1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
3.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
4.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
5.
Punitive expedition
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A punitive expedition is a military journey undertaken to punish a state or any group of persons outside the borders of the punishing state. It is usually undertaken in response to perceived disobedient or morally wrong behavior, in the 1st century AD, Germanicus engaged in punitive expeditions against the Germanic tribes as repercussion for the Roman Legions that were destroyed in the Battle of Teutonburg Forest. In the 13th century, Genghis Khan, the founder of the Mongol Empire, often engaged punitive expeditions, some notable examples include his invasion of Khwarazim and his campaigns against the Western Xia kingdom. Also in the 13th century, Kublai Khan, a grandson of Genghis, the ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, Kertanagara, refused to pay tribute and tattooed a Chinese messenger, Meng Qi, on his face. A punitive expedition sent by Kublai Khan arrived off the coast of Java in 1293, Jayakatwang, a rebel from Kediri, had killed Kertanagara by that time. The Mongols allied with Raden Wijaya of Majapahit against Jayakatwang and, once the Singhasari kingdom was destroyed, Wijaya turned against the Mongols and forced them to withdraw in confusion. In 1599 the Spanish conquistador Juan de Oñate ordered his nephew Vicente de Zaldívar to engage in an expedition against the Keres natives of Acoma Pueblo. When the Spanish arrived, they fought a battle with the Keres leaving about 800 men, women and children dead. During the First Anglo-Powhatan War, Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, lord de la Warr waged a punitive campaign to subdue the Powhatan after they had killed the colony’s council president, John Ratcliffe. His tactics against the Indians proved effective and included raiding their villages, burning their homes, torching their cornfields and crops, in the summer of 1614, Ottomans led by Damat Halil Pasha engaged a successful punitive expedition against Sefer Dāyl, an insurgent in Tripoli. From 1838 to 1842 ships of the United States Exploring Expedition engaged in three expeditions against Pacific islanders. The 1842 Ivory Coast Expedition was led by Matthew C. Perry against the Bereby people of West Africa after two attacks on American merchant ships. The Battle of Kabul in 1842 was undertaken by the British against the Afghans following their disastrous retreat from Kabul in which 16,000 people were killed, the French Campaign against Korea in 1866, a response to the earlier execution by Korea of French priests proselytizing in Korea. The 1867 Formosa Expedition, a punitive operation of the United States. The United States expedition to Korea in 1871, in retaliation to the General Sherman incident, the 1874 Japanese expedition against Formosa. Benin Expedition of 1897 British punitive action that led to the annexation of the Kingdom of Benin, the New York Times reported on January 13,1897 that a punitive expedition would be formed to punish the murderers of the Benin City expedition. The Pancho Villa Expedition from 1916 to 1917, led by General John J. Pershing, was an operation in retaliation against Pancho Villas incursion into United States, the 2016 Indo-Pakistani military confrontation began with punitive surgical strikes carried out by India. Letter of marque and reprisal Gordon, Leonard, japans Abortive Colonial Venture in Taiwan,1874
6.
War in Kosovo
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The Kosovo War was an armed conflict in Kosovo that lasted from 5 March 1998 until 11 June 1999. After attempts at a diplomatic solution failed, NATO intervened, justifying the campaign in Kosovo as a humanitarian war and this precipitated a mass expulsion of Kosovar Albanians as the Yugoslav forces continued to fight during the aerial bombardment of Yugoslavia. The war ended with the Kumanovo Treaty, with Yugoslav and Serb forces agreeing to withdraw from Kosovo to make way for an international presence, Kosovos borders did not precisely match the areas of ethnic Albanian settlement in Yugoslavia. Kosovos formal autonomy, established under the 1945 Yugoslav constitution, initially meant relatively little in practice, the secret police cracked down hard on nationalists. In 1956 a number of Albanians went on trial in Kosovo on charges of espionage, the threat of separatism was in fact minimal, as the few underground groups aiming for union with Albania had little political significance. Demaci himself was imprisoned in 1964 along with many of his followers, Yugoslavia underwent a period of economic and political crisis in 1969, as a massive government program of economic reform widened the gap between the rich north and poor south of the country. Student demonstrations and riots in Belgrade in June 1968 spread to Kosovo in November of the same year, however, Tito conceded some of the students demands—in particular, representative powers for Albanians in both the Serbian and Yugoslav state bodies and better recognition of the Albanian language. The University of Pristina was established as an independent institution in 1970, the lack of Albanian-language educational materials in Yugoslavia hampered the Albanisation of education in Kosovo, so an agreement was struck with Albania itself to supply textbooks. In 1974 Kosovos political status improved further when a new Yugoslav constitution granted a set of political rights. Along with Vojvodina, Kosovo was declared a province and gained many of the powers of a fully-fledged republic, power was still exercised by the Communist Party, but it was now devolved mainly to ethnic Albanian communists. Titos death on 4 May 1980 ushered in a period of political instability, worsened by growing economic crisis. The disturbances were quelled by the Presidency of Yugoslavia proclaiming a state of emergency, sending in riot police and the army, hard-liners instituted a fierce crackdown on nationalism of all kinds, Albanian and Serbian alike. Kosovo endured a heavy secret-police presence throughout most of the 1980s that ruthlessly suppressed any unauthorised nationalist manifestations, according to a report quoted by Mark Thompson, as many as 580,000 inhabitants of Kosovo were arrested, interrogated, interned or reprimanded. Thousands of these lost their jobs or were expelled from their educational establishments, during this time tension between the Albanian and Serbian communities continued to escalate. Such concerns did attract interest in Belgrade, stories appeared from time to time in the Belgrade media claiming that Serbs and Montenegrins were being persecuted. There was a perception among Serbian nationalists that Serbs were being driven out of Kosovo, in addition to all this, the worsening state of Kosovos economy made the province a poor choice for Serbs seeking work. Albanians, as well as Serbs, tended to favor their compatriots when hiring new employees, Kosovo was the poorest entity of Yugoslavia, the average per capita income was $795, compared with the national average of $2,635. 33 nationalist formations were dismantled by Yugoslav police, who sentenced some 280 people and seized arms caches, in Kosovo an increasingly poisonous atmosphere between Serbs and Albanians led to wild rumors being spread and otherwise trivial incidents being blown out of proportion
7.
