials decided to acquire the Ulster Bank, with 170 branches throughout Ireland, and in 1918 bought Parrs Bank, with over 320 offices throughout England. These purchases made London County Westminster and Parrs the fifth-largest bank in England, the Parrs name survives in the Bloomsbury, Parrs Branch of National Westminster Bank at 214 High Holborn, London, WC1. It did mean that the bank escaped the bad debts and currency fluctuations that plagued many other banks between the wars, allowing the domestic side of the business to grow steadily. The bank continued to expand through acquisition, namely, Paid-up capital rose from £9 million in 1923 to £40.5 million in 1935. By 1939 there were 1,100 branches and at the time of the merger with National Provincial Bank in 1968, the present National Westminster Bank continues to use the portcullis in its common seal. The merger of Westminster and National Provincial Bank, announced in early 1968, shocked the British public, the District Bank, National Provincial, and Westminster Bank were fully integrated in the new firms structure, while Coutts & Co. Ulster Bank and the Isle of Man Bank continued as separate operations, duncan Stirling, chairman of Westminster Bank, became first chairman of the fifth largest bank in the world
17.
Edwardian Baroque architecture
–
Edwardian Baroque is the Neo-Baroque architectural style of many public buildings built in the British Empire during the Edwardian era. Sir Edwin Lutyens was an exponent, designing many commercial buildings in what he termed the Grand Style during the later 1910s and 1920s. This period of British architectural history is considered a retrospective one. Some Edwardian Baroque buildings include details from sources, such as the Dutch gables of Norman Shaws Piccadilly Hotel in London
18.
Edwardian architecture
–
Edwardian architecture is an architectural style popular during the reign of King Edward VII of the United Kingdom. Architecture from up to the year 1914 may also be included in this style, Edwardian architecture is generally less ornate than high or late Victorian architecture, apart from a subset - used for major buildings - known as Edwardian Baroque architecture. The Victorian Society also campaigns to preserve Edwardian Architecture, patterns, Decorative patterns were less complex, both wallpaper and curtain designs were more plain. Clutter, There was less clutter than in the Victorian era, ornaments were perhaps grouped rather than everywhere. And Victorian Art Nouveau Georgian Arts and Crafts Edwardian era Edwardian Baroque architecture Federation architecture Gray, A. S. Edwardian Architecture, the Edwardian House, the Middle-Class Home in Britain 1880-1914
19.
Italianate architecture
–
The Italianate style of architecture was a distinct 19th-century phase in the history of Classical architecture. The style of architecture that was created, though also characterised as Neo-Renaissance, was essentially of its own time. The Italianate style was first developed in Britain about 1802 by John Nash and this small country house is generally accepted to be the first Italianate villa in England, from which is derived the Italianate architecture of the late Regency and early Victorian eras. The Italianate style was developed and popularised by the architect Sir Charles Barry in the 1830s. Barrys Italianate style drew heavily for its motifs on the buildings of the Italian Renaissance, the style was not confined to England and was employed in varying forms, long after its decline in popularity in Britain, throughout Northern Europe and the British Empire. From the late 1840s to 1890 it achieved popularity in the United States. A late intimation of Nashs development of the Italianate style was his 1805 design of Sandridge Park at Stoke Gabriel in Devon. Later examples of the Italianate style in England tend to take the form of Palladian-style building often enhanced by a belvedere complete with Renaissance-type balustrading at the roof level. Sir Charles Barry, most notable for his works on the Tudor, unlike Nash he found his inspiration in Italy itself. Barry drew heavily on the designs of the original Renaissance villas of Rome, the Lazio and his most defining work in this style was the large Neo-Renaissance mansion Cliveden. Thomas Cubitt, a London building contractor, incorporated simple classical lines of the Italianate style as defined by Sir Charles Barry into many of his London terraces. Following the completion of Osborne House in 1851, the became a popular choice of design for the small mansions built by the new. These were mostly built in cities surrounded by large but not extensive gardens, on occasions very similar, if not identical, designs to these Italianate villas would be topped by mansard roofs, and then termed chateauesque. However, after a modest spate of Italianate villas, and French chateaux by 1855 the most favoured style of an English country house was Gothic, the Italianate style came to the small town of Newton Abbot in Devon, with Isambard Brunels atmospheric railway pumping houses. An example that is not very known, but a clear example of Italianate architecture, is St. Christophers Anglican church in Hinchley Wood, Surrey. When the Ottomans exiled Fakhreddine to Tuscany in 1613, he entered an alliance with the Medicis, upon his return to Lebanon in 1618, he began modernising Lebanon. He developed an industry, upgraded olive-oil production, and brought with him numerous Italian engineers who began the construction of mansions. The cities of Beirut and Sidon were especially built in the Italianate style, the influence of these buildings, such as the ones in Deir el Qamar, influenced building in Lebanon for many centuries and continues to the present time
20.
Chamfer
–
A chamfer /ˈʃæm. fər/ is a transitional edge between two faces of an object. It can also be known as a bevel but connotes more often cutting and is more often 45° with respect to the two adjoining faces. If the un-chamfered intersection of the faces would otherwise form a right angle, 90° as is most common. A fully chamfered square interior would thus be octagonal, Chamfer is a term commonly used in mechanical and manufacturing engineering. Special tools such as mills and chamfer planes are available. In tile work, or furniture such as counters or table tops, where a chamfer does not go to the end of the piece, but lifts out in a smooth curve, the end is called a larks tongue. In non-aesthetic uses, chamfers are necessary in parabolic glass mirror manufacture, a chamfer is also often used to make an otherwise sharp edge safer when a machined metal part is intended to be handled by a person. In architecture, the base of the Taj Mahal is a cube with chamfered corners and its great gate is formed of chamfered base stones and chamfered corbels for a balcony or equivalent cornice towards the roof. Many city blocks in Barcelona, València and various cities in Spain. This pioneering design opens up broader perspectives, provides pleasant pedestrian areas, outside of aesthetics, chamfering is part of the process of hand-crafting a parabolic glass telescope mirror. Before the surface of the disc can be ground, the edges must first be chamfered to prevent chipping and this can be accomplished by placing the disc in a metal bowl containing silicon carbide and rotating the disc with a rocking motion. The grit will thus wear off the edge of the glass. In printed circuit board designing, a chamfer may be applied to an edge of a conductive junction in order to strengthen that location. Chamfering of junctions may also be applied in high-frequency PCB design in order to reduce reflections, bevel The dictionary definition of chamfer at Wiktionary Chamfer
21.
