1.
Economic inequality
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Economic inequality is the difference found in various measures of economic well-being among individuals in a group, among groups in a population, or among countries. Economic inequality is sometimes called income inequality, wealth inequality, or the wealth gap, economists generally focus on economic disparity in three metrics, wealth, income, and consumption. The issue of inequality is relevant to notions of equity, equality of outcome. Economic inequality varies between societies, historical periods, economic structures and systems, the term can refer to cross-sectional distribution of income or wealth at any particular period, or to changes of income and wealth over longer periods of time. There are various numerical indices for measuring economic inequality, a widely used index is the Gini coefficient, but there are also many other methods. Some studies say economic inequality is a problem, for example too much inequality can be destructive. However, too much income equality is also destructive since it decreases the incentive for productivity, the first set of income distribution statistics for the United States covering the period from was published in 1952 by Simon Kuznets, Shares of Upper Income Groups in Income and Savings. It relied on US federal income tax returns and Kuznets’s own estimates of US national income, National Income, economists generally consider three metrics of economic dispersion, wealth, income, and consumption. A skilled professional may have low wealth and low income as student, low wealth and high earnings in the beginning of the career, peoples preferences determine whether they consume earnings immediately or defer consumption to the future. The distinction is important at the level of economy, There are economies with high income inequality. There are economies with low income inequality and high wealth inequality. There are different ways to measure income inequality and wealth inequality, Different choices lead to different results. g. Annual wages, including wages from part-time work or work during only part of the year, individual earnings inequality among all workers – Includes the self-employed. Individual earnings inequality among the entire working-age population – Includes those who are inactive, e. g. students, unemployed, early pensioners, household earnings inequality – Includes the earnings of all household members. Household market income inequality – Includes incomes from capital, savings, household disposable income inequality – Includes public cash transfers received and direct taxes paid. Household adjusted disposable income inequality – Includes publicly provided services, There are many challenges in comparing data between economies, or in a single economy in different years. Examples of challenges include, Data can be based on joint taxation of couples or individual taxation, the tax authorities generally only collect information on income that is potentially taxable. The precise definition of income varies from country to country
2.
Nonviolent resistance
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This type of action highlights the desires of an individual or group that feels that something needs to change to improve the current condition of the resisting person or group. It is largely but wrongly taken as synonymous with civil resistance, each of these terms has its distinct merits and also quite different connotations and commitments. The modern form of non-violent resistance was popularised and proven to be effective by the Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi in his efforts to gain independence from the British Empire, there are hundreds of books and papers on the subject — see Further reading below. From 1966 to 1999, nonviolent civic resistance played a role in 50 of 67 transitions from authoritarianism. Recently, nonviolent resistance has led to the Rose Revolution in Georgia, current nonviolent resistance includes the Jeans Revolution in Belarus, the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia, and the fight of the Cuban dissidents. Many movements which promote philosophies of nonviolence or pacifism have pragmatically adopted the methods of nonviolent action as a way to achieve social or political goals. Nonviolent action differs from pacifism by potentially being proactive and interventionist, clayborne Carson, In Struggle, SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press,1981, mineola, NY, Dover Publications,2001, orig. Gene Sharp, Making Europe Unconquerable, The Potential of Civilian-Based Deterrence and Defence, united Kingdom, Taylor & Francis,1985. ISBN 978-0-85066-336-5/ Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, Michael Bröning, The Politics of Change in Palestine. London, Pluto Press,2011, Part 5, judith Hand, A Future Without War, The Strategy of a Warfare Transition. San Diego, CA, Questpath Publishing,2006, Michael King, The Penguin History of New Zealand. London, Penguin Books,2003, pp 219–20,222, 247–8, mark Kurlansky, Nonviolence, The History of a Dangerous Idea. New York, Modern Library / Random House,2006, david McReynolds, A Philosophy of Nonviolence. Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash, eds, civil Resistance and Power Politics, The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present. Oxford, England, Oxford University Press,2009, adam Roberts, Michael J. Willis, Rory McCarthy and Timothy Garton Ash, eds. Civil Resistance in the Arab Spring, Triumphs and Disasters, Oxford, England, Oxford University Press,2016. Jonathan Schell, The Unconquerable World, Power, Nonviolence, New York, Metropolitan Books / Henry Holt and Company,2003
3.
Civil disobedience
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Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of a government, or of an occupying international power. Civil disobedience is a symbolic or ritualistic violation of the law, Civil disobedience is sometimes, though not always, defined as being nonviolent resistance. One of its earliest massive implementations was brought about by Egyptians against the British occupation in the 1919 Revolution, Civil disobedience is one of the many ways people have rebelled against what they deem to be unfair laws. She gives a speech in which she tells him that she must obey her conscience rather than human law. She is not at all afraid of the death he threatens her with and it is perhaps the first modern statement of the principle of nonviolent protest. A version was taken up by the author Henry David Thoreau in his essay Civil Disobedience, gandhis Satyagraha was partially influenced and inspired by Shelleys nonviolence in protest and political action. In particular, it is known that Gandhi would often quote Shelleys Masque of Anarchy to vast audiences during the campaign for a free India, Thoreaus 1848 essay Civil Disobedience, originally titled Resistance to Civil Government, has had a wide influence on many later practitioners of civil disobedience. The driving idea behind the essay is that citizens are morally responsible for their support of aggressors, in the essay, Thoreau explained his reasons for having refused to pay taxes as an act of protest against slavery and against the Mexican–American War. He writes, If I devote myself to other pursuits and contemplations, I must first see, at least, I must get off him first, that he may pursue his contemplations too. See what gross inconsistency is tolerated, public and typically peaceful resistance to public power would remain an integral tactic in modern American minority-rights politics. Henry David Thoreaus 1849 essay Resistance to Civil Government was eventually renamed Essay on Civil Disobedience, after his landmark lectures were published in 1866, the term began to appear in numerous sermons and lectures relating to slavery and the war in Mexico. Thus, by the time Thoreaus lectures were first published under the title Civil Disobedience, in 1866, four years after his death and it has been argued that the term civil disobedience has always suffered from ambiguity and in modern times, become utterly debased. Marshall Cohen notes, It has been used to everything from bringing a test-case in the federal courts to taking aim at a federal official. LeGrande writes that the formulation of a single all-encompassing definition of the term is extremely difficult, in reviewing the voluminous literature on the subject, the student of civil disobedience rapidly finds himself surrounded by a maze of semantical problems and grammatical niceties. Like Alice in Wonderland, he finds that specific terminology has no more meaning than the individual orator intends it to have. He encourages a distinction between lawful protest demonstration, nonviolent civil disobedience, and violent civil disobedience, the resistance to authority in South Africa was well advanced before I got the essay. When I saw the title of Thoreaus great essay, I began to use his phrase to explain our struggle to the English readers, but I found that even Civil Disobedience failed to convey the full meaning of the struggle. I therefore adopted the phrase Civil Resistance, often there is an expectation to be attacked or even beaten by the authorities
4.