Iraq War
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The Iraq War was a protracted armed conflict that began in 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by a United States-led coalition that toppled the government of Saddam Hussein. The conflict continued for much of the decade as an insurgency emerged to oppose the occupying forces. An estimated 151,000 to 600,000 or more Iraqis were killed in the first 3–4 years of conflict and it became re-involved in 2014 at the head of a new coalition, the insurgency and many dimensions of the civil armed conflict continue. The invasion began on 20 March 2003, with the U. S. joined by the United Kingdom and several allies, launching a shock. Iraqi forces were overwhelmed as U. S. forces swept through the country. The invasion led to the collapse of the Baathist government, President Hussein was captured during Operation Red Dawn in December of that same year, the United States responded with a troop surge in 2007. The winding down of U. S. involvement in Iraq accelerated under President Barack Obama, the U. S. formally withdrew all combat troops from Iraq by December 2011. Select U. S. officials accused Saddam of harboring and supporting al-Qaeda, while others cited the desire to end a repressive dictatorship, after the invasion, no substantial evidence was found to verify the initial claims about WMDs. The rationale and misrepresentation of pre-war intelligence faced heavy criticism within the U. S. in the aftermath of the invasion, Iraq held multi-party elections in 2005. Nouri al-Maliki became Prime Minister in 2006 and remained in office until 2014, the al-Maliki government enacted policies that were widely seen as having the effect of alienating the countrys Sunni minority and worsening sectarian tensions. The Iraq War caused hundreds of thousands of civilian, and thousands of military casualties, the majority of casualties occurred as a result of the insurgency and civil conflicts between 2004 and 2007. A1990 Frontline report on The arming of Iraq said, Officially, most Western nations participated in an arms embargo against Iraq during the 1980s. Western companies, primarily in Germany and Great Britain, but also in the United States, sold Iraq the key technology for its chemical, missile, any Western governments seemed remarkably indifferent, if not enthusiastic, about those deals. N Washington, the government consistently followed a policy which allowed and perhaps encouraged the growth of Saddam Husseins arsenal. The Western arming of Iraq took place in the context of the Iran-Iraq War, prior to September 2002, the CIA was the George W. Bush administrations main provider of intelligence on Iraq. The agency was out to disprove linkage between Iraq and terrorism the Pentagon adviser told me, the U. N. had prohibited Iraq from developing or possessing such weapons after the Gulf War and required Iraq to permit inspections confirming compliance. This was confirmed by The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, during 2002, Bush repeatedly warned of military action against Iraq unless inspections were allowed to progress unfettered. In accordance with U. N. Security Council Resolution 1441, Iraq agreed to new inspections under United Nations Monitoring, as part of its weapons inspection obligations, Iraq was required to supply a full declaration of its current weapons capabilities and manufacturing
8.
Andrew Jackson
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Andrew Jackson was an American soldier and statesman who served as the seventh President of the United States from 1829 to 1837 and was the founder of the Democratic Party. Before being elected to the presidency, Jackson served in Congress, as president, Jackson sought to advance the rights of the common man against what he saw as a corrupt aristocracy and to preserve the Union. Jackson was born in 1767 somewhere near the border between North and South Carolina, into a recently immigrated Scots-Irish farming family. During the American Revolutionary War, Jackson acted as a courier, at age 13, he was captured and mistreated by the British. He moved to Tennessee and practiced as a lawyer, in 1791, he married Rachel Donelson Robards. The couple later learned that Rachels previous husband had failed to finalize their divorce, Jackson served briefly in the U. S. House of Representatives and the U. S. Senate. Upon returning to Tennessee, he was appointed a judge on the Tennessee Supreme Court, in 1801, Jackson was appointed colonel in the Tennessee militia, and was elected its commander the following year. He built the Hermitage plantation in 1804, in 1806, he killed a man in a duel over a matter of honor regarding his wife. He led Tennessee militia and U. S. Army regulars during the Creek War of 1813-1814, Jackson won a decisive victory in the War of 1812 over the British army at the Battle of New Orleans, making him into a national hero. Because Spanish Florida was a refuge for blacks escaping slavery, who allied with the Seminole Indians, Jackson invaded the territory in 1816 to destroy the Negro Fort. He led an invasion in 1818, as part of the First Seminole War, resulting in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. Jackson briefly served as Floridas first Territorial Governor in 1821, Jackson was nominated by several state legislatures to be a candidate for president in 1824. Although he earned a plurality in both the electoral and popular vote against three major candidates, Jackson failed to get a majority and lost in the House of Representatives to John Quincy Adams, Jacksons supporters founded what became the Democratic Party. He ran again for president in 1828 against Adams, building and expanding upon his base of support in the West and South, he won in a landslide. He blamed the death of his wife, Rachel, which occurred after the election, on the Adams campaigners, as president, Jackson faced a threat of secession by South Carolina over the Tariff of Abominations, which Congress had enacted under Adams. In contrast to several of his successors, he denied the right of a state to secede from the union or to nullify federal law. The Nullification Crisis was defused when the tariff was amended and Jackson threatened the use of force if South Carolina attempted to secede. Jackson believed strongly in majority rule and he supported direct election of senators and abolition of the Electoral College, believing that these reforms would provide average citizens with greater power
9.
Jefferson Davis
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Jefferson Finis Davis was an American politician who was a Democratic U. S. Representative and Senator from Mississippi, the 23rd U. S. Secretary of War, and he took personal charge of the Confederate war plans but was unable to find a strategy to defeat the more populous and industrialized Union. Davis was born in Kentucky to a prosperous farmer, and grew up on his older brother Josephs large cotton plantations in Mississippi. Joseph Davis also secured his appointment to the U. S, after graduating, Jefferson Davis served six years as a lieutenant in the U. S. Army. He fought in the Mexican–American War, as the colonel of a volunteer regiment and he served as the U. S. Secretary of War from 1853 to 1857 under President Franklin Pierce, and as a Democratic U. S. senator from Mississippi. Before the war, he operated a cotton plantation in Mississippi. After the war had ended, he remained a proud apologist for the cause of slavery for which he, although Davis argued against secession in 1858, he believed that each state was sovereign and had an unquestionable right to secede from the Union. Daviss first wife, Sarah Knox Taylor, died of malaria three months of marriage, and he also struggled with recurring bouts of the disease. He was unhealthy for much of his life, at the age of 36, Davis married again, to 18-year-old Varina Howell, a native of Natchez who had been educated in Philadelphia and had some family ties in the North. Only two survived him, and only one married and had children, many historians attribute the Confederacys weaknesses to the poor leadership of President Davis. Historians agree he was a less effective war leader than his Union counterpart Abraham Lincoln. After Davis was captured in 1865, he was accused of treason and he was never tried and was released after two years. While not disgraced, Davis had been displaced in ex-Confederate affection after the war by his leading general, Davis wrote a memoir entitled The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, which he completed in 1881. By the late 1880s, he began to encourage reconciliation, telling Southerners to be loyal to the Union, ex-Confederates came to appreciate his role in the war, seeing him as a Southern patriot, and he became a hero of the Lost Cause in the post-Reconstruction South. Daviss paternal grandparents each immigrated separately to North America from the region of Snowdonia in North Wales in the early 18th century, the rest of his ancestry was English. After arriving in Philadelphia, Daviss paternal grandfather Evan settled in the colony of Georgia and he married the widow Lydia Emory Williams, who had two sons from a previous marriage. Their son Samuel Emory Davis was born in 1756 and he served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, along with his two older half-brothers. In 1783, after the war, he married Jane Cook and she was born in 1759 to William Cook and his wife Sarah Simpson in what is now Christian County, Kentucky
10.