Bay (architecture)
–
In architecture, a bay is the space between architectural elements, or a recess or compartment. Bay comes from Old French baee, meaning an opening or hole, the spaces between posts, columns, or buttresses in the length of a building, the division in the widths being called aisles. This meaning also applies to overhead vaults, in a building using a vaulted structural system, for example, the Gothic architecture periods Chartres Cathedral has a nave that is seven bays long. Similarly in timber framing a bay is the space between posts in the direction of the building and aisles run longitudinally. The openings for windows in a wall, for example, in Georgian style, at Mulberry Fields, the building is described as a 5 bay by 2 bay facade, meaning a 5 windows by 2 windows exterior. A recess in a wall, such as a bay window, a division of space such as an animal stall, sick bay, or bay platform. The space between joists or rafters, a joist bay or rafter bay
22.
Dormer
–
A dormer is a roofed structure, often containing a window, that projects vertically beyond the plane of a pitched roof. Dormers are commonly used to increase the space in a loft. The term dormer is commonly used to refer to a dormer window although a dormer doesnt necessarily have to contain a window, a dormer is often one of the primary elements of a loft conversion. As a prominent element of many buildings, different types of dormer have evolved to complement different styles of architecture, when the structure appears on the spires of churches and cathedrals, it is usually referred to as a lucarne. Some of the different types of dormer are, Gable fronted dormer, Also called simply a gabled dormer, this is the most common type. It has a pitched roof of two sloping planes, supported by a frame that rises vertically to form a triangular section below the roofline. It is also known as a dog-house dormer, hip roof dormer, Also called a hipped dormer, it has a roof composed of three sloping planes that rise from each side of the dormer frame and converge at the ridge—analogous to the hip roof. Flat roof dormer, The roof of this dormer is a flat plane approximately horizontal. Shed dormer, This dormer also has a flat plane roof. A shed dormer can provide head room over an area than a gabled dormer. Wall dormer, As opposed to the dormer being set part way up the slope of the roof and this means that the face of the dormer is essentially a continuation of the wall above the level of the eaves. Eyebrow or eyelid dormer, A low and wide dormer with a curved roof, instead the roof covering is gradually curved up and over the dormer in a flattened bell curve. Link dormer, This can be a dormer that houses a chimney or a dormer that joins one part of a roof to another, bonneted dormer, This is an arched roof dormer, rounded in shape when viewed from front. Popular in Victorian homes, especially in areas, like the Southcott-style row-houses called Jellybean Row in St. Johns. Nantucket dormer, This is a three-in-one dormer structure composed of two gable dormers connected by a dormer in between. Lucarne, A dormer on the slope of a spire, usually slender. Blind or false dormer, A dormer that is visible externally. These are often used to make the house appear more aesthetically impressive, the word dormer is derived from the Middle French dormeor, meaning sleeping room, as dormer windows often provided light and space to attic-level bedrooms
23.
Mansard roof
–
A mansard or mansard roof is a four-sided gambrel-style hip roof characterized by two slopes on each of its sides with the lower slope, punctured by dormer windows, at a steeper angle than the upper. The steep roof with windows creates a floor of habitable space. The upper slope of the roof may not be visible from street level when viewed from close proximity to the building, the earliest known example of a mansard roof is credited to Pierre Lescot on part of the Louvre built around 1550. This roof design was popularized in the early 17th century by François Mansart and it became especially fashionable during the Second French Empire of Napoléon III. Mansard in Europe also means the attic space itself, not just the roof shape and is used in Europe to mean a gambrel roof. Two distinct traits of the mansard roof – steep sides and a double pitch – sometimes lead to it being confused with other roof types. Since the upper slope of a roof is rarely visible from the ground. The gambrel roof style, commonly seen in barns in North America, is a cousin of the mansard. Both mansard and gambrel roofs fall under the classification of curb roofs. However, the mansard is a hip roof, with slopes on all sides of the building. French roof is used as a synonym for a mansard but is also defined as an American variation of a mansard with the lower pitches nearly vertical. In France and Germany, no distinction is made between gambrels and mansards – they are both called mansards, in the French language, mansarde can be a term for the style of roof, or for the garret living space, or attic, directly within it. The mansard style makes use of the interior space of the attic. Often the decorative potential of the Mansard is exploited through the use of convex or concave curvature, one frequently seen explanation for the popularity of the mansard style is that it served to shelter its owners against taxes as well as rain. Later examples suggest that either French or American buildings were taxed by their height to the base of the roof and this last explanation is the nearest to the truth, a Parisian law had been in place since 1783, restricting the heights of buildings to 20 metres. The height was measured up to the cornice line, making any living space contained in a mansard roof exempt. A1902 revision of the law permitted building three or even four stories within such a roof, the style was popularized in France by architect François Mansart. Although he was not the inventor of the style, his extensive and prominent use of it in his designs gave rise to the mansard roof
24.