Picketing
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Picketing is a form of protest in which people congregate outside a place of work or location where an event is taking place. Often, this is done in an attempt to dissuade others from going in, picketers normally endeavor to be non-violent. It can have a number of aims, but is generally to put pressure on the party targeted to meet particular demands and/or cease operations. Picketing is a tactic used by trade unions during strikes. Those who cross the line and work despite the strike are known pejoratively as scabs. Informational picketing is the name given to the type of picketing described above. It is a popular picketing technique for nurses to use outside of healthcare facilities, for example, on April 5,2006 nurses of the UMass Memorial Medical Center participated in two separate informational picketing events to protect the quality of their nursing program. Informational picketing was used to public support and promote further bargaining with management. A mass picket is an attempt to bring as many people as possible to a line to demonstrate support for the cause. It is primarily used only one workplace is being picketed or for a symbolically or practically important workplace. Due to the numbers involved, a mass picket may turn into a potentially unlawful blockade, secondary picketing people picketing locations that directly connected to the issue of protest. In many jurisdictions, secondary pickets do not have the civil law protection as primary pickets. However, such plans had been dropped by the time Labour returned to power under Tony Blair in 1997, another tactic is to organise highly-mobile pickets, who can turn up at any of a companys locations on short notice. The first recorded use of flying pickets was during the 1969 miners strike in Britain, Picketing is also used by pressure groups across the political spectrum. In particular, picketing has been employed by groups such as the Westboro Baptist Church that picket a variety of stores or events they consider to be sinful. For example, during the UK miners strike, strikebreakers were pelted by pickets with stones, paint and their legality has been challenged in some jurisdictions on the grounds that such tactics violate privacy rights and/or are intended to incite later reprisals against such individuals. In the US, this type of picketing, under Section 8 of the Labor Act, is illegal if representation is not relevant or is unquestionable. In the UK mass picketing was illegal under the Trade Disputes
5.
Demonstration (protest)
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Actions such as blockades and sit-ins may also be referred to as demonstrations. Demonstrations can be nonviolent or violent, or can begin as nonviolent, sometimes riot police or other forms of law enforcement become involved. In some cases this may be in order to try to prevent the protest from taking place at all, in other cases it may be to prevent clashes between rival groups, or to prevent a demonstration from spreading and turning into a riot. Demonstrations are a form of activism, usually taking the form of a gathering of people in a rally or walking in a march. Thus, the opinion is demonstrated to be significant by gathering in a associated with that opinion. Demonstrations can be used to show a viewpoint regarding a public issue, a demonstration is usually considered more successful if more people participate. There are many types of demonstrations, including a variety of elements and these may include, Marches, in which a parade demonstrate while moving along a set route. Rallies, in which people gather to listen to speakers or musicians, picketing, in which people surround an area. Nudity, in which they protest naked - here the antagonist may give in before the demonstration happens to avoid embarrassment, Demonstrations are sometimes spontaneous gatherings, but are also utilized as a tactical choice by movements. They often form part of a campaign of nonviolent resistance. Demonstrations are usually physical gatherings, but virtual or online demonstrations are certainly possible, topics of demonstrations often deal with political, economic, and social issues. Clashes between demonstrators and counter-demonstrators may turn violent, government-organized demonstrations are demonstrations which are organized by a government. The Islamic Republic of Iran, the Peoples Republic of China, Republic of Cuba, sometimes the date or location chosen for the demonstration is of historical or cultural significance, such as the anniversary of some event that is relevant to the topic of the demonstration. Locations are also chosen because of some relevance to the issue at hand. Protest marches and demonstrations are a nonviolent tactic. They are thus one tactic available to proponents of strategic nonviolence, some demonstrations and protests can turn, at least partially, into riots or mob violence against objects such as automobiles and businesses, bystanders and the police. Police and military authorities often use force or less-lethal weapons, such as tasers, rubber bullets, pepper spray. Sometimes violent situations are caused by the preemptive or offensive use of weapons which can provoke, destabilize
6.
Riot
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A riot is a form of civil disorder commonly characterized by a group lashing out in a violent public disturbance against authority, property or people. Riots typically involve vandalism and the destruction of property, public or private, the property targeted varies depending on the riot and the inclinations of those involved. Targets can include shops, cars, restaurants, state-owned institutions, Riots often occur in reaction to a perceived grievance or out of dissent. While individuals may attempt to lead or control a riot, riots typically consist of disorganized groups that are frequently chaotic, however, there is a growing body of evidence to suggest that riots are not irrational, herd-like behavior, but actually follow inverted social norms. T. S. Charles Wilson noted, Spasmodic rises in food prices provoked keelmen on the Tyne to riot in 1709, today, some rioters have an improved understanding of the tactics used by police in riot situations. Manuals for successful rioting are available on the internet, with such as encouraging rioters to get the press involved, as there is more safety. Citizens with video cameras may also have an effect on both rioters and police, dealing with riots is often a difficult task for police forces. They may use tear gas or CS gas to control rioters, Riot police may use less-than-lethal methods of control, such as shotguns that fire flexible baton rounds to injure or otherwise incapacitate rioters for easier arrest. A police riot is a term for the disproportionate and unlawful use of force by a group of police against a group of civilians and this term is commonly used to describe a police attack on peaceful civilians, or provoking peaceful civilians into violence. A prison riot is a large-scale, temporary act of concerted defiance or disorder by a group of prisoners against prison administrators, prison officers and it is often done to express a grievance, force change or attempt escape. In a race riot, race or ethnicity is the key factor, the term had entered the English language in the United States by the 1890s. Early use of the referred to riots that were often a mob action by members of a majority racial group against people of other perceived races. In a religious riot, the key factor is religion, the rioting mob targets people and properties of a specific religion, or those believed to belong to that religion. Student riots are riots precipitated by students, often in higher education, student riots in the US and Western Europe in the 1960s and the 1970s were often political in nature. Student riots may occur as a result of oppression of peaceful demonstration or after sporting events. Students may constitute a political force in a given country. Such riots may occur in the context of political or social grievances. Urban riots are closely associated with race riots and police riots, sports riots such as the Nika riots can be sparked by the losing or winning of a specific team
7.
Arab Spring
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Sustained street demonstrations took place in Morocco, Bahrain, Algeria, Iran, Lebanon, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman and Sudan. Minor protests occurred in Djibouti, Mauritania, the Palestinian territories, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, a major slogan of the demonstrators in the Arab world is Ash-shab yurid isqat an-nizam. These attacks were answered with violence from protestors in some cases, large-scale conflicts resulted—the Syrian Civil War, Iraqi insurgency and the following civil war, the Egyptian Crisis and coup, the Libyan Crisis, and the Crisis in Yemen. A power struggle continued after the response to the Arab Spring. While leadership changed and regimes were held accountable, power went up for grabs across the Arab world, ultimately it came down to a contentious battle between a consolidation of power by religious elites and the growing support for democracy in many Muslim-majority states. Some have referred to the succeeding and still ongoing conflicts as the Arab Winter, as of July 2016, only the uprising in Tunisia resulted in a transition to constitutional democratic governance. The term Arab Spring is an allusion to the Revolutions of 1848, which is referred to as the Springtime of Nations. In the aftermath of the Iraq War it was used by commentators and bloggers who anticipated a major Arab movement towards democratization. The first specific use of the term Arab Spring as used to denote these events may have started with the American political journal Foreign Policy. Marc Lynch, referring to his article in Foreign Policy, writes Arab Spring—a term I may have unintentionally coined in a January 6,2011 article. Joseph Massad on Al Jazeera said the term was part of a US strategy of controlling aims and goals, due to the electoral success of Islamist parties following the protests in many Arab countries, the events have also come to be known as Islamist Spring or Islamist Winter. Other sources confirm the US governments support of the uprisings, funded largely by the National Endowment for Democracy, other analysts pointed to the fourth stage Toppling the Regimes of the Al Qaeda strategy for world domination, described in Fouad Husseins book published in 2005. Some protesters looked to the Turkish model as an ideal, other analysts blamed the rise in food prices on commodity traders and the conversion of crops to ethanol. Yet others have claimed that the context of high rates of unemployment, the influence of social media on political activism during the Arab Spring has, however, been much debated. Protests took place both in states with a high level of Internet usage and in states with one of the lowest Internet penetration. The use of media platforms more than doubled in Arab countries during the protests. As of 5 April 2011, the amount of Facebook users in the Arab world surpassed 27.7 million people, Facebook, Twitter and other major social media played a key role in the movement of Egyptian and Tunisian activists in particular. Nine out of ten Egyptians and Tunisians responded to a poll that they used Facebook to organize protests and this large population of young Egyptian men referred to themselves as the Facebook generation, exemplifying their escape from their non-modernized past
8.