154th Infantry Regiment (United States)
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The 154th Infantry Regiment was a United States infantry regiment, which was created from the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 3rd Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Arkansas National Guard, in 1917. The 154th Infantry Regiment was never reactivated in the Arkansas National Guard following World War I, the United States declared war on Germany 6 April 1917 less than two months after the last Arkansas National Guard units completed mustering out from duty on the Mexican border. At this time the Arkansas Guard consisted of two regiments, the 1st and 2nd Arkansas, which had each been mobilized for service on the Mexican border. The National Defense Act of 1916 had provided for an expansion of the National Guard. While a 3rd Arkansas Infantry had existed in the Arkansas State Guard prior to the Spanish–American War, on 17 April 1917, plans for the 3rd Arkansas Regiment were formulated, new units were to be raised in sixteen cities to support the new Regiment. On 16 May 1917, it was announced that Little Rock was one of the cities to be allowed a new company which would be part of the 3rd Arkansas Regiment. Enlistments were to be for the duration of the war, the girls distributed buttonhole tags with, Are You A Slacker. The other side of the tag read, Are You A Man, the girls worked until 5 June 1917, when the draft law became effective. On 18 May 1917, the Arkansas National Guard was notified that on 5 August 1917, alexandria, Louisiana, was the location of Camp Beauregard which was named after General P. G. T. Beauregard, C. S. A. The 3rd Arkansas Infantry Regiment mobilized 5 August and was encamped around the new state capitol by 8 August, the 2nd and 3rd Infantry Regiments were examined for Federal service on 6 August 1917, at Ft. Brough. The regiments, under the control of General Wood, were sent to Ft, roots and moved to Camp Pike by 24 August 1917. In mid-September the Arkansas units were notified that they were to be part of a newly created division, initially called the 18th, once the Arkansas regiments arrived at Camp Beauregard, they were re-organized under a new national system for numbering army regiments. The 1st Arkansas Infantry became the 153rd Infantry Regiment, the 2nd Regiment became the 142nd Field Artillery Regiment, the 3rd Arkansas Infantry, which had reported to Camp Beauregard with over 1800 Soldiers, was divided into two new units. The 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 3rd Arkansas Infantry Regiment were re-designated as the 154th Infantry, the former 3rd Battalion, 3rd Arkansas Infantry Regiment and the Machine Gun Company from the 2nd Arkansas Infantry were re-designated as the 141st Machine Gun Battalion. The 18th Infantry Division was re-designated as the 39th Delta Division, U. S. N. G. in May,1918, privates were given the opportunity to volunteer for duty overseas. In the rush to end the war officers resigned their commissions so they would be qualified for duty overseas before the war was over. As a result, the first Arkansas National Guard Soldier to die in combat during World War I was Private Robert Springer, a former member of the 3rd Arkansas. June,1918, marked the arrival in France of 20 per cent of the personnel of the 154th Infantry
11.
156th Infantry Regiment (United States)
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The 156th Infantry Regiment is an infantry regiment in the United States Army and the Louisiana National Guard. The 2nd Battalion, 156th Infantry Regiment was originally organized 9 and 17 May 1861 as the 2nd and 3rd Louisiana Volunteer Infantry Regiments and they were reorganized in part on 26 December 1891 as the 1st and 2nd Battalions of Infantry and transferred to the Louisiana State National Guard. The battalions consolidated on 17 March 1896 to form the 1st Regiment of Infantry with headquarters at Baton Rouge. The unit was mustered into service between 8–18 May 1898 at New Orleans as the 1st Louisiana Volunteer Infantry and mustered out of federal service on 3 October 1898 at Jacksonville. It was reorganized on 8 August 1899 in the Louisiana State National Guard as the 1st Battalion of Infantry with headquarters at Monroe and it was expanded, reorganized, and redesignated on 6 December 1904 as the 1st Regiment of Infantry with headquarters at Monroe. The Louisiana State National Guard was meanwhile redesignated in 1910 as the Louisiana National Guard, the 156th Infantry was inducted into federal service on 25 November 1940 at home stations. It was relieved on 14 July 1942 from assignment to the 31st Division, the 156th acted as an independent infantry regiment performing guard duties at rear Headquarters and POW camps in North Africa and France. Inactivating between 13–22 March 1946 at Camp Kilmer, NJ, assigned on 28 May 1946 to the 39th Infantry Division, it was reorganized and federally recognized on 18 December 1946 with headquarters at Lafayette. Disbanded and removed from service following re-organization of the regiment on 1 March 1977, the 2nd Battalion, 156th Infantry is headquartered in Abbeville, Louisiana in Vermilion Parish. It consists of the following, Headquarters and Headquarters Company located in Abbeville, LA with a detachment in Jeanerette, alpha Company located in Breaux Bridge, LA with a detachment in Plaquemine, LA. Bravo Company located in New Iberia, LA with a detachment in Franklin, charlie Company located in Houma, LA. Delta Company located in Thibodaux, LA, echo Company located in Jeanerette, LA with a detachment in Abbeville, LA The 3rd Battalion, 156th Infantry is headquartered in Lake Charles, Louisiana. Attached below and to the sides of the shield a Blue scroll inscribed DIEU ET MOI in Silver letters, symbolism The shield is in the colors of the Infantry. The organization’s honorable Civil War service is shown by the saltire, the leopard is taken from the arms of Normandy and symbolized the campaigns fought in Northern France. The motto translates to God and I, background The distinctive unit insignia was approved on 12 October 1951. Blazon Shield- Per fess enhanced Azure and Argent in chief a saltire couped of the second, symbolism Shield- The shield is in the colors of the Infantry. The organization’s honorable Civil War service is shown by the saltire, the leopard is taken from the arms of Normandy and symbolized the campaigns fought in Northern France. Crest- The crest is that of the Louisiana Army National Guard, background- The coat of arms was approved on 12 October 1951
12.
Mississippi
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Mississippi /ˌmɪsᵻˈsɪpi/ is a state in the southern region of the United States, with part of its southern border formed by the Gulf of Mexico. Its western border is formed by the Mississippi River, the state has a population of approximately 3 million. It is the 32nd most extensive and the 32nd most populous of the 50 United States, located in the center of the state, Jackson is the state capital and largest city, with a population of approximately 175,000 people. The state is heavily forested outside of the Mississippi Delta area, before the American Civil War, most development in the state was along riverfronts, where slaves worked on cotton plantations. After the war, the bottomlands to the interior were cleared, by the end of the 19th century, African Americans made up two-thirds of the Deltas property owners, but timber and railroad companies acquired much of the land after a financial crisis. Clearing altered the Deltas ecology, increasing the severity of flooding along the Mississippi, much land is now held by agribusinesses. The states catfish aquaculture farms produce the majority of farm-raised catfish consumed in the United States, since the 1930s and the Great Migration, Mississippi has been majority white, albeit with the highest percentage of black residents of any U. S. state. From the early 19th century to the 1930s, its residents were mostly black, whites retained political power through Jim Crow laws. In 2010, 37% of Mississippians were African Americans, the highest percentage of African Americans in any U. S. state, since gaining enforcement of their voting franchise in the late 1960s, most African Americans support Democratic candidates in local, state and national elections. Conservative whites have shifted to the Republican Party, African Americans are a majority in many counties of the Mississippi-Yazoo Delta, an area of historic settlement during the plantation era. Since 2011 Mississippi has been ranked as the most religious state in the country, the states name is derived from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary. Settlers named it after the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi, in addition to its namesake, major rivers in Mississippi include the Big Black River, the Pearl River, the Yazoo River, the Pascagoula River, and the Tombigbee River. Major lakes include Ross Barnett Reservoir, Arkabutla Lake, Sardis Lake, Mississippi is entirely composed of lowlands, the highest point being Woodall Mountain, in the foothills of the Cumberland Mountains,807 feet above sea level. The lowest point is sea level at the Gulf coast, the states mean elevation is 300 feet above sea level. Most of Mississippi is part of the East Gulf Coastal Plain, the coastal plain is generally composed of low hills, such as the Pine Hills in the south and the North Central Hills. The Pontotoc Ridge and the Fall Line Hills in the northeast have somewhat higher elevations, yellow-brown loess soil is found in the western parts of the state. The northeast is a region of black earth that extends into the Alabama Black Belt. The coastline includes large bays at Bay St. Louis, Biloxi, the northwest remainder of the state consists of the Mississippi Delta, a section of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain
13.