Zodiac
–
The zodiac is an area of the sky centered upon the ecliptic, the apparent path of the Sun across the celestial sphere over the course of the year. The paths of the Moon and visible planets also remain close to the ecliptic, within the belt of the zodiac, in western astrology and astronomy, the zodiac is divided into twelve signs, each sign occupying 30° of celestial longitude. Because the signs are regular, they do not correspond exactly to the boundaries of the twelve constellations after which they are named, the English word zodiac derives from zōdiacus, the Latinized form of the Ancient Greek zōidiakòs kýklos, meaning circle of little animals. Zōidion is the diminutive of zōion, the name reflects the prominence of animals among the twelve signs. The construction of the zodiac is described in Ptolemys vast 2nd century AD work, the term zodiac may also refer to the region of the celestial sphere encompassing the paths of the planets corresponding to the band of about eight arc degrees above and below the ecliptic. The zodiac of a planet is the band that contains the path of that particular body, e. g. the zodiac of the Moon is the band of five degrees above. By extension, the zodiac of the comets may refer to the band encompassing most short-period comets, the division of the ecliptic into the zodiacal signs originates in Babylonian astronomy during the first half of the 1st millennium BC. The zodiac draws on stars in earlier Babylonian star catalogues, such as the MUL. APIN catalogue, around the end of the 5th century BC, Babylonian astronomers divided the ecliptic into twelve equal signs, by analogy to twelve schematic months of thirty days each. Each sign contained thirty degrees of longitude, thus creating the first known celestial coordinate system. Because the division was made into equal arcs, 30° each, in Babylonian astronomical diaries, a planet position was generally given with respect to a zodiacal sign alone, less often in specific degrees within a sign. When the degrees of longitude were given, they were expressed with reference to the 30° of the zodiacal sign, in astronomical ephemerides, the positions of significant astronomical phenomena were computed in sexagesimal fractions of a degree. For daily ephemerides, the positions of a planet were not as important as the astrologically significant dates when the planet crossed from one zodiacal sign to the next. The Babylonian star catalogs entered Greek astronomy in the 4th century BC, Babylonia or Chaldea in the Hellenistic world came to be so identified with astrology that Chaldean wisdom became among Greeks and Romans the synonym of divination through the planets and stars. Hellenistic astrology derived in part from Babylonian and Egyptian astrology, horoscopic astrology first appeared in Ptolemaic Egypt. The Dendera zodiac, a dating to ca.50 BC, is the first known depiction of the classical zodiac of twelve signs. The earliest extant Greek text using the Babylonian division of the zodiac into 12 signs of 30 equal degrees each is the Anaphoricus of Hypsicles of Alexandria. Particularly important in the development of Western horoscopic astrology was the astrologer and astronomer Ptolemy, whose work Tetrabiblos laid the basis of the Western astrological tradition. Under the Greeks, and Ptolemy in particular, the planets, Houses, Ptolemy lived in the 2nd century AD, three centuries after the discovery of the precession of the equinoxes by Hipparchus around 130 BC
25.
Relief
–
Relief is a sculptural technique where the sculpted elements remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term relief is from the Latin verb relevo, to raise, to create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane. What is actually performed when a relief is cut in from a surface of stone or wood is a lowering of the field. The technique involves considerable chiselling away of the background, which is a time-consuming exercise. In other materials such as metal, clay, plaster stucco, ceramics or papier-mâché the form can be just added to or raised up from the background, and monumental bronze reliefs are made by casting. There are different degrees of relief depending on the degree of projection of the form from the field. There is also sunk relief, which was restricted to Ancient Egypt. However the distinction between high relief and low relief is the clearest and most important, and these two are generally the only used to discuss most work. Hyphens may or may not be used in all these terms, works in the technique are described as in relief, and, especially in monumental sculpture, the work itself is a relief. Reliefs are common throughout the world on the walls of buildings and a variety of settings. Relief is more suitable for depicting complicated subjects with figures and very active poses, such as battles. Most ancient architectural reliefs were painted, which helped to define forms in low relief. Rock reliefs are carved into solid rock in the open air. This type is found in cultures, in particular those of the Ancient Near East and Buddhist countries. A stele is a standing stone, many of these carry reliefs. The distinction between high and low relief is somewhat subjective, and the two are often combined in a single work. In particular, most later high reliefs contain sections in low relief, a low relief or bas-relief is a projecting image with a shallow overall depth, for example used on coins, on which all images are in low relief. Other versions distort depth much less and it is a technique which requires less work, and is therefore cheaper to produce, as less of the background needs to be removed in a carving, or less modelling is required
26.
Architrave
–
An architrave is the lintel or beam that rests on the capitals of the columns. It is an element in Classical architecture. The term can also be applied to all sides, including the vertical members, in an entablature in classical architecture, it is the lowest part, below the frieze and cornice. The word is derived from the Greek and Latin words arche, the architrave is different in the different orders. In the Tuscan, it consists of a plain face, crowned with a fillet. In the Doric and composite, it has two faces, or fasciae, and three in the Ionic and Corinthian, in which it is 10/12 of a high, though. It means the part of something. The part on which the idea, the reasoning, the thought or the philosophy are based, examples, 1). the Mature Hegel- the Hegel of the Philosophy of Right- who becomes the architrave on which he constructs his social philosophy. Ref. Page, XIV, The Ethics of Democracy, A Contemporary Reading of Hegels Philosophy of Right LINK 2) to become the architrave of his theoretic construction Ref. Pag and it is placed above the bracket of a pillar, which gives it extra support. Dravidian architecture recognizes several distinct types of Architraves, rounded, wavy, flower shaped, bevel and tenon type, voluted, figural
27.