2009 Icelandic financial crisis protests
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The 2009–2011 Icelandic financial crisis protests, also referred to as the Kitchenware / Kitchen Implement or Pots and Pans Revolution occurred in the wake of the Icelandic financial crisis. There had been regular and growing protests since October 2008 against the Icelandic governments handling of the financial crisis, the protests intensified on 20 January 2009 with thousands of people showing up to protest at the parliament in Reykjavík. These were at the time, the largest protests in Icelandic history, protesters were calling for the resignation of government officials and for new elections to be held. The protests stopped for the most part with the resignation of the old government led by the right-wing Independence Party, a new left-wing government was formed after elections in late April 2009. It was supportive of the protestors and initiated a process that included the judicial prosecution before the Landsdómur of the former Prime Minister Geir Haarde. Several referenda were held to ask the citizens about whether to pay the Icesave debt of their banks. From a complex and unique process,25 common people, of no party, were to be elected to form an Icelandic Constitutional Assembly that would write a new Constitution of Iceland. After some legal problems, a Constitutional Council, which included those people, concerned with the state of the Icelandic economy, Hörður Torfason staged a one-man protest in October 2008. Torfason stood out on Austurvöllur with a microphone and invited people to speak. The following Saturday a more organised demonstration occurred, and participants established the Raddir fólksins, the group decided to stage a rally every Saturday until the government stepped down. Torfason led the protest from a stage near the front, the protests were a feature of the traditional New Years Eve comedy revue, Áramótaskaupið, in 2008. This phrase soon came to be used in real-life placards and wider discourses surrounding the protests, on 20 January 2009, the protests intensified into riots. Demonstrators banged pots and honked horns to disrupt the years first meeting of Prime Minister Geir Haarde, some broke windows of the parliament house, threw skyr and snowballs at the building, and threw smoke bombs into its backyard. The use of pots and pans saw the local press refer to the event as the Kitchenware Revolution, on 21 January 2009, the protests continued in Reykjavík, where the Prime Ministers car was pelted with snowballs, eggs, and cans by demonstrators demanding his resignation. On 22 January 2009, police used tear gas to disperse people on Austurvöllur, around 2,000 protesters had surrounded the building since the day before and they hurled fireworks, shoes, toilet paper, rocks, and paving stones at the building and its police guard. Reykjavík police chief Stefán Eiríksson said that they tried to disperse a hard core of a few hundred with pepper spray before using the tear gas, Stefán also commented that the protests were expected to continue, and that this represented a new situation for Iceland. Former Social Affairs Minister Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir became Prime Minister, the three parties also agree to convene a constitutional assembly to discuss changes to the Constitution. There was no agreement on the question of a referendum on prospective EU
9.
Anti-austerity movement in Portugal
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Movimento 12 de Março or Geração à Rasca took place in more than 10 cities of Portugal against austerity, the economic crisis and labour rights. They were the biggest events since the 1974 Carnation Revolution and organized political parties or trades unions support. A Facebook event and a blog, created by a group of friends, Alexandre de Sousa Carvalho, João Labrincha, a number of musical acts in Portugal had been involved in protest actions against the austerity measures at the beginning of the crisis. Among this music, was included traditional Portuguese music and instruments including gaitas, flautas, rhythm sections, and brass music. The organizers of Geração a Rasca, put out a call for musicians to appear in the procession. Various protest songs addressing the situation in Portugal during the crisis were performed in Portugal. Deolindas song Parva Que Sou, which talks about working conditions for Portuguese youth, in particular qualified university graduates. Other inspiration for the protests came from Homens da Luta, a duo that won the Festival da Canção with a song about the joy of the struggle. Around 300,000 people gathered on 12 March 2011 in Porto, events also occurred in several other Portuguese cities, Funchal, Ponta Delgada, Viseu, Braga, Castelo Branco, Coimbra, Faro, Guimarães and Leiria. Spains May demonstrations were influenced by the Portuguese events, which in turn incited new activity in Portugal, on 23 March 2011, the prime minister José Sócrates resigned when new austerity measures failed to pass in the Parliament. On 15 April 2011, the organizers of the Geração à Rasca protest created the 12 March Movement Movimento 12 de Março. This small group of people gathered with other activists to create a movement with the objective to Make every citizen a politician. They promised to be an active voice promoting democracy in all areas of our lives, over 80,000 people marched in Lisbon as part of a 15 October global day of protest against the usual suspects. Hundreds broke through a cordon around the parliament in Lisbon to occupy its broad marble staircase. About 20,000 people also rallied in Porto, Portugals second biggest city, the 12 March Movement, as others created after the Geração à Rasca protest, are still very active in several political and civic actions. After the demonstration people discovered that they have a voice, they are more conscientious, civil society more alive and awakened. Archived from the original on 6 May 2011, Geração à rasca leva 300 mil manifestantes à Avenida da Liberdade- Economia – Jornal de negócios online. Geração à Rasca no Rossio de Lisboa – Portugal – DN, Geração à rasca, protesto chegou ao Funchal > Sociedade > TVI24
10.
Anti-austerity movement in Spain
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Spanish media related the movement to the economic crisis, Stéphane Hessels Time for Outrage. The NEET-troubled generation and current demonstrations in the Middle East and North Africa, Iran, Greece, demonstrators protested high unemployment rates, welfare cuts, Spanish politicians, and the two-party system in Spain, as well as the political system, capitalism, banks, and political corruption. Many called for basic rights, of home, work, culture, health, according to RTVE, the Spanish public broadcasting company, between 6.5 and 8 million Spaniards participated in these events. Since the ongoing economic crisis began, Spain has had one of the highest unemployment rates in Europe, in September 2010 the government approved a sweeping overhaul of the labour market designed to reduce unemployment and revive the economy. Main trade unions CCOO and Unión General de Trabajadores, and minor ones, trade unions called for a general strike, the first in a decade in Spain, on 29 September 2010. For the rest of the year, the government proceeded with economic reforms, in January 2011, the government reached an agreement with the main trade unions to increase the retirement age from 65 to 67. Still, anarcho-syndicalist and other unions rejected the plan and called for a strike on 27 January in Galicia, Catalonia, other demonstrations in Madrid ended up in clashes. The majority of Spaniards also rejected the higher retirement age, in February the so-called Sinde law passed, adding another motivation for the protests. Users on Spanish forums and social networks have criticized the law, an anonymous campaign, #nolesvotes, appeared online, calling on citizens to vote against any of the parties that passed the law. Prior to 15 May, other demonstrations served as precursors of the protests and these demonstrations include the 7 April demonstration in Madrid by the student group Youth without Future, which gathered 5,000 people. Spanish media have linked the demonstrations to the 2008–2009 protests against the Bologna Process, the Portuguese Geração à Rasca movement was also an inspiration. In January 2011, users on Spanish social networks and forums created the digital platform ¡Democracia Real YA, using Twitter and Facebook, it called the unemployed, poorly paid, the subcontractors, the precarious, young people. That same day, small demonstrations in support of the Spanish ones were organised in Dublin, Lisbon, Amsterdam, Istanbul, Bologna, London and Paris. Before the demonstrations, ¡Democracia Real YA. staged several symbolic events, at the time of the demonstrations, the website from ¡Democracia Real YA. The motto referred partly to the made in 2010 to contain the ongoing European sovereign debt crisis through bailout of the banks. At the same time, the government continued to announce social program cutbacks, protests took place in all the planned cities. According to ¡Democracia Real YA.50,000 people gathered in Madrid alone, the National Police, however, placed the number at 20,000. The march started in Plaza de Cibeles and ended in Puerta del Sol, also according to the organizers,15,000 gathered in the demonstration in Barcelona, which ended in front of the Parliament of Catalonia
11.