National Guard of the United States
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All members of the National Guard of the United States are also members of the militia of the United States as defined by 10 U. S. C. National Guard units are under the control of the state. The majority of National Guard soldiers and airmen hold a civilian job full-time while serving part-time as a National Guard member, local militias were formed from the earliest English colonization of the Americas in 1607. The first colony-wide militia was formed by Massachusetts in 1636 by merging small older local units, the various colonial militias became state militias when the United States became independent. The title National Guard was used from 1824 by some New York State militia units, National Guard became a standard nationwide militia title in 1903, and specifically indicated reserve forces under mixed state and federal control from 1933. The first muster of militia forces in what is today the United States took place on September 16,1565, appropriately enough, this muster occurred in the shadow of an oncoming hurricane. This Spanish militia tradition and the English tradition that would be established to the north would provide the nucleus for Colonial defense in the New World. The militia tradition continued with the first permanent English settlements in the New World, Jamestown Colony and Plymouth Colony both had militia forces, which initially consisted of every able bodied adult male. By the mid-1600s every town had at least one militia company, as a result of the Spanish–American War, Congress was called upon to reform and regulate the training and qualification of state militias. The first national laws regulating the militia were the Militia acts of 1792, in 1903, with passage of the Dick Act, the predecessor to the modern-day National Guard was formed. It required the states to divide their militias into two sections, the law recommended the title National Guard for the first section, known as the organized militia, and Reserve Militia for all others. During World War I, Congress passed the National Defense Act of 1916, Congress also authorized the states to maintain Home Guards, which were reserve forces outside the National Guards being deployed by the Federal Government. The National Guard of the states, territories, and the District of Columbia serves as part of the first-line of defense for the United States. C. Where the National Guard operates under the President of the United States or his designee, the governors exercise control through the state adjutants general. The National Guard may be called up for duty by the governors to help respond to domestic emergencies and disasters, such as hurricanes, floods. The National Guard is administered by the National Guard Bureau, which is a joint activity of the Army, the National Guard Bureau provides a communication channel for state National Guards to the DoD. S. C. The National Guard Bureau is headed by the Chief of the National Guard Bureau, prior to 2008, the functions of Agricultural Development Teams were within Provincial Reconstruction Teams of the US Government. Today, ADTs consist of soldiers and airmen from the Army National Guard, today, ADTs bring an effective platform for enhanced dialogue, building confidence, sharing interests, and increasing cooperation amongst the disparate peoples and tribes of Afghanistan
14.
Aaron Burr
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Aaron Burr Jr. was an American politician. He was the vice president of the United States, serving during President Thomas Jeffersons first term. Burr served as a Continental Army officer in the Revolutionary War, after which he became a successful lawyer, the highlight of Burrs tenure as president of the senate was the Senates first impeachment trial, that of Supreme Court justice Samuel Chase. In 1804, the last full year of his term as vice president. Burr was never tried for the duel, and all charges against him were eventually dropped. After leaving Washington, Burr traveled west seeking new opportunities, both economic and political and his activities eventually led to his arrest on charges of treason in 1807. The subsequent trial resulted in acquittal, but Burrs western schemes left him with large debts, in a final quest for grand opportunities, he left the United States for Europe. He remained overseas until 1812, when he returned to the United States to practice law in New York City, there he spent the rest of his life in relative obscurity. Aaron Burr Jr. was born in Newark, New Jersey, in 1756 as the child of the Reverend Aaron Burr Sr. a Presbyterian minister. His mother Esther Burr was the daughter of Jonathan Edwards, the noted Calvinist theologian, Burr had an older sister Sarah, named for her maternal grandmother. She later married Tapping Reeve, founder of the Litchfield Law School in Litchfield, Burrs father died in 1757, and his mother the following year, leaving him and his sister orphans when he was two years old. He and his sister first lived with their grandparents, but Sarah Edwards also died in 1757. Young Aaron and Sally were placed with the William Shippen family in Philadelphia, in 1759, the childrens guardianship was assumed by their 21-year-old maternal uncle Timothy Edwards. The next year, Edwards married Rhoda Ogden and moved with the children to Elizabeth, New Jersey, rhodas younger brothers Aaron Ogden and Matthias Ogden became the boys playmates. The three boys, along with their neighbor Jonathan Dayton, formed a group of friends that lasted their lifetimes, Aaron Burr was admitted to the sophomore class of the College of New Jersey at the age of 13, after being rejected once at age 11. Aside from being occupied with studies, he was a part of the American Whig Society and Cliosophic Society. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1772 at age 16 and he studied theology for an additional year, before rigorous theological training with Joseph Bellamy, a Presbyterian. He changed his career two years later, at age 19, when he moved to Connecticut to study law with his brother-in-law Tapping Reeve
15.