Cornice
–
A simple cornice may be formed just with a crown molding. The function of the cornice of a building is to throw rainwater free of the building’s walls. In residential building practice, this function is handled by projecting gable ends, roof eaves, however, house eaves may also be called cornices if they are finished with decorative molding. The projecting cornice of a building may appear to be heavy and hence in danger of falling, particularly on commercial buildings, a rake is an architectural term for an eave or cornice which runs along the gable end of the roof of a modern residential structure. It may also be called a sloping cornice, a raking cornice, the trim and rafters at this edge are called rake-, verge-, or barge-board or verge- or barge-rafter. It is a sloped timber on the facing edge of a roof running between the ridge and the eave. On a typical house, any gable will have two rakes, one on each sloped side, the rakes are supported by a series of lookouts and may be enclosed with a rake fascia board on the outside facing edge and a rake soffit along the bottom. The cornices of a residential building will usually be one of three types, a box cornice, a close or closed cornice, or an open cornice. Box cornices enclose the cornice of the building with what is essentially a narrow box. A box cornice may further be divided into either the box cornice or the wide box cornice type. A narrow box cornice is one in which the projection of the rafter serves as a surface for the soffit board as well as the fascia trim. This is possible if the slope of the roof is fairly steep, box cornices often have ventilation screens laid over openings cut in the soffits in order to allow air to circulate within the cornice. A close, closed, or snub cornice is one in there is no projection of the rafters beyond the walls of the building. This type of cornice is easy to construct, but provides little aid in dispersing water away from the building, in an open cornice, the shape of the cornice is similar to that of a wide box cornice except that both the lookouts and the soffit are absent. It is a lower-cost treatment that requires fewer materials, and may not have a fascia board. Ancient Egyptian architectural tradition made special use of large cavetto mouldings as a cornice, with only a short fillet above, inspired by this precedent, it was then revived by Ardashir I, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty. The cavetto took the place of the cymatium in many Etruscan temples, often painted with vertical tongue patterns, additional more-obscure varieties of cornice include the architrave cornice, bracketed cornice, and modillion cornice. A cornice return is a detail that occurs where the horizontal cornice of a roof connects to the rake of a gable
28.
Corbel
–
In architecture a corbel is a structural piece of stone, wood or metal jutting from a wall to carry a superincumbent weight, a type of bracket. A corbel is a piece of material in the wall. A piece of projecting in the same way was called a tassel or a bragger in the UK. The technique of corbelling, where rows of corbels deeply keyed inside a support a projecting wall or parapet, has been used since Neolithic, or New Stone Age. A console is more specifically an S-shaped scroll bracket in the classical tradition, keystones are also often in the form of consoles. Whereas corbel is rarely used outside architecture, console is used for furniture, as in console table. The word corbel comes from Old French and derives from the Latin corbellus, a diminutive of corvus, similarly, the French refer to a bracket-corbel, usually a load-bearing internal feature, as a corbeau. Norman corbels often have an appearance, although they may be elaborately carved with stylised heads of humans, animals or imaginary beasts. Similarly, in the Early English period, corbels were sometimes carved, as at Lincoln Cathedral. Corbels sometimes end with a point apparently growing into the wall, or forming a knot, in the later periods the carved foliage and other ornaments used on corbels resemble those used in the capitals of columns. Throughout England, in work, wooden corbels abound, carrying window-sills or oriel windows in wood. The corbels carrying balconies in Italy and France were sometimes of great size and richly carved, taking a cue from 16th-century practice, the Paris-trained designers of 19th-century Beaux-Arts architecture were encouraged to show imagination in varying corbels. A corbel table is a moulded string course supported by a range of corbels. Sometimes these corbels carry a small arcade under the string course, as a rule the corbel table carries the gutter, but in Lombard work the arcaded corbel table was utilized as a decoration to subdivide the storeys and break up the wall surface. In Italy sometimes over the corbels will form a moulding, in modern chimney construction, a corbel table is constructed on the inside of a flue in the form of a concrete ring beam supported by a range of corbels. The corbels can be either in-situ or pre-cast concrete, the corbel tables described here are built at approximately ten metre intervals to ensure stability of the barrel of refractory bricks constructed thereon. In medieval architecture the technique was used to support upper storeys or a parapet projecting forward from the wall plane and this later became a decorative feature, without the openings. Corbelling supporting upper stories and particularly supporting projecting corner turrets subsequently became a characteristic of the Scottish baronial style, medieval timber-framed buildings often employ jettying, where upper stories are cantilevered out on projecting wooden beams in a similar manner to corbelling
29.
Escutcheon (heraldry)
–
In heraldry, an escutcheon is a shield that forms the main or focal element in an achievement of arms. The word is used in two related senses, firstly, as the shield on which a coat of arms is displayed. Escutcheon shapes are derived from actual shields used by knights in combat, other shapes are in use, such as the roundel commonly used for arms granted to Aboriginal Canadians by the Canadian Heraldic Authority. Secondly, a shield can itself be a charge within a coat of arms, more often, a smaller shield is placed over the middle of the main shield as a form of marshalling. In either case, the shield is usually given the same shape as the main shield. When there is one such shield, it is sometimes called an inescutcheon. The word escutcheon is derived from Middle English escochon, from Anglo-Norman escuchon, from Vulgar Latin scūtiōn-, from Latin scūtum, from its use in heraldry, escutcheon can be a metaphor for a familys honour. The idiom a blot on the escutcheon is used to mean a stain on somebodys reputation, by about 1250 the shields used in warfare were almost triangular in shape, referred to as heater shields. That on the monument to the latters grandfather Geoffrey V. This almost equilateral shape is used as a setting for armorials from this classical age of heraldry. In the Tudor era the heraldic escutcheon took the shape of an inverted Tudor arch, continental European designs frequently use the various forms used in jousting, which incorporate mouths used as lance rests into the shields, such escutcheons are known as à bouche. The mouth is correctly shown on the side only, as jousting pitches were designed for right-handed knights. Heraldic examples of English shields à bouche can be seen in the spandrels of the timber roof of Lincolns Inn Hall. In this case the lozenge is without crest or helm, again objects of manly warfare, however, for the practical purpose of categorisation the lozenge may be treated as a variety of heraldic escutcheon. In general a female was represented by her paternal arms impaled by the arms of her husband on an escutcheon, in modern Canadian heraldry, and certain other modern heraldic jurisdictions, women may be granted their own arms and display these on an escutcheon. Life peeresses in England display their arms on a lozenge, an oval or cartouche is occasionally also used instead of the lozenge for armigerous women. Divorced women may theoretically until remarriage use their ex-husbands arms differenced with a mascle, the lozenge shape of quasi-escutcheon is also used for funerary hatchments for both men and women. Pretoria High School for Girls in South Africa is one of the few schools that was granted permission to use the lozenge as part of its coat of arms
30.