Anti-austerity movement in Greece
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The anti-austerity movement in Greece involves a series of demonstrations and general strikes taking place across the country. Three people were killed on 5 May in one of the largest demonstrations in Greece since 1973, on 25 May 2011, anti-austerity activists organised by the Direct Democracy Now. Movement, known as the Indignant Citizens Movement, started demonstrating in cities across Greece. This second wave of demonstrations proved different from the years before in that they are not partisan and began through peaceful means, some of the events later turned violent, particularly in the capital city of Athens. Inspired by the anti-austerity protests in Spain, these demonstrations were organised entirely using social networking sites, the demonstrations and square sit-ins were officially ended when municipal police removed demonstrators from Thessalonikis White Tower square on 7 August 2011. On 29 June 2011, violent clashes occurred between the police and activists as the Greek parliament voted to accept the EUs austerity requirements. The Athens Prosecutor agreed to an investigation into accusations of excessive use of gas, as well as the alleged use of other expired. The investigation is currently under way, in the early-mid-2000s, the government took advantage of Greeces strong economy by running a large deficit. As the world economy cooled in the late 2000s, Greece was hit hard because its main industries—shipping, as a result, the countrys debt began to pile up rapidly. In early 2010 policy makers suggested that emergency bailouts might be necessary, on 5 March 2010, the Hellenic Parliament passed the cost- cutting Economy Protection Bill. On 23 April, the Greek government requested that a package offered by the European Union. The funds were expected to be available quickly, but it was if they would be activated before a crucial 19 May debt rollover. On 27 April, Standard & Poors cut the countrys main debt rating to BB+, on 1 May, Prime Minister George Papandreou announced a fourth round of austerity measures by the Greek government, described as unprecedented. These include more public sector pay cuts, pension reductions, new taxes on profits, an increase on luxury and sin taxes. The proposed changes, which aim to save €30 billion through 2012, the cuts are in line with the EU-International Monetary Fund loan proposals, which demand that Greece liberalise its economy. They helped Greece reach an agreement, announced on 2 May, for an immediate €45 billion in loans. The total value of the loans was expected to be in the €110 billion range, Papandreou submitted the bill to Parliament on 4 May. The Hellenic Parliament was expected to vote on the austerity measures on 6 May
12.
Occupy movement
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It is part of what Manfred Steger calls the global justice movement. The first Occupy protest to receive attention was Occupy Wall Street in New York Citys Zuccotti Park. By 9 October, Occupy protests had taken place or were ongoing in over 951 cities across 82 countries, although most active in the United States, by October 2012 there had been Occupy protests and occupations in dozens of other countries across every continent except Antarctica. For its first month, overt police repression was minimal, by the end of 2011, authorities had cleared most of the major camps, with the last remaining high profile sites – in Washington, D. C. and London – evicted by February 2012. The movement commonly uses the slogan We are the 99%, the #Occupy hashtag format, according to The Washington Post, the movement, which has been described as a democratic awakening by Cornel West, is difficult to distill to a few demands. On 12 October 2011, Los Angeles City Council became one of the first governmental bodies in the United States to adopt a resolution stating its support of the Occupy movement. According to Dissent Magazine, It was in the context of the California student movement that the slogan Occupy Everything, Adbusters editor Micah White, who designed the original Occupy Wall Street concept, traveled to California for the protests and took part in the occupation of Wheeler Hall. He wrote enthusiastically for Adbusters about the potential of struggle. The Spanish Indignados movement began in mid-May 2011, with camps at Madrid, according to sociologist Manuel Castells, by the end of the month there were already hundreds of camps around Spain and across the world. For some journalists and commentators the camping in Spain marked the start of the occupy movement. On 30 May 2011, a leader of the Indignados, inspired by the Arab Spring,5.18 Movement of 1980, Adbusters co-founder Kalle Lasn registered the OccupyWallStreet. org web address on 9 June. One of the inspirations for the movement was the Democracy Village set up in 2010 and they promoted the protest with a poster featuring a dancer atop Wall Streets iconic Charging Bull. The first protest was held at Zuccotti Park in New York City on 17 September 2011, the protests were preceded by a similar Occupy Dataran movement in Kuala Lumpur in July, seven weeks before Occupy Wall Street. The phrase The 99% is a slogan used by participants in the Occupy movement. It was originally launched as a Tumblr blog page in late August 2011, the report was released just as concerns of the Occupy Wall Street movement were beginning to enter the national political debate. According to the CBO, between 1979 and 2007 the incomes of the top 1% of Americans grew by an average of 275%, during the same time period, the 60% of Americans in the middle of the income scale saw their income rise by 40%. Since 1979 the average income for the bottom 90% of households has decreased by $900, while that of the top 1% increased by over $700,000. From 1992 to 2007 the top 400 income earners in the U. S. saw their income increase 392%, in 2009, the average income of the top 1% was $960,000 with a minimum income of $343,927
13.
2011 Rome demonstration
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The protests began in solidarity with the Spanish protests. Many other protests occurred in other Italian cities the same day, a Catholic church was ransacked and a statue of the Madonna was thrown into the street where it was stomped on by one of the rioters. Two news crews from Sky Italia were also assaulted, police repeatedly fired tear gas and water cannons at the protesters. At least 135 people were injured, including 105 police officers, twelve people were arrested the same day, and another one on 17 October. It was later determined that the damage from the rioting amounted to €1.815 million, with €1 million tied to the Public Works Department
14.
Criticism of capitalism
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Criticism of capitalism ranges from expressing disagreement with the principles of capitalism in its entirety, to expressing disagreement with particular outcomes of capitalism. Some critics believe there are merits in capitalism, and wish to balance it with some form of social control and it is now well known that capitalist development leads to the concentration of capital, employment and power. It is somewhat less known that it leads to the almost complete destruction of economic freedom, activists argue that capitalism leads to a significant loss of political, democratic, and economic power for the vast majority of the global human population. As part of the left, activists against corporate power and influence support a decreased income gap. David Schweickart wrote that, in capitalist societies, ordinary people are deemed competent enough to select their political leaders-but not their bosses, thomas Jefferson, one of the founders of the United States, said I hope we shall crush. In its birth the aristocracy of our moneyed corporations, which dare already to challenge our government to a trial of strength and bid defiance to the laws of our country. Franklin D. That, in its essence, is fascism — ownership of government by an individual, by a group, critics of capitalism view the system as inherently exploitative. In an economic sense, exploitation is often related to the expropriation of labor for profit, in Das Kapital, Karl Marx identified the commodity as the basic unit of capitalist organization. Marx described a common denominator between commodities, in particular that commodities are the product of labor and are related to other by an exchange value. However, due to the forces of industrial organization, laborers are seen as creating more exchange value during the course of the working day than the cost of their survival. Marxists argue that capitalists are able to pay for this cost of survival. Marxists further argue that due to inequality, the purchase of labor cannot occur under free conditions. Since capitalists control the means of production and workers control only their labor, critics argue that exploitation occurs even if the exploited consents, since the definition of exploitation is independent of consent. In essence, workers must allow their labor to be exploited or face starvation, since some degree of unemployment is typical in modern economies, Marxists argue that wages are naturally driven down in free market systems. Hence, even if a worker contests their wages, capitalists are able to find someone from the army of labor who is more desperate. Unions are the method for workers to have more bargaining power in the marketplace. The act of striking has historically been an action to withhold labor from capitalists. Some critics of capitalism, while acknowledging the necessity of trade unionism, believe that trade unions simply reform an already exploitative system, lysander Spooner argued that almost all fortunes are made out of the capital and labour of other men than those who realize them
15.