Fort Mims massacre
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Afterward, a massacre ensued and almost all of the remaining Lower Creek, white settlers, and militia at Fort Mims were killed. The fort was a stockade with a blockhouse surrounding the house and outbuildings of the settler Samuel Mims, located about 35 miles north of present-day Mobile, the Creek Nation split into factions during the War of 1812. One group of Creek nativists, the Red Sticks, argued against any more accommodation of the settlers while the other Creeks favored adopting the white lifestyle. The Red Stick faction from the Upper Towns opposed both land cessions to settlers and the Lower Towns assimilation into European-American culture, the nativists were soon called Red Sticks because they had raised the red stick of war, a favored weapon and symbolic Creek war declaration. American spies learned that Peter McQueens party of Red Sticks were in Pensacola, Florida to acquire food assistance, supplies and they ambushed the Red Sticks in the Battle of Burnt Corn in July 1813 as the Creek were having their mid-day meal. While the United States forces were looting the pack trains, the warriors returned, the United States was now at war with the Creek Nation. In August 1813, Peter McQueen and Red Eagle were the Red Stick chiefs who led the attack on Fort Mims. Nearly 1,000 warriors from thirteen Creek towns of the Alabamas, the Tallapoosas, the mixed-blood Creek, also known as métis, of Tensaw, one of the Lower Towns, joined European-American settlers in taking refuge within the stockade of Fort Mims. Both these groups also brought slaves, there were about 517 people, including some 265 armed militiamen in the fort. Fort Mims was located about 35 to 45 miles north of Mobile on the side of the Alabama River. On August 29,1813, two black slaves tending cattle outside the stockade reported that painted warriors were in the vicinity, major Beasley, the commander, had the second slave flogged for raising a false alarm. Beasley received a warning the morning of the assault by a mounted scout. Beasley had claimed that he could maintain the post against any number of Indians, at the time of the attack, the east gate was partially blocked open by drifting sand. Beasley also posted no pickets or sentries, dismissing the reports the Creeks were near, the Red Sticks attacked during the mid-day meal, attempting to take the fort in a coup de main by charging the open gate en masse. At the same time, they control of the gun loopholes. Under Captain Bailey, the militia and settlers held the inner enclosure, fighting on for a time, the Indians, their initial impetus blunted inside the fort and casualties rising, held an impromptu council to debate whether to continue the fight or withdraw. By 3 oclock, it was decided that the Tensaw métis led by Dixon Bailey would have to be killed to avenge their treachery at Burnt Corn, the Creeks launched a second attack at 3 pm. The remaining defenders back into a building called the bastion
16.
American Indian Wars
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These conflicts occurred in the current boundaries of the United States from the time of earliest colonial settlements until 1924. In many cases, wars resulted from competition for resources and land ownership as Europeans, Warfare and raiding also took place as a result of conflicts between European governments and later the United States. These governments enlisted Native Americans tribes to help them conduct warfare against each others settlements, after 1776, many conflicts were local, involving disputes over land use, and some entailed cycles of reprisal. In the 1800s, conflicts were spurred by ideologies such as Manifest Destiny, in the years leading up to the Indian Removal Act of 1830 there were many armed conflicts between settlers and Native Americans. Prior to the Act of 1830, some conflicts were resolved through sale or exchange of territory through treaties between the government and specific tribes. The 1830 act authorized the removal of indigenous peoples who lived East of the Mississippi River to the West. As United States citizens continued to settle areas towards the Pacific, the policy of removal was refined to move some indigenous peoples to very specific reservations. The 2010 census found 2,932,248 Americans who identified themselves as being Native American, no consensus exists on how many native people lived in the Americas before the arrival of Columbus, but extensive research has been and continues to be conducted. Estimates on the population of pre-Colombus North America range from a low of 2.1 million to 7 million people to 18 million, scholars believe that the overwhelming main causes were new infectious diseases carried by European explorers and traders. Native Americans had no acquired immunity to diseases, which had been chronic in Eurasian populations for over five centuries. For instance, some estimates indicate case fatality rates of 80–98% in Native American populations during smallpox epidemics. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, the actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the number given. Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate, from about 1600 onwards, the process of European colonization of North America by the English, French, Spanish, Dutch and Swedish was contested by various indigenous tribes. Similarly, in the American Revolution and the War of 1812, the British planned to set up an Indian nation in what is now the Ohio-Wisconsin area to block further American expansion. The U. S. protested and finally, in 1812, most Indian tribes, especially those allied with Tecumseh, supported the British and were ultimately defeated by General William Henry Harrison. The latter were defeated by General Andrew Jackson, during and after such warfare, many refugees from defeated tribes went over the border to Canada, those in the South went to Florida while it was under Spanish control. During the early 19th century, the government was under pressure by settlers in many regions to expel Native Americans from their areas. Some resisted fiercely, most notably the Seminoles in a series of wars in Florida and they were never finally defeated, although some Seminole did remove to Indian Territory
17.
Battle of New Orleans
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The Battle of New Orleans was an engagement fought between January 8 and January 18,1815, constituting the final major battle of the War of 1812, and the most one-sided battle of that war. Preventing access to the lakes was an American flotilla, commanded by Lieutenant Thomas ap Catesby Jones, on December 14, around 1,200 British sailors and Royal Marines under Captain Nicholas Lockyer set out to attack Jones force. Lockyers men sailed in 42 longboats, each armed with a small carronade, Lockyer captured Jones vessels in a brief engagement known as the Battle of Lake Borgne. 17 British sailors were killed and 77 wounded, while 6 Americans were killed,35 wounded, the wounded included both Jones and Lockyer. On the morning of December 23, Keane and a vanguard of 1,800 British soldiers reached the east bank of the Mississippi River,9 miles south of New Orleans. During the afternoon of December 23, after he had learned of the position of the British encampment, Andrew Jackson reportedly said and this intelligence had been provided by Colonel Thomas Hinds Squadron of Light Dragoons, a militia unit from the Mississippi Territory. That evening, attacking from the north, Jackson led 2,131 men in a brief three-pronged assault on the unsuspecting British troops, then Jackson pulled his forces back to the Rodriguez Canal, about 4 miles south of the city. The Americans suffered 24 killed,115 wounded, and 74 missing, while the British reported their losses as 46 killed,167 wounded, historian Robert Quimby says, the British certainly did win a tactical victory, which enabled them to maintain their position. However, Quimby goes on to say, It is not too much to say that it was the battle of December 23 that saved New Orleans, the British were disabused of their expectation of an easy conquest. The unexpected and severe attack made Keane even more cautious. he made no effort to advance on the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth, as a consequence, the Americans were given time to begin the transformation of the canal into a heavily fortified earthwork. On Christmas Day, General Edward Pakenham arrived on the battlefield and that evening, General Pakenham met with General Keane and Admiral Cochrane for an update on the situation, angry with the position that the army had been placed in. General Pakenham wanted to use Chef Menteur Road as the route, but he was overruled by Admiral Cochrane. Admiral Cochrane believed the veteran British soldiers would easily destroy Jacksons ramshackle army, whatever Pakenhams thoughts on the matter, the meeting settled the method and place of the attack. When the British reconnaissance-in-force withdrew, the Americans immediately began constructing earthworks to protect the artillery batteries and these defenses were then christened Line Jackson. The Americans installed eight batteries, which included one 32-pound gun, Jackson also sent a detachment to the west bank of the Mississippi to man two 24-pounders and two 12-pounders on the grounded warship USS Louisiana. Even so, Jacksons force was outnumbered by the attacking forces. The main British army arrived on New Years Day 1815, and this began an exchange of artillery fire that continued for three hours. Several of the American guns were destroyed or silenced, including the 32-pounder, a 24-pounder, the British artillery finally exhausted its ammunition, which caused Pakenham to cancel the attack
18.