Entablature
–
An entablature refers to the superstructure of moldings and bands which lie horizontally above columns, resting on their capitals. Entablatures are major elements of architecture, and are commonly divided into the architrave, the frieze. The Greek and Roman temples are believed to be based on wooden structures, the structure of the entablature varies with the three classical orders, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. In each, the proportions of the subdivisions are defined by the proportions of the column in the order, in Roman and Renaissance interpretations, it is usually approximately a quarter of the height of the column. Variants of entablature that do not fit these models are derived from them. Pure classical Doric entablature is simple, the architrave, the lowest band, is split, from bottom to top, into the guttae, the regulae, and the taenia. The frieze is dominated by the triglyphs, vertically channelled tablets, separated by metopes, which may or may not be decorated. The triglyphs sit on top of the taenia, a flat, thin, horizontal protrusion, and are finished at the bottom by decoration of drops, called guttae, the top of the triglyphs meet the protrusion of the cornice from the entablature. The underside of this protrusion is decorated with mutules, tablets that are finished with guttae. The cornice is split into the soffit, the corona, the soffit is simply the exposed underside. The corona and the cymatium are the parts of the cornice. The Ionic order of entablature adds the fascia in the architrave, which are flat horizontal protrusions, and the dentils under the cornice, which are tooth-like rectangular block moldings. The Corinthian order adds a far more ornate cornice, divided, from bottom to top, into the cyma reversa, the dentils, the ovulo, the modillions, the fascia, and the cyma recta. The modillions are ornate brackets, similar in use to dentils, the frieze is sometimes omitted—for example, on the portico of the caryatides of the Erechtheum—and probably did not exist as a structure in the temple of Diana at Ephesus. Neither is it found in the Lycian tombs, which are reproductions in the rock of timber based on early lonian work. The entablature is essentially an evolution of the lintel, which spans two posts, supporting the ends of the roof rafters. The entablature together with the system of columns is rarely found outside of classical architecture. It is often used to complete the upper portion of a wall where columns are not present, the use of the entablature, irrespective of columns, appeared after the Renaissance
31.
Diocletian window
–
Diocletian windows, also called thermal windows, are large semicircular windows characteristic of the enormous public baths of Ancient Rome. They have been revived on a basis by some classical revivalist architects in more modern times. Diocletian windows are large arched windows which are usually divided into three lights by two vertical mullions. The central compartment is often wider than the two lights on either side of it. Diocletian windows are named for the found in the Thermae of Diocletian in Rome. The variant name, thermal window, also comes from their association with the Thermae of Diocletian and this type of window was revived and used in Italy in the 16th century, especially by Andrea Palladio. Palladio and others incorporated an elongated Diocletian window in the form of a central light flanked by narrower. This combination became known as a Palladian, or Venetian, window, Diocletian windows continued to be used occasionally in large public buildings in the various devolutions of neoclassical architecture including the Beaux Arts movement. List of classical architecture terms Palladian window
32.
Festoon
–
A festoon is a wreath or garland, and in architecture typically a carved ornament depicting conventional arrangement of flowers, foliage or fruit bound together and suspended by ribbons. The motif is known as a swag when depicting fabric or linen. Its origin is due to the representation in stone of the garlands of natural flowers, etc. which were hung up over an entrance doorway on fête days. The design was employed both by the Ancient Greeks and Romans and formed the principal decoration of altars, friezes. The ends of the ribbons are formed into bows or twisted curves. The motif was used in neo-classical architecture and decorative arts, especially ceramics. In modern usage, the term can refer to a style of electric light bulb with two points of contact on either end providing power to the filament or diode. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. The dictionary definition of festoon at Wiktionary
33.
Keystone (architecture)
–
A keystone is the wedge-shaped stone piece at the apex of a masonry arch, or the generally round one at the apex of a vault. In both cases it is the piece placed during construction and locks all the stones into position. In both arches and vaults, keystones are often enlarged beyond the requirements, and often decorated in some way. Keystones are often placed in the centre of the top of openings such as doors and windows. Although a masonry arch or vault cannot be self-supporting until the keystone is placed, old keystones can decay due to vibration, a condition known as bald arch. In a rib-vaulted ceiling, keystones may mark the intersections of two or more arched ribs, for aesthetic purposes, the keystone is sometimes larger than the other voussoirs, or embellished with a boss. Mannerist architects of the 16th century often designed arches with enlarged and slightly dropped keystones, numerous examples are found in the work of Sebastiano Serlio, a 16th-century Italian Mannerist architect. Architectural sculpture Coping List of classical architecture terms Oculus compression ring Media related to keystones at Wikimedia Commons
34.