Alexanderplatz
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Alexanderplatz is a large public square and transport hub in the central Mitte district of Berlin, near the Fernsehturm. Berliners often call it simply Alex, referring to a larger neighbourhood stretching from Mollstraße in the northeast to Spandauer Straße, the U-Bahn station of the present-day U2 line opened on 1 July 1913. It is surrounded by several notable structures including the Fernsehturm, the second tallest structure in the European Union, Alex also accommodates the Park Inn Berlin and the World Time Clock, a continually rotating installation that shows the time throughout the globe, and Hermann Henselmanns Haus des Lehrers. During the Peaceful Revolution of 1989, the Alexanderplatz demonstration on 4 November was the largest demonstration in the history of East Germany, ever since German reunification, Alexanderplatz has undergone a gradual process of change with many of the surrounding buildings being renovated. Despite the reconstruction of the line crossing, it has retained its socialist character. In 1993, architect Hans Kollhoffs master plan for a redevelopment including the construction of several skyscrapers was published. Due to a lack of demand it is unlikely these will be constructed, sidewalks were expanded to shrink one of the avenues, a new underground garage was built, and commuter tunnels meant to keep pedestrians off the streets were removed. The surrounding buildings now house chain stores, fast-food restaurants, the Alexa shopping mall, with approximately 180 stores opened nearby during 2007 and a large Saturn electronic store was built and is open on Alexanderplatz since 2008. The CUBIX multiplex cinema, which opened in November 2000, joined in 2007 the team of Berlinale cinemas, many historic buildings are located in the vicinity of Alexanderplatz. The reconstruction of the Baroque Stadtschloss near Alexanderplatz has been in planning for several years, Alexanderplatz is also the name of the S-Bahn and U-Bahn stations there. It is one of Berlins largest and most important transportation hubs, Berlin, Alexanderplatz, Transforming Place in a Unified Germany. Alexanderplatz - Overview of the changes
16.
Brandenburg Gate
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The Brandenburg Gate is an 18th-century neoclassical monument in Berlin, and one of the best-known landmarks of Germany. It is built on the site of a city gate that marked the start of the road from Berlin to the town of Brandenburg an der Havel. It is located in the part of the city centre of Berlin within Mitte, at the junction of Unter den Linden and Ebertstraße. One block to the stands the Reichstag building, which houses the German parliament. The gate is the entry to Unter den Linden, the renowned boulevard of linden trees. It was commissioned by King Frederick William II of Prussia as a sign of peace, having suffered considerable damage in World War II, the Brandenburg Gate was restored from 2000 to 2002 by the Stiftung Denkmalschutz Berlin. During the post-war Partition of Germany, the gate was isolated, the area around the gate was featured most prominently in the media coverage of the tearing down of the wall in 1989, and the subsequent German reunification in 1990. Georgen Tor, Stralower Tor, Cöpenicker Tor, Neues Tor, relative peace, a policy of religious tolerance, and status as capital of the Kingdom of Prussia facilitated the growth of the city. The Brandenburg Gate was not part of the old fortifications, but one of 18 gates within the Berlin Customs Wall, erected in the 1730s, including the old fortified city, the new gate was commissioned by Frederick William II of Prussia to represent peace. The gate consists of twelve Doric columns, six to each side, citizens originally were allowed to use only the outermost two on each side. Atop the gate is a Quadriga, a chariot drawn by four horses, the new gate was originally named the Peace Gate and the goddess is Eirene, the goddess of peace. The gates design is based upon the Propylaea, the gateway to the Acropolis in Athens, Greece, the gate was the first element of Athens on the River Spree by architect Langhans. The Brandenburg Gate has played different political roles in German history, after the 1806 Prussian defeat at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, Napoleon was the first to use the Brandenburg Gate for a triumphal procession, and took its Quadriga to Paris. After Napoleons defeat in 1814 and the Prussian occupation of Paris by General Ernst von Pfuel, the Quadriga faces east, as it did when it was originally installed in 1793. Only the royal family was allowed to pass through the archway, as well as members of the Pfuel family. The Kaiser granted this honour to the family in gratitude to Ernst von Pfuel, in addition, the central archway was also used by the coaches of ambassadors on the single occasion of their presenting their letters of credence to council. When the Nazis ascended to power, they used the gate as a party symbol, the gate survived World War II and was one of the damaged structures still standing in the Pariser Platz ruins in 1945. The gate was damaged with holes in the columns from bullets
17.
Pariser Platz
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Pariser Platz is a square in the centre of Berlin, Germany, situated by the Brandenburg Gate at the end of the Unter den Linden. The square is named after the French capital Paris in honour of the anti-Napoleon Allies occupation of Paris in 1814, Pariser Platz is the square immediately behind the Brandenburg Gate when approaching the centre of Berlin from the Tiergarten in the west. The neo-classical Brandenburg Gate was completed in the early 1790s by Carl Gotthard Langhans, until 1814 the square was known simply as Quarré or Viereck. In March 1814, when Prussian troops along with the other Allies captured Paris after the overthrow of Napoleon, during the last years of World War II, all of the buildings around the square were turned to rubble by air raids and heavy artillery bombardment. The only structure standing in the ruins of Pariser Platz was the Brandenburg Gate. After the war and especially with the construction of the Berlin Wall, when the city was reunited in 1990, there was broad consensus that the Pariser Platz should be made into a fine urban space again. The embassies would move back, the hotel and arts academy would be reinstated, under the rules of reconstruction, eaves heights had to be 22 meters, and buildings had to have a proper termination against the sky. Stone cladding was to be used as far as possible, interpretations of these constraints, however, have varied to a great extent. The following is a partial list of buildings and structures on Pariser Platz, working anti clockwise from the Brandenburg Gate, Brandenburg Gate Haus Sommer, used by Commerzbank U. S. The S-Bahn station was opened in 1936 with the name Unter den Linden and was closed in 1961 with the construction of the Berlin Wall and it reopened on September 1,1990. The square itself is closed to traffic, but is served by local bus lines nearby. In Pariser Platz - design and construction of town square in Berlin, Germany, by Anne Vyne, in The Architectural Review, Pariser Platz - Interactive 360° Panorama
18.
Human microphone
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The speaker begins by saying mic check. When the people near the speaker respond mic check, the speaker knows they have the groups attention, the speaker says a short phrase, part of a speech, and then pauses. If the entire gathering still cannot hear the speaker, organizers ask for additional repetitions by those at the limit of earshot, for large gatherings, this may require two or three waves of repetition. The use of electronic devices, such as loudspeakers or bullhorns. The use of human microphones provides a way for people to large gatherings without running afoul of such requirements. The human microphone was first used in the protests in the United States. This method of communication attracted attention due to its use by Occupy Wall Street and it was deployed at large general assemblies to help ensure everyone could hear announcements, because New York had regulations prohibiting the use of conventional megaphones. The technique has also used by protestors to interrupt and talk over a speaker. Politicians such as Scott Walker, Michele Bachmann, Joseph Lieberman, Christine Lagarde, using the human microphone to interrupt an electrically amplified speech has become known as mic checking the speaker, as in Karl Rove got mic-checked during his speaking event. Sympathisers have argued the practice highlights the existence of inequality in power of expression that exists between the one percent and much of the rest of the population. October 13,2011 Marco Deseriis, The Peoples Mic as a Medium in Its Own Right, A Pharmacological Reading, Journal of Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies,2013
19.