M1841 Mississippi rifle
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The M1841 Mississippi rifle is a muzzle-loading percussion rifle used in the Mexican–American War and the American Civil War. When Eli Whitney Blake took over management of the Harpers Ferry Armory in 1842, machinery and fixtures for making the 1822 contract flintlock musket had to be retooled or replaced in order to produce the lock and barrel of the new model. Whitney, Jr. had the sense to hire Thomas Warner as foreman. Under his tutelage, Eli Whitney, Jr. equipped the Whitney Armory to do likewise, colonel Davis sought to arm his regiment with the Model 1841 rifles. At this time, smoothbore muskets were still the primary weapon and any unit with rifles was considered special. Davis clashed with his officer, General Winfield Scott, who said that the weapons were insufficiently tested and refused the request. Davis took his case to the President James Knox Polk who agreed with Davis that his men be armed with them, the incident was the start of a lifelong feud between Davis and Scott. The Model 1841 was replaced by minie ball firing Model 1855 US Rifle, which became the standard weapon for regular army infantry. By the time of the Civil War, the Mississippi rifle was generally considered old-fashioned, in the rush to arm troops in 1861 many new soldiers considered themselves fortunate to have any rifled arm while many of their comrades carried smoothbore muskets. The Mississippi rifle was referred to as a yagger rifle, due to its smaller size. The Mississippi rifle was the first standard U. S. rifle to use a lock system. The Mississippi rifle was produced in.54 caliber, using 1,66 rifling. In 1855, the Mississippi rifle was changed to.58 caliber, many older Mississippi rifles were re-bored to.58 caliber. The rifle was modified to accept a sword type bayonet. The first Mississippi rifles had a v-notch sight and this was later replaced with leaf sights with 100,300, and 500 yard ranges. A ladder sight with ranges from 100 to 1100 yards in 100 yard increments was fitted on some later rifles, the Guns of Harpers Ferry, Baltimore, Md. 157 p. ISBN 0-8063-4640-X Confederate Tales of the War By Michael E. Banasik
19.
Battle of Buena Vista
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The Battle of Buena Vista, also known as the Battle of Angostura, saw the United States Army use artillery to repulse the much larger Mexican Army in the Mexican–American War. Buena Vista, a village in the state of Coahuila, is seven miles south of Saltillo, wools force moved to Agua Nueva, south of Saltillo, on December 21, to counter rumors of impending attack. In mid-August 1846 Antonio López de Santa Anna returned from exile and quickly assumed command of the Mexican army and he reached San Luis Potosí on Oct 8 with a force of 25,000 men. General José de Urreas cavalry would simultaneously retake Ciudad Victoria and cut off Monterrey from Matamoros, Santa Annas army departed San Luis Potosí on Jan 27 with 21,553 men, and reached Encarnacion, south of Saltillo, with 15,142 men on Feb.20. Gen. Wool was charged with selecting the field of battle, Wool thought the site excellent for defense since the road passed through a narrow valley here, which was crossed at right angles by several ravines east of the road and arroyos were to the west. John M. Washingtons battery across the road, supported by the 1st Illinois under Col. John J. Hardin, Santa Annas forces consisted of Major General Manuel María Lombardinis division and Major General Francisco Pachecos division in the center with fourteen pieces of artillery, Col. In reserve was Major General Jose Maria Ortegas infantry division and Brigadier General Francisco Mejias brigade, Santa Anna began the attack with a feint by Mejia to the American right, but his main thrust was to the American left. Marshalls and Ampudias men skirmished by 3,30 PM but darkness brought an end to the fighting, after dark, Taylor, escorted by the Mississippi Rifles, Col. Jefferson Davis, and Charles A. Mays dragoons, checked on the Saltillo garrison, but returned by 9 AM on the morning of February 23, during the night, Brigadier General Manuel Micheltorena moved five 8-pounders above the American left, intending to flank them along the high ground the next morning at daylight. Ampudias brigade started the assault, supported by Lombardinis and Pachecos divisions, the 2nd Indiana faced a force of 7,000 Mexicans, prompting Wool to send the 2nd Illinois and Capt. Thomas W. Shermans battery in support. The Hoosiers, after taking ninety casualties, broke and fled, forcing the 2nd Illinois in a fighting withdrawal. Juveras cavalry was able to turn the American left flank and head for Buena Vista, Davis Mississippians were ordered to shield Buena Vista along with the Arkansas and Kentucky cavalry, the 3rd Indiana, and Capt. Enoch Steens dragoons. The American left was thus strengthened, the center still held, Davis men then sent the Mexicans fleeing, although Davis was wounded in the heel. A young Mexican lieutenant, Jose Maria Montoya, tricked Taylor into a ceasefire, Brigadier José Vicente Miñón appeared before Saltillo but retreated to the southwest. Santa Anna renewed an attack on the main U. S. position led by Gen. Francisco Pérez with artillery support. They were met at 5 PM by fire from OBriens and Thomas guns, braxton Bragg then arrived with orders to maintain the position at all costs. Taylor rode over to Bragg, and after a conversation in which Bragg replied he was using single canister shot, Taylor ordered double-shot your guns and give em hell. Later this order, although misquoted as give them a little more grape, Captain Bragg, pérezs attack was repulsed and the fighting ended as heavy rain fell over the field
20.
Slouch hat
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A slouch hat is a wide-brimmed felt or cloth hat most commonly worn as part of a military uniform, often, although not always, with a chinstrap. Australia has had a hat as standard issue headwear since the late Victorian era. Today it is worn by personnel from a number of countries, although it is primarily associated with Australia. In the United States it was called the Kossuth hat. During the American Civil War the headgear was common among both Confederate and Union troops in the Western Theater, although not always with its brim turned up at the side. During the Spanish–American War, as commander of the Rough Riders, the name slouch hat refers to the fact that one side droops down as opposed to the other which is pinned against the side of the crown. It was introduced into Australia around 1885, although it traces its military use back to Austrian skirmishers, the modern slouch hat is derived from the black Corsican hat – historically used in the Austrian army during the Napoleonic Wars. The headwear saw primary use by 15 battalions of Austrian Jägers and it featured an upturned brim, leather chinstrap, the regular infantry also saw limited use of the Corsican hat from years 1803–06 and 1811–36. The slouch hat in gray felt was worn by the Schutztruppe, different coloured puggarees were worn by the Germans in South West Africa, German East Africa, German West Africa, German New Guinea and China. The hat had its brim pinned up on the side with a cockade in the national colors and was worn with the home uniform as well. German colonial police units in South West Africa wore a khaki hat with a small national cockade on the front. This slouch hat is worn by the Australian military today. A Unit Colour Patch is also worn by members of the Australian Army on their hat to indicate which unit they are from. The 2nd Gurkha Rifles became the first Gurkha regiment to adopt the slouch hat when they were issued with the Australian variant in 1901. The Gurkha terai hat is created by fusing two hats into one to make the hat more rigid and is worn at an angle, tilted to the right. The Chindits and other units of Field Marshal William Slims British Fourteenth Army, on 22 December 1890, the military commanders of the then separate Australian Colonies prior to the Federation of Australia met to discuss the introduction of the khaki uniform throughout Australia. They agreed that all Australian Forces with the exception of the Artillery would wear the slouch hat and it was to be looped up on one side—Victoria and Tasmania on the right and the other colonies on the left. This was done so that rifles could be held at the slope without damaging the brim, after Federation, the slouch hat became standard Australian Army headgear in 1903 and since then it has developed into an important national symbol
21.