Rustication (architecture)
–
The visible face of each individual block is cut back around the edges to make its size and placing very clear. In addition the central part of the face of each block may be given a rough or patterned surface. Rusticated masonry is usually dressed, or squared off neatly, on all sides of the stones except the face that will be visible when the stone is put in place. This is given wide joints that emphasize the edges of block, by angling the edges. The main part of the face may worked flat and smooth or left or worked with a more or less rough or patterned surface. Rustication is often used to give weight to the ground floor in contrast to smooth ashlar above. Though intended to convey a rustic simplicity, the finish is highly artificial, and it remains in use in some modern architecture. Rough finishes on stone are very common in architecture outside the European tradition. For example, the bases of Japanese castles and other fortifications usually use rough stone, probably the earliest and most influential example is the Palazzo Medici Riccardi in Florence, built between 1444 and 1484, with two contrasting rusticated finishes. The ground floor has an irregular and genuinely rugged appearance, with a variation in the degree to which parts of the faces of blocks project from the wall that is rarely equalled later. Above, the rustication is merely to emphasize the blocks. Also in Florence, Palazzo Strozzi, begun 1489, with large oblong rounded cushions, and these facades only used the classical orders in mullions and aedicules, with arched forms in rustication the main relief from the massive flat walls. The Palazzo Rucellai, probably of the 1460s, begins to classicize such facades, using smooth-faced rustication throughout, in Rome, Donato Bramantes Palazzo Caprini provided a standard model for the integration of rustication with the orders. The first major Renaissance building in Spain, the Palace of Charles V in Granada, had a deeply rusticated ground floor facade with regular rounded cushions, the technique was enthusiatically taken up by the next generation of Mannerist architects, with Giulio Romano in the lead. Most early examples of rustic style are therefore built for sophisticated patrons in the leading centres of taste. The Mannerist architectural writer Sebastiano Serlio and others of his generation enjoyed the play between rusticated and finished architectural elements, the Italians brought in to expand the Palace of Fontainebleau introduced the technique to France. Its spread to Germany and England took longer, but by about the end of the 16th century it had reached all parts of Europe. In his Banqueting House in London, Inigo Jones gave a lightly rusticated surface texture to emphasize the blocks on both storeys, and to them behind his orders of pilasters and columns
35.
Parapet
–
A parapet is a barrier which is an extension of the wall at the edge of a roof, terrace, balcony, walkway or other structure. The word comes ultimately from the Italian parapetto, the German equivalent Brustwehr has the same meaning. Parapets were originally used to defend buildings from attack, but today they are primarily used as guard rails. Parapets may be plain, embattled, perforated or panelled, which are not mutually exclusive terms, plain parapets are upward extensions of the wall, sometimes with a coping at the top and corbel below. Embattled parapets may be panelled, but are pierced, if not purely as stylistic device, perforated parapets are pierced in various designs such as circles, trefoils, or quatrefoils. Panelled parapets are ornamented by a series of panels, either oblong or square, and more or less enriched and these are common in the Decorated and Perpendicular periods. The Mosaic law prescribed parapets for newly constructed houses as a safety measure, the Mirror Wall at Sigiriya, Sri Lanka built between 477 and 495 AD is one of the few surviving protective parapet walls from antiquity. Built onto the side of Sigiriya Rock it ran for a distance of approximately 250 meters and provided protection from inclement weather. Only about one hundred meters of this exists today, but brick debris. Parapets surrounding roofs are common in London and this dates from the Building Act of 1707 which banned projecting wooden eaves in the cities of Westminster and London as a fire risk. Instead an 18-inch brick parapet was required, with the set behind. This was continued in many Georgian houses, as it gave the appearance of a roof which accorded with the desire for classical proportions. Many firewalls are required to have a parapet, a portion of the wall extending above the roof, the parapet is required to be as fire resistant as the lower wall, and extend a distance prescribed by building code. Parapets on bridges and other highway structures prevent users from falling off where there is a drop and they may also be meant to restrict views, to prevent rubbish passing below, and to act as noise barriers. Bridge parapets may be made any material, but structural steel, aluminium, timber. They may be of solid or framed construction, in European standards, parapets are defined as a sub-category of vehicle restraint systems or pedestrian restraint systems. In terms of fortification, a parapet is a wall of stone, wood or earth on the edge of a defensive wall or trench. In medieval castles, they were often crenellated, in later artillery forts, parapets tend to be higher and thicker
36.
Baluster
–
Multiplied in this way, they form a balustrade. Individually, a baluster shaft may describe the form taken by a brass or silver candlestick. According to OED, baluster is derived through the French, balustre, from Italian, balaustro, from balaustra, pomegranate flower, from Latin balaustium, from Greek βαλαύστιον. The earliest examples are shown in the bas-reliefs representing the Assyrian palaces. The application to architecture was a feature of the early Renaissance, late fifteenth-century examples are found in the balconies of palaces at Venice and these quattrocento balustrades are likely to be following yet-unidentified Gothic precedents. They form balustrades of colonnettes as an alternative to miniature arcading, sangallo passed the motif to Bramante and Michelangelo, through whom balustrades gained wide currency in the 16th century. Because of its low center of gravity, this vase-baluster may be given the modern term dropped baluster. The baluster, being a structure, tends to follow design precedents that were set in woodworking and ceramic practices, where the turners lathe. The profile a baluster takes is often diagnostic of a style of architecture or furniture. Some complicated Mannerist baluster forms can be read as a vase set upon another vase, modern baluster design is also in use for example in designs influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement in a 1905 row of houses in Etchingham Park Road Finchley London England. The modern term baluster shaft is applied to the shaft dividing a window in Saxon architecture, in the south transept of the Abbey in St Albans, England, are some of these shafts, supposed to have been taken from the old Saxon church. Norman bases and capitals have been added, together with plain cylindrical Norman shafts, balusters are normally separated by at least the same measurement as the size of the square bottom section. Placing balusters too far apart diminishes their aesthetic appeal, balustrades normally terminate in columns, building walls or more properly in heavy newel posts because otherwise they will not be structurally strong enough. Balusters may be formed in several ways, wood and stone can be shaped on the lathe, wood can be cut from square or rectangular section boards, while concrete, plaster, iron, and plastics are usually formed by molding and casting. Turned patterns or old examples are used for the molds, Cast iron Cast stone Hardwoods and softwoods Plaster Polymer stone Polyurethane/polystyrene Wrought iron The word banister refers to the balusters of a stairway. According to many dictionaries - a, a handrail, especially on a staircase. Such a handrail together with its supporting structures, the Renaissance baluster and Palladio in Palladio and English Palladianism
37.