Reichstag building
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The Reichstag building is a historical edifice in Berlin, Germany, constructed to house the Imperial Diet, of the German Empire. It was opened in 1894 and housed the Diet until 1933, after its completion in 1999, it once again became the meeting place of the German parliament, the modern Bundestag. The term Reichstag, when used to connote a diet, dates back to the Holy Roman Empire, the building was built for the Diet of the German Empire, which was succeeded by the Reichstag of the Weimar Republic. The latter would become the Reichstag of Nazi Germany, which left the building after the 1933 fire and never returned, in todays usage, the German word Reichstag refers mainly to the building, while Bundestag refers to the institution. Construction of the building began well after the unification of Germany in 1871, after lengthy negotiations, the Raczyński Palace was purchased and demolished, making way for the new building. In 1882, another architectural contest was held, with 200 architects participating and this time the winner, the Frankfurt architect Paul Wallot, would actually see his Neo-Baroque project executed. The direct model for Wallots design was Philadelphias Memorial Hall, the building of the 1876 Centennial Exhibition. Some of the Reichstags decorative sculptures, reliefs, and inscriptions were by sculptor Otto Lessing, on 29 June 1884, the foundation stone was finally laid by Wilhelm I, at the east side of the Königsplatz. Before construction was completed by Philipp Holzmann A. G. in 1894 and his eventual successor, Wilhelm II, took a more jaundiced view of parliamentary democracy than his grandfather. The original building was acclaimed for the construction of a cupola of steel and glass. But its mixture of architectural styles drew widespread criticism, the building continued to be the seat of the parliament of the Weimar Republic, which was still called the Reichstag. The building caught fire on 27 February 1933, under circumstances still not entirely known, during the 12 years of National Socialist rule, the Reichstag building was not used for parliamentary sessions. Instead, the few times that the Reichstag convened at all, it did so in the Kroll Opera House, the main meeting hall of the building was instead used for propaganda presentations and, during World War II, for military purposes. It was also considered for conversion to a tower but was found to be structurally unsuitable. The building, having never fully repaired since the fire, was further damaged by air raids. During the Battle of Berlin in 1945, it one of the central targets for the Red Army to capture due to its perceived symbolic significance. Today, visitors to the building can still see Soviet graffiti on walls inside as well as on part of the roof. Yevgeny Khaldei took the picture, Raising a flag over the Reichstag
20.
Occupy Berlin
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Occupy Berlin was a collaboration in Berlin, Germany that has included peaceful protests and demonstrations against unregulated financial markets and other alleged social injustices. It began as a part of the 15 October 2011 global protests, the protest began in solidarity with the Occupy Wall Street protests in New York, United States. It has established three encampments, outside of the church Parochialkirche, in Boxhagener Platz and the biggest one on the Bundespressestrand, Occupy Berlin cooperates with similar movements throughout Germany, most notably from Frankfurt and Hamburg. As of June 2012, Occupy Berlin had continued to engage in organized meetings, events, list of Occupy movement protest locations Collins, Jennifer. Occupy Wall Street Sweeps Through Berlin, Occupy Berlin Continues Legally, For Now. Occupy Berlin activist group homepage AG Internationale Vernetzung homepage Occupy Berlin network and livestream
21.
European Central Bank
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The European Central Bank is the central bank for the euro and administers monetary policy of the eurozone, which consists of 19 EU member states and is one of the largest currency areas in the world. It is one of the worlds most important central banks and is one of the seven institutions of the European Union listed in the Treaty on European Union, the capital stock of the bank is owned by the central banks of all 28 EU member states. The Treaty of Amsterdam established the bank in 1998, and it is headquartered in Frankfurt, Germany. As of 2015 the President of the ECB is Mario Draghi, former governor of the Bank of Italy, former member of the World Bank, the bank primarily occupied the Eurotower prior to, and during, the construction of the new headquarters. The primary objective of the ECB, mandated in Article 2 of the Statute of the ECB, is to price stability within the Eurozone. The ECB has, under Article 16 of its Statute, the right to authorise the issuance of euro banknotes. Member states can issue euro coins, but the amount must be authorised by the ECB beforehand, the ECB is governed by European law directly, but its set-up resembles that of a corporation in the sense that the ECB has shareholders and stock capital. Its capital is €11 billion held by the central banks of the member states as shareholders. The initial capital allocation key was determined in 1998 on the basis of the population and GDP. Shares in the ECB are not transferable and cannot be used as collateral, the European Central Bank is the de facto successor of the European Monetary Institute. The EMI itself took over from the earlier European Monetary Co-operation Fund, the bank was the final institution needed for EMU, as outlined by the EMU reports of Pierre Werner and President Jacques Delors. It was established on 1 June 1998, the first President of the Bank was Wim Duisenberg, the former president of the Dutch central bank and the European Monetary Institute. The French argued that since the ECB was to be located in Germany and this was opposed by the German, Dutch and Belgian governments who saw Duisenberg as a guarantor of a strong euro. Tensions were abated by an agreement in which Duisenberg would stand down before the end of his mandate. Trichet replaced Duisenberg as President in November 2003, there had also been tension over the ECBs Executive Board, with the United Kingdom demanding a seat even though it had not joined the Single Currency. Under pressure from France, three seats were assigned to the largest members, France, Germany, and Italy, Spain also demanded and obtained a seat. Despite such a system of appointment the board asserted its independence early on in resisting calls for interest rates, when the ECB was created, it covered a Eurozone of eleven members. On 1 December 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon entered into force, ECB according to the article 13 of TEU, on 1 November 2011, Mario Draghi replaced Jean-Claude Trichet as President of the ECB
22.
HSH Nordbank
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HSH Nordbank is a commercial bank in northern Europe with headquarters in Hamburg as well as Kiel, Germany. It is active in corporate and private banking, hSHs main focus is on shipping, transportation, real estate and renewable energy. The bank was created as a result of a merger between Hamburgische Landesbank and Landesbank Schleswig-Holstein on June 2,2003, HSH has significant operations in Luxembourg, New York City, London and Singapore. As of 12/2009 it employed 4,188 people worldwide, as of 12/2009 HSH had a balance sheet of EUR174.5 bn and reported a loss of EUR678 mn. The shareholders are, In the merger the City of Hamburg, with the beginning of the Financial crisis of 2007-2010 HSH had to report losses on their credit investment portfolio. In September 2008 HSH announced further writedowns, as a direct consequence the CEO Hans Berger stepped down and in the following weeks HSH announced extensive restructuring. Branches in Copenhagen and Hong-Kong were reduced to representations and new business will be focussed on the region in northern Germany. In December 2008 HSH was granted to issue up to EUR 30bn guaranteed notes under the German SoFFin program, one requirement that was imposed on HSH was to raise the capital ratio to at least 8%. On January 20,2009 EUR 3bn 3 year guaranteed notes were issued, on February 24,2009 HSH received new capital of EUR 3bn and credit guarantees of EUR 10bn by the two main shareholders, the states of Hamburg and Schleswig-Holstein. The other shareholders, JC Flowers and the savings bank association, together with this increase of its core-capital, HSH announced further restructuring. It plans to spin off non-strategic activities and the Toxic asset portfolio into a—yet to be created—Bad Bank, on April 9,2009, president of supervisory board Wolfgang Peiner appointed Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer to investigate recent management decisions of the Vorstand. On April 17,2009 the supervisory board of HSH Nordbank relieved Frank Roth, member of the management board of his duties, the bank claims that Frank Roth leaked strictly confidential information to outside parties. Parts of that deal were not disclosed to BaFIN, the German Federal Financial Supervisory Authority
23.