Monterrey
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Monterrey, is the capital and largest city of the northeastern state of Nuevo León, in Mexico. The city is anchor to the third-largest metropolitan area in Mexico and is ranked as the ninth-largest city in the nation, Monterrey serves as a commercial center in the north of the country and is the base of many significant international corporations. It is one of the wealthiest cities in Mexico with a GDP PPP of 130.7 billion dollars in 2012, Monterreys GDP PPP per capita is of approximately 32,000 dollars. It is considered a Beta World City, cosmopolitan and competitive, rich in history and culture, Monterrey is considered one of the most developed cities in the entire country and often regarded as the most americanized in Mexico. A. Cuauhtémoc Moctezuma Brewery and Heineken, which features Norteño capital and Grupo ALFA, Monterrey is located in northeast Mexico, at the foothills of the Sierra Madre Oriental. The uninterrupted settlement of Monterrey starts in 1596, with its founding by Diego de Montemayor, in the years after the Mexican War of Independence, Monterrey became an important business center. With the establishment of Fundidora Monterrey, the city experienced a great industrial growth, prior to the European foundation of the city, there was no established nation state, and the population instead consisted of some indigenous semi-nomad groups. Carved stone and cave painting in surrounding mountains and caves have allowed historians to identify four major groups in present-day Monterrey, Azalapas, Huachichiles, Coahuiltecos and Borrados. In the 16th century, the valley in which Monterrey is located was known as the Extremadura Valley, in 1580 he arrived in the newly granted lands but it was not until 1582 that he established a settlement called San Luis Rey de Francia within present-day Monterrey. The New Kingdom of León extended westwards from the port of Tampico to the limits of Nueva Vizcaya, Monterrey was also the point of emigration from Europe, people from Portugal, Spain, France, Russia went to Monterrey seeing it as a good place to live in. Most of the Monterrey people descent from a creole Spanish heritage, during the years of Spanish rule, Monterrey remained a small city, and its population varied from a few hundred to only dozens. The city was a place that facilitated trade between San Antonio, Tampico and from Saltillo to the center of the country, tampicos port brought many products from Europe, while Saltillo concentrated the Northern Territories trade with the capital, Mexico City. San Antonio was the key trade point with the foreign colonies. In 1824, the New Kingdom of León became the State of Nuevo León, in 1846, the earliest large-scale engagement of the Mexican-American War took place in the city, known as the Battle of Monterrey. Mexican forces were forced to surrender but only after successfully repelling U. S. forces during the first few advances on the city, the battle inflicted high casualties on both sides, much of them resulting from hand-to-hand combat within the walls of the city center. Many of the generals in the Mexican War against France were natives of the city, including Mariano Escobedo, Juan Zuazua, during the last decade of the 19th century, the city of Monterrey was linked by railroad, which benefitted industry. In 1986, several games of the 1986 FIFA World Cup were hosted. In 1988, Hurricane Gilbert caused great damage to the city, the conference resulted in the adoption of the Monterrey Consensus, which has become one relevant reference point for international development and cooperation
22.
Pancho Villa
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Francisco Pancho Villa was a Mexican Revolutionary general and one of the most prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution. As commander of the División del Norte in the Constitutionalist Army, given the areas size and mineral wealth, it provided him with extensive resources. Villa was also provisional Governor of Chihuahua in 1913 and 1914, Villa can be credited with decisive military victories leading to the ousting of Victoriano Huerta from the presidency in July 1914. Villa then fought his erstwhile leader in the coalition against Huerta, Villa was in alliance with southern revolutionary Emiliano Zapata, who remained fighting in his own region of Morelos. The two revolutionary generals briefly came together to take Mexico City after Carranzas forces retreated from it, later, Villas heretofore undefeated División del Norte engaged the military forces of Carranza under Carrancista general Álvaro Obregón and was defeated in the 1915 Battle of Celaya. Villa was again defeated by Carranza,1 November 1915, at the Second Battle of Agua Prieta 1 November 1915, after which Villas army collapsed as a significant military force. Villa subsequently led a hit and run raid against the small U. S. -Mexican border town in the Battle of Columbus 9 March 1916, the U. S. government sent U. S. Army General John J. In 1923, as elections approached, he re-involved himself in Mexican politics. Shortly thereafter he was assassinated, most likely on the orders of Obregón, after his death, he was excluded from the pantheon of revolutionary heroes until the Sonoran generals Obregón and Calles, whom he battled during the Revolution, were gone from the political stage. Villas exclusion from the narrative of the Revolution might have contributed to his continued posthumous popular acclaim. He was celebrated during the Revolution and long afterward by corridos, movies about his life, in 1976, his remains were reburied in the Monument to the Revolution in Mexico City in a huge public ceremony not attended by his widow Luz Corral. Villa told a number of conflicting stories about his early life, according to most sources, he was born on 5 June 1878, and named José Doroteo Arango Arámbula at birth. His father was a sharecropper named Agustín Arango, and his mother was Micaela Arámbula and he grew up at the Rancho de la Coyotada, one of the largest haciendas in the state of Durango. The familys residence now houses the Casa de Pancho Villa historic museum in San Juan del Rio, Doroteo later claimed to be the son of the bandit Agustín Villa, but according to at least one scholar, the identity of his real father is still unknown. He wasthe oldest of five children, as a child, he received some education from a local church-run school, but was not proficient in more than basic literacy. He quit school to help his mother after his father died and he became a bandit at some point early on, but also worked as a sharecropper, muleskinner, butcher, bricklayer, and foreman for a U. S. railway company. However, the veracity of this story is questionable, eventually, he became a member of a bandit band headed by Ignacio Parra, one of the most famous bandits in Durango at the time. As a bandit, he went by the name Arango, in 1902, the rurales, the crack rural police force of President Porfirio Díaz, arrested Pancho for stealing mules and for assault
23.