Newsquest
–
Newsquest Media Group Ltd. is the second largest publisher of regional and local newspapers in the United Kingdom with 205 brands across the UK, publishing online and in print. It reaches 28 million visitors a month online and 6.5 million readers a week in print, based in London, Newsquest employs a total of more than 5,500 people across the UK. It also has a specialist arm that publishes both commercial and business-to-business titles such as Insurance Times, The Strad, and Boxing News, the next year it floated on the London Stock Exchange realising a market capitalisation of £500 million. In 1998, Newsquest added the Sussex-based Contact-a-Car, the London Property Weekly titles, in 1999, The US Gannett media groups newly formed UK subsidiary paid £922 million for Newsquest and took on the company’s debt. The Competition Commission again inquired into this purchase but cleared it, in 2005, Newsquest’s Exchange Enterprises division paid £50. Newsquest also owned the formerly named Brentford, Chiswick and Isleworth Times, later known as the Hounslow and Brentford Times, Gannett had replied by saying, There is no truth in the report. Newsquest is a part of the Gannett company. It was hardly a picture of a company suffering from poor health, the company hoped to launch the gallery across the whole of the Newsquest network, the press release added. In April 2014, following CEO/Chairman Paul Davidsons retirement, Henry Faure Walker was appointed CEO at Newsquest. On 26 May 2015, Newsquest announced that it had acquired Romanes Media Group, the Romanes newspaper portfolio comprises one daily,19 weekly paid-fors and nine weekly frees, and associated websites, and the company employs 270 staff. On 28 April 2016, Newsquest announced that the latest comScore figures showed that users spend more time per month on Newsquest sites than any other regional press group, Newsquest has a digital audience of 28 million unique users including the Scottish jobs website s1jobs. com. Wishart had written to the commission in June 2007 to express his concern about standards, union members were holding a ballot over whether they should strike over five redundancies on the Glasgow Evening News, one of the papers bought from SMG. Newsquest’s Glasgow NUJ members went on again on 3 and 4 August 2007. She was not surprised staff had walked out and they have a long list of causes for dissatisfaction - redundancies, staffing shortages, poor working conditions and high stress levels. This is damaging the health of the workers and the health of the paper, rather than discuss the problems, Newsquest has derecognised the NUJ, Peattie continued. Peattie had tabled a motion in the Scottish Parliament expressing concerns about the Herald newspapers
38.
Historic England
–
Historic England is an executive non-departmental public body of the British Government sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. It is tasked with protecting the environment of England by preserving and listing historic buildings, ancient monuments. The body was created by the National Heritage Act 1983. Historic England has a remit to and complements the work of Natural England which aims to protect the natural environment. Historic England inherits English Heritages position as the UK governments statutory adviser and this includes archaeology on land and under water, historic buildings sites and areas, designated landscapes and the historic elements of the wider landscape. It monitors and reports on the state of Englands heritage and publishes the annual the Heritage at Risk survey which is one of the UK Governments Official statistics and it is tasked to secure the preservation and enhancement of the man-made heritage of England for the benefit of future generations. Giving grants national and local organisations for the conservation of buildings, monuments. In 2013/14 over £13 million worth of grants were made to support heritage buildings, advising central UK government on which English heritage assets are nationally important and should be protected by designation. Administering and maintaining the register of Englands listed buildings, scheduled monuments, registered battlefields, conservation areas and protected parks and this is published as an online resource as The National Heritage List for England. Advising local authorities on managing changes to the most important parts of heritage, providing expertise through advice, training and guidance to improve the standards and skills of people working in heritage, practical conservation and access to resources. In 2009–2010 it trained around 200 professionals working in local authorities, consulting and collaborating with other heritage bodies, local and national planning organisations e. g. It is not responsible for approving alterations to listed buildings, the management of listed buildings is the responsibility of local planning authorities and the Department for Communities and Local Government. It also owns the National Heritage Collection of nationally important historic sites, however they do not run these sites as this function is instead carried out by the English Heritage Trust under licence until 2023. Britain from Above, presents the unique Aerofilms collection of photographs from 1919-1953. Images of England website Heritage Explorer, Education site for teachers Department for Culture Media and Sport
39.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
40.