Eleftheria square
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Eleftheria square, is the main square in central Nicosia, Cyprus. It forms the intersection of Ledra and Onasagorou streets with Stasinou, Omirou, Kostaki Pantelidi, prior to 1974 the centre of city was considered to be Faneromeni Square. The name translates as Freedom square, previously the square was called Metaxas square, in reference to the Greek statesman Ioannis Metaxas. It was renamed in 1974, following a competition held at the suggestion of the then Mayor of Nicosia and it is located in the centre of the town below the Venetian walls of the medieval city. Nicosia town hall, located on D’Avila bastion, overlooks the square whilst Ledra Street leads onto its northern side, the square is usually the focus of various profile activities in the capital. Examples include advertising promotions, political rallies and meetings such as the first meeting of the Occupy Buffer Zone movement on October 15,2011, celebrations such as Cypruss accession to the European Union were also centered around the square. As presently the square is not pedestrianised, when events take place vehicles are redirected. Eleftheria square was not part of the construction of the Venetian walls. It first took the form of a bridge constructed during the British occupation of Cyprus at the end of the 19th Century, as the city expanded out of the medieval walls wooden bridges were constructed to facilitate transport. The original wooden bridge known as the Hajisavvas Opening was then replaced with a concrete one. In 2005 an architectural competition was announced to redesign the square and this was won by a group led by Zaha Hadid. The proposed plans however, have heavily criticised by some local designers. In 2009 the initial excavation works revealed archaeological findings that have forced alterations to the original design, as of February 2012, the square has been closed to all traffic following the beginning of the construction of the new square. It is expected to re-open in a year when the first phase is completed
24.
Occupy Buffer Zone
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Occupy Buffer Zone was a protest movement that began on October 15,2011 by Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot activists, in the Ledra/Lokmacı checkpoint, in Nicosia, Cyprus. On November 19 of 2011 the occupation of the zone became permanent. The movement emphasised the connection between the development of the Cyprus problem and the economic and political interests associated with the international economic, the following text is the movements general statement that was distributed to passers by in the buffer zone. This is an inclusive movement functioning within some principal umbrella concepts for which we initially united, -To raise awareness of how the Cyprus Problem is but one of the many symptoms of an unhealthy global system. It is important to elaborate on the inclusiveness of the last point. We want to promote understanding of the problem within this global context and in this way show how the Cyprus Problem is. In this way, we have reclaimed the space of the zone to create events and media of these events. Opinions expressed in this manner are not necessarily of the group, only the umbrella points of reunification. The movement began on 15 October 2011 with an occupation of the buffer zone in Ledra/Lokmacı street in Nicosia. Greek and Turkish Cypriot activists had gathered in Eleftheria Square in Nicosia as a response to the call for a protest on the 15th of October. Through discussion they decided to move the occupation from the Eleftheria Square to the buffer zone located in the Ledra/Lokmacı street, the buffer zone was occupied subsequently on the 22nd and the 29th of October and the 5th of November. On the 19th of November activists set up tents and made camp in the zone for the night. The decision was taken that the occupation would become permanent. On 1 January 2012 the activists further occupied the buildings that were located in the buffer zone. The buildings have used by the movement for its cultural and political activities, such as hosting and developing various workshops. After the Police raid on 6April 2012, the movements activities, by June 2012, the occupation of the buffer zone was essentially over. On 6 April 2012, a police force from the Republic of Cyprus gathered in the area occupied by the activists and raided the occupied buildings at around 10. The operation included the anti-terrorist department and the department of the police force
25.
Cyprus dispute
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The dispute, however, was finally shifted, under the British administration, from a colonial dispute to an ethnic dispute between the Turkish and the Greek islanders. The 1974 Cypriot coup détat prompted Turkey to invade, and occupy the part of the internationally recognized Republic of Cyprus. This zone separates the areas of the Republic of Cyprus. Recent years have seen warming of relations between Greek and Turkish Cypriots, with officially renewed reunification talks beginning in early 2014, the island of Cyprus was first inhabited in 9000 BC with the arrival of farming societies who built round houses with floors of terazzo. Cities were first built during the Bronze Age and the inhabitants had their own Eteocypriot language until around the 4th century BC, the island was part of the Hittite Empire as part of the Ugarit Kingdom during the late Bronze Age until the arrival of two waves of Greek settlement. Cyprus experienced an uninterrupted Greek presence on the island dating from the arrival of Mycenaeans around 1100 BC, the Greek population of Cyprus survived through multiple conquerors, including Egyptian and Persian rule. In the 4th century BC, Cyprus was conquered by Alexander the Great and then ruled by the Ptolemaic Egypt until 58 BC, after an interval of Islam Khalifate, the island returned to Roman rule until the 12th century. After an occupation by the Knights Templar and the rule of Isaac Komnenos, the island in 1192 came under the rule of the Lusignan family, in February 1489 it was seized by the Republic of Venice. Between September 1570 and August 1571 it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, starting in the early nineteenth century, ethnic Greeks of the island sought to bring about an end to almost 300 years of Ottoman rule and unite Cyprus with Greece. Under the terms of the agreement reached between Britain and the Ottoman Empire, the island remained an Ottoman territory, the Christian Greek-speaking majority of the island welcomed the arrival of the British as a chance to voice their demands for union with Greece. When the Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers, Britain renounced the agreement and all Turkish claims over Cyprus and declared the island a British colony. In 1915, Britain offered Cyprus to Constantine I of Greece on condition that Greece join the war on the side of the British, Turkish Cypriots consistently opposed the idea of union with Greece. In 1925 Britain declared Cyprus to be a Crown Colony, in the years that followed, the determination for enosis continued. In 1931 this led to open revolution, a riot resulted in the death of six civilians, injuries to others and the burning of the British Government House in Nicosia. In the months that followed, about 2,000 people were convicted of crimes in connection with the struggle for union with Greece, Britain reacted by imposing harsh restrictions. Military reinforcements were dispatched to the island and the constitution suspended, a special epicourical police force was formed consisting of only Turkish Cypriots, press restrictions instituted and political parties banned. Two bishops and eight other prominent citizens directly implicated in the conflict were exiled, municipal elections were suspended, and until 1943 all municipal officials were appointed by the government. In addition, the flying of Greek or Turkish flags or the display of portraits of Greek or Turkish heroes was forbidden
26.
London Stock Exchange
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The London Stock Exchange is a stock exchange located in the City of London in the United Kingdom. As of December 2014, the Exchange had a capitalisation of US$6.06 trillion. The Exchange was founded in 1801 and its current premises are situated in Paternoster Square close to St Pauls Cathedral in the City of London, the Exchange is part of the London Stock Exchange Group. London Stock Exchange is one of the world’s oldest stock exchanges, London Stock Exchange Group was created in October 2007 when London Stock Exchange merged with Milan Stock Exchange, Borsa Italiana. The Royal Exchange had been founded by English financier Thomas Gresham on the model of the Antwerp Bourse and it was opened by Elizabeth I of England in 1571. During the 17th century, stockbrokers were not allowed in the Royal Exchange due to their rude manners and they had to operate from other establishments in the vicinity, notably Jonathans Coffee-House. At that coffee house, a broker named John Casting started listing the prices of a few commodities, exchange rates and certain key provisions such as salt, coal, originally, this was not a daily list and was only published a few days of the week. This list and activity was moved to Garraway’s coffee house. Public auctions during this period were conducted for the duration that a length of tallow candle could burn, as stocks grew, with new companies joining to raise capital, the royal court also raised some monies. These are the earliest evidence of organised trading in securities in London. After Greshams Royal Exchange building was destroyed in the Great Fire of London, it was rebuilt and this was a move away from coffee houses and a step towards the modern model of stock exchange. The Royal Exchange not only housed brokers but also merchants and merchandise and this was the birth of a regulated stock market, which had teething problems in the shape of unlicensed brokers. In order to regulate these, Parliament brought out an act in 1697 that levied heavy penalties and it also set a fixed number of brokers, which was later increased as the size of the trade grew. The street in which they were now dealing was known as Exchange Alley, Parliament tried to regulate this and ban the unofficial traders from the Change streets. Traders became weary of bubbles when companies rose quickly and fell, after the Seven Years War, trade at Jonathans coffee house boomed again. In 1773, Jonathan, together with 150 other brokers, formed a club and opened a new and this now had a set entrance fee, through which traders could enter the stock room and trade securities. It was, however, not a location for trading. Fraud was also rife during these times and in order to such dealings
27.