39th Infantry Division (United States)
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The 39th Infantry Division was an infantry formation of the Army National Guard, originally formed as the 18th Division in 1917. The division consisted of troops from Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi, after training at Camp Beauregard, Louisiana, the division was deployed to France but did not see combat before the end of World War I. In July 1923 the division was re-designated as the 31st Infantry Division, the 39th Infantry Division was reactivated after World War II with troops from Louisiana and Arkansas and its headquarters in Louisiana. In 1967, the 39th Infantry Division was reorganized to become the 39th Infantry Brigade and its headquarters was in Little Rock, Arkansas and the unit consisted entirely of troops from the Arkansas Army National Guard. In July 1917, it was announced that National Guard units from Arkansas, Mississippi, Alexandria is the location of Camp Beauregard, named after General P. G. T. Beauregard, C. S. A. Upon transfer to Camp Beauregard, all National Guard units were stripped of their state designations, at this time the division of troops from Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi was re-designated the 39th Division. The 39th Delta Division was composed of, Sickness was a problem for the National Guard troops while at Camp Beauregard, in the later part of October 1917, measles kept the men from drilling. In January 1918, the National Guard Reserve was transferred to the active list, in the same month, the town of Alexandria was placed off limits, and soldiers could not visit other regiments because of an outbreak of meningitis. The off-limits order lasted until 6 March 1918, the soldiers were instructed in the use of deadly gases and then exposed to tear gas, which complicated the health concerns. The soldiers complained about the bugs and were anxious to go to France, by March 1918, the soldiers had received new Enfield rifles. Camp Beauregard was struck with Spanish influenza in early October 1918, all available facilities were used when the hospitals became overcrowded. The 39th Division was brought up to strength with the addition of soldiers from Ohio, Illinois, the entire 39th Division passed in review for the governors of Mississippi and Louisiana in April. The army units already engaged in theater were suffering from a personnel shortage, the army had no system for providing replacement soldiers for unit losses. In May 1918, the army offered privates the opportunity to volunteer for duty overseas by agreeing to transfer out of the 39th Division, in the rush to help end the war, officers resigned their commissions so they would qualify for duty overseas before the war was over. Shortly thereafter, Private Robert Springer was the first state guardsman to lose his life in France, approximately 20 percent of the soldiers of the 39th Division were allowed to volunteer to deploy as individual replacements. In June 1918 the individual replacements arrived in France, the officers remained at Camp Beauregard with the other 80 per cent that were still in training. At Camp Beauregard the division was brought to strength by the arrival of troops from Camp Zachary Taylor. It took 12 months for the entire 39th Division organization to reach France, the 39th Division, less its artillery units, left Camp Beauregard on 1 August, and sailed for overseas service on 6 August 1918
24.
31st Infantry Division (United States)
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The 31st Infantry Division was a unit of the Army National Guard in World War I and World War II. It was originally activated as the 10th, an established in early 1917 consisting of Alabama, Florida. By the end of same year, the 10th Division became the 31st. In World War II, national guardsmen from Mississippi were included in the division, the division was activated in October 1917. It was activated for WW I at Camp Gordon, Georgia and it comprised the 61st Infantry Brigade and the 62nd Infantry Brigade, with four infantry regiments between them. It went overseas in September 1918, upon arrival in France, the 31st was designated as a replacement division. The personnel of most of the units were withdrawn and sent to other organizations as replacements for combat casualties. Commanders, Maj. Gen. F. J. Kernan, Brig. Gen. J. L. Hayden, Maj. Gen. F. H. French, Brig. Gen. W. A. Harris. The 31st Dixie Division was part of the Army of Occupation in Southern Germany at Koblenz, the division returned to the US in July 1919, to Camp Wadsworth, South Carolina where its soldiers were mustered out of active service. Awards, MH-1, DSC-7, DSM-3, SS-178, LM-11, DFC-1, SM-73, BS-948, persons, Maj. Gen. Clarence A. Martin. Returned to U. S.12 December 1945, the 31st Infantry Division arrived in Oro Bay, New Guinea,24 April 1944, and engaged in amphibious training prior to entering combat. During the war, at times its units included the 124th Infantry Regiment, the 155th Infantry Regiment from Mississippi, the 156th Infantry Regiment. The 156th Infantry Regiment of the Louisiana National Guard was separated from the 31st Division on 14 July 1942, portions of the unit participated in the D-Day landings with the entire unit being reunited on 24 June 1944. The unit was used to guard the Allied Expeditionary HQs. The unit returned to the US on 11 March 1946, alerted on 25 June 1944 for movement to Aitape, New Guinea, the 124th RCT left Oro Bay and landed at Aitape 3–6 July 1944. The combat team moved up to advanced positions and took part in the offensive launched 13 July. Over 1,000 Japanese were killed in these actions, in mid-August the division began to stage for a landing on Morotai, leaving Aitape and Maffin Bay,11 September 1944. The division made a landing on Morotai,15 September 1944
25.
155th Armored Brigade Combat Team
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The 155th Armored Brigade Combat Team is a brigade combat team of the Mississippi Army National Guard. The 155th Armored Brigade Combat Team takes its name from the 155th Infantry Regiment which dates back to 1798. While the units assigned to the 155th ABCT vary in length of service, in 1968 the 108th Armored Cavalry Regiment became part of the 30th Armored Division and re-designated as 1st Brigade, 30th Armored Division. In 1973 the brigade was redesignated as the 155th Armored Brigade when the 30th Armored Division was broken up into separate brigades, the brigade deployed to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom III from August 2004 to January 2006. During this tour of duty, the 155th HBCT suffered 15 fatalities, the brigade served under the II Marine Expeditionary Force. In 2009, the brigade was deployed again to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom in September 2002
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United States Army Center of Military History
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The United States Army Center of Military History is a directorate within the Office of the Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Army. The center is responsible for the use of history and military records throughout the United States Army. Traditionally, this mission has meant recording the history of the army in both peace and war, while advising the army staff on historical matters. CMH is the organization leading the Army Historical Program. The center traces its lineage back to historians under the Secretary of War who compiled the Official Records of the Rebellion, a similar work on World War I was prepared by the Historical Section of the Army War College. They began publication of the United States Army in World War II series, since then, the Center has produced detailed series on the Armys role in the Korean and Vietnam Wars and has begun a series on the U. S. Army in the Cold War. These works are supplemented by monographs and other publications on a mix of topics and it has expanded its role in the areas of military history education, the management of the armys museum system, and the introduction of automated data-retrieval systems. The centers work with army schools ensures that the study of history is a part of the training of officers, much of this educational work is performed at field historical offices and in army museums. Under the direction of the chief of military history and his principal adviser and those works under way and projected are described in the Army Historical Program, an annual report to the Chief of Staff on the Army’s historical activities. All center publications are listed in the catalog Publications of the United States Army Center of Military History, CMH also serves as a clearinghouse for the oral history programs in the army at all levels of command. It also conducts and preserves its own oral history collections, including those from the Vietnam War, Desert Storm, in addition, the center’s end-of-tour interviews within the Army Secretariat and Staff provide a basis for its annual histories of the Department of the Army. As tangible representations of the mission, military artifacts and art enhance the soldier’s understanding of the profession of arms. CMH manages a system of more than 120 army museums and their holdings, current projects include the establishment of a National Army Museum at Fort Belvoir, Virginia, and a complementary Army Heritage and Educational Center at Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. The Chief of Military History is responsible for ensuring the use of military history in the teaching of strategy, tactics, logistics. This mission includes a requirement that military leaders at all levels be aware of the value of history in advancing military professionalism, in this effort, the chief of military history is assisted by a historical advisory committee that includes leading academic historians and representatives of the army school system. Staff rides enable military leaders to retrace the course of a battle on the ground, as one of the army’s major teaching devices, staff rides are particularly dependent on a careful knowledge of military history. Center historians lead rides directed by the Secretary of the Army and it administers the army’s Command History Program, to provide historical support to army organizations worldwide. To stimulate interest in history in the army and the nation
United States
United States Army