Buildings and architecture of Brighton and Hove
–
Brighton and Hove, a city on the English Channel coast in southeast England, has a large and diverse stock of buildings unrivalled architecturally among the countrys seaside resorts. The conurbation was first united in 1997 as an authority and has a population of about 253,000. About half of the 20, 430-acre geographical area is classed as built up, many buildings were lost in the 1960s and 1970s, when Brightons increasing regional importance encouraged redevelopment, but conservation movements were influential in saving other buildings. Much of the built environment is composed of buildings of the Regency. The Regency style, typical of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, is characterised by pale stuccoed exteriors with Classical-style mouldings, even the modest two-storey terraced houses which spread rapidly across the steeply sloping landscape in the mid-19th century display some elements of this style. Postwar developments range from Brutalist commercial and civic structures to pastiches of earlier styles, sustainable building techniques have become popular for individual houses and on a larger scale, such as at the long-planned New England Quarter brownfield development. Local and national government have recognised the citys architectural heritage through the designation of listed building, Brighton was originally an agricultural and fishing village surrounded by fields where sheep were farmed and corn was grown. In the Saxon era, small buildings developed in an area bounded by four streets named after the points of the compass, modest cottages for the fishermen stood on the beach below the cliffs and the now vanished South Street. A thriving fishing industry contributed to the towns first period of growth in the 16th and 17th centuries, the industry then contracted in the early 18th century, and depopulation occurred. Little pre-18th century architecture remains in Brighton, therefore, although there are individual buildings. For example,27 King Street in North Laine is cobble-fronted, Hove, meanwhile, was a single-street village with a manor house, some modest cottages and a church further inland. Although St Andrews Church remains in use and Hove Street survives, early-18th-century descriptions of the old town of Brighton concentrated on how small and low the houses were, and how the lower storeys were characteristically set slightly below ground level. This, and the proximity of the houses to other, may have offered protection against storms. Huddling together may have helped the houses survive to the present day. Typical Lanes buildings are timber-framed and plastered with load-bearing walls of bungaroosh with some flint, brick quoins and courses added strength, and façades were often studded with pebbles from the beach. These would sometimes be coated with tar to keep water out, in The Lanes, such buildings can be seen at Bartholomews, Middle Street and Ship Street among others. Buildings of the 16th and 17th centuries and earlier can be found in the old villages absorbed by modern Brighton, at St Wulfrans Church, Ovingdean, the 12th-century nave and chancel replaced a Saxon structure. St Helens Church at Hangleton retains 11th-century herringbone masonry and other ancient fabric, Hoves oldest secular building is Hangleton Manor, a Vernacular-style flint building with some 15th-century fabric
41.
Grade I listed buildings in Brighton and Hove
–
There are 24 Grade I listed buildings in the city of Brighton and Hove, England. The city, on the English Channel coast approximately 52 miles south of London, was formed as an authority in 1997 by the merger of the neighbouring towns of Brighton. Queen Elizabeth II granted city status in 2000, English Heritage, a non-departmental public body, acts as an agency of this department to administer the process and advise the department on relevant issues. Brighton and its westerly neighbour Hove developed independently as fishing villages on the English Channel coastline, Brighton was founded as a Saxon homestead and had a population of about 400 at the time of the Domesday survey in 1086. Hove had a tradition of farming on the fertile downland behind the coast. Both places were in decline in the century, but local doctor Richard Russells advocacy of drinking and bathing in seawater at Brighton attracted members of Britains high society and royalty. This included the Prince of Wales, who commissioned architect John Nash to build a house, the result was the citys best-known building, the Kemp Town and Brunswick estates bordered Brighton to the east and west respectively. The town was joined to Hove, in turn stimulating its growth. All seven parts are listed at Grade I, five have a Grade I listing, including one that is no longer in use. The pleasure pier was another Victorian trend, and Brightons West Pier is one of only two Grade I-listed piers in England, it is now in ruins after a series of storms and fires caused it to collapse. After it closed in 1975, a piece fell into the sea in 1984, partial demolition followed, but in the space of five months from December 2002 it suffered two further collapses and two devastating fires. In the 20th century, both Brighton and Hove expanded by absorbing surrounding villages, many of which had ancient buildings, buildings and architecture of Brighton and Hove List of conservation areas in Brighton and Hove Media related to Grade I listed buildings in Brighton and Hove at Wikimedia Commons
42.
Grade II* listed buildings in Brighton and Hove
–
There are 70 Grade II* listed buildings in the city of Brighton and Hove, England. The city, on the English Channel coast approximately 52 miles south of London, was formed as an authority in 1997 by the merger of the neighbouring towns of Brighton. Queen Elizabeth II granted city status in 2000, English Heritage, a non-departmental public body, acts as an agency of this department to administer the process and advise the department on relevant issues. There are three grades of listing status, Brighton was founded on top of the sea-facing cliffs where the South Downs meet the English Channel. A series of valleys allowed transport routes to develop towards Lewes, London, although Neolithic settlement has been confirmed, the Anglo-Saxons were the first permanent settlers, the population was about 400 by the time of the Domesday survey in 1086. Its neighbour Hove, on flatter, more land to the west, developed concurrently but independently, its existence was recorded in 1288. Fishing, farming and smuggling drove the economy, but decline set in during the Middle Ages, coastal flooding destroyed buildings on many occasions, the parish church fell into ruins, and the population—almost all poor—numbered about 100 in 1801. Brighton became fashionable as a destination and health resort in the mid-18th century, and royal patronage increased its popularity with high society. Day-trippers and longer-term visitors from other classes soon followed. The Vicar of Brighton, Rev. Henry Michell Wagner—a wealthy, progressive clergyman with strong Anglo-Catholic views, both towns were incorporated as boroughs, Brighton in 1854, Hove in 1898. Expansion in the 20th century, as the area became a large regional centre. In 1997, the towns were united as a unitary authority. Some listings include contributory fixtures such as surrounding walls or railings in front of the building and these are summarised by notes alongside the building name. Buildings and architecture of Brighton and Hove List of conservation areas in Brighton and Hove A.1 This listing includes attached walls, B.1234 This listing includes attached walls, piers and railings. C.1234567891011121314 This listing includes attached railings, D.1 This listing includes the train sheds. E.1 This listing includes attached gates, walls, piers, F.1 This listing includes attached walls. G.12 This listing includes attached walls and railings, H.1 This listing includes the attached gate. I.1 This listing includes attached steps and walls, J.1 This listing includes kerbstones surrounding the moat
.jpg)
.jpg)