Julian Assange
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Julian Paul Assange is an Australian computer programmer, publisher and journalist. He is editor-in-chief of the organisation WikiLeaks, which he founded in 2006 and he has won numerous accolades for journalism, including the Sam Adams Award and Martha Gellhorn Prize for Journalism. Assange founded WikiLeaks in 2006 but came to prominence in 2010 when WikiLeaks published a series of leaks. These leaks included the Collateral Murder video, the Afghanistan war logs, the Iraq war logs, following the 2010 leaks, the United States government launched a criminal investigation into WikiLeaks and asked allied nations for assistance. In November 2010, a request was made for Assanges extradition to Sweden, Assange continued to deny the allegations, and expressed concern that he would be extradited from Sweden to the United States due to his perceived role in publishing secret American documents. Assange surrendered himself to UK police on 7 December 2010 and was held for ten days in confinement before being released on bail. He sought and was granted asylum by Ecuador in August 2012 and he has since remained in the Embassy of Ecuador in London, and is unable to leave without being arrested for breaching his bail conditions. In 2016, WikiLeaks published the DNC leaks and the Podesta emails during the 2016 United States presidential election, Assange was born in the north Queensland city of Townsville, to Christine Ann Hawkins, a visual artist, and John Shipton, an anti-war activist and builder. The couple had separated before Assange was born, when he was a year old, his mother married Richard Brett Assange, an actor, with whom she ran a small theatre company. Christine Assange then became involved with Leif Meynell, also known as Leif Hamilton, Assange had a nomadic childhood, and had lived in over thirty different Australian towns by the time he reached his mid-teens, when he settled with his mother and half-brother in Melbourne, Victoria. He attended many schools, including Goolmangar Primary School in New South Wales and Townsville State High School and he studied programming, mathematics, and physics at Central Queensland University and the University of Melbourne, but did not complete a degree. In 1987 Assange began hacking under the name Mendax and he and two others—known as Trax and Prime Suspect—formed a hacking group they called the International Subversives. He is thought to have involved in the WANK hack at NASA in 1989. In September 1991, Assange was discovered hacking into the Melbourne master terminal of Nortel, the Australian Federal Police tapped Assanges phone line, raided his home at the end of October, and eventually charged him in 1994 with thirty-one counts of hacking and related crimes. In 1993 Assange gave technical advice to the Victoria Police Child Exploitation Unit, in the same year he was involved in starting one of the first public Internet service providers in Australia, Suburbia Public Access Network. He began programming in 1994, authoring or co-authoring the Transmission Control Protocol port scanner strobe, in 1998, he co-founded the company Earthmen Technology. In 1999 Assange registered the domain leaks. org, but, as he put it and he did, however, publicise a patent granted to the National Security Agency in August 1999 for voice-data harvesting technology, This patent should worry people. Everyones overseas phone calls are or may soon be tapped, transcribed and archived in the bowels of a foreign spy agency
28.
Occupy London
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Occupy London was a movement for social justice and real democracy in London, England, and part of the international Occupy movement. A second statement endorsed the following day called for global democracy. Due to an injunction, the protesters were prevented from their original aim to camp outside the London Stock Exchange. Instead, a camp was set up next to St Pauls Cathedral. On 18 January 2012 Mr Justice Lindblom granted an injunction against continuation of the protest, the appeal was refused on 22 February, and just past midnight on 28 February bailiffs supported by City of London police began to remove the tents. In October protesters established two encampments in central London, one outside St Pauls Cathedral in the City of London, in November a third site was opened in a disused office complex owned by UBS. Named by protesters as the Bank of Ideas, the site was located in Hackney until occupiers were evicted in late January 2012, a fourth site was established in late December, at the unused premises of Old Street Magistrates Court in east London. The sites owners objected to its use by Occupiers. In February 2012, occupiers were evicted from their camp in St Pauls. The Finsbury Square camp was cleared by authorities in June 2012, the London Stock Exchange in Paternoster Square was the initial target for the protesters on 15 October. However, the police blocked access to the square, enforcing a High Court injunction against public access,2, 500-3,000 people gathered nearby outside St Pauls Cathedral, with around 250 camping overnight. On 16 October, a gathering of over 500 Occupy London protesters collectively agreed upon and issued the following Initial Statement and we need alternatives, this is where we work towards them. We are of all ethnicities, backgrounds, genders, generations, sexualities dis/abilities and we stand together with occupations all over the world. We refuse to pay for the banks’ crisis and we do not accept the cuts as either necessary or inevitable. We demand an end to global tax injustice and our democracy representing corporations instead of the people and we want regulators to be genuinely independent of the industries they regulate. We support the strike on 30 November and the student action on 9 November, and actions to defend our health services, welfare, education and employment and we want structural change towards authentic global equality. The world’s resources must go towards caring for people and the planet, not the military, the present economic system pollutes land, sea and air, is causing massive loss of natural species and environments, and is accelerating humanity towards irreversible climate change. We call for a positive, sustainable economic system that benefits present and we stand in solidarity with the global oppressed and we call for an end to the actions of our government and others in causing this oppression
29.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
30.
St Andrew Square, Edinburgh
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St Andrew Square is a city square in Edinburgh, Scotland located at the east end of George Street. The construction of St Andrew Square began in 1772, as the first part of the New Town, within six years of its completion St Andrew Square became one of the most desirable and most fashionable residential areas in the city. As the 19th century came to a close, St Andrew Square evolved into the centre of the city. Most of the rest of the square is made up of offices of banks and insurance companies. At one time, St Andrew Square could claim to be the richest area of its size in the whole of Scotland, dominating the centre of St Andrew Square is the fluted column of the Melville Monument, commemorating Henry Dundas, the first Viscount Melville. The Melville Monument is surrounded by St Andrew Square Gardens, recently redesigned and opened to the public, on the east side of the square stands the impressive mansion of Dundas House, built by Sir William Chambers for Sir Lawrence Dundas between 1772 and 1774. Once the intended site for St Andrews Church, Dundas House became the office of The Royal Bank of Scotland in 1825. A short distance from Dundas House, down George Street, is where St. Andrews Church was built in 1784, in 1806 the head office of the British Linen Bank moved to St. Andrew Square. The building is now a branch of the Bank of Scotland, St. Andrew Square was also home to the National Bank of Scotland, which was headquartered at No. 42, until it merged with the Royal Bank of Scotland in 1969, beneath the eastern streets of the square lies the long disused Scotland Street Tunnel, which continues under the New Town to Canonmills. The tunnel was built in 1847 as part of the Edinburgh, Leith and its southern end was demolished in the 1980s during the construction of the Waverley Market shopping centre. Many famous Scots occupied the residences of St Andrew Square, on the north side of the square, No.21 was the birthplace of Lord Henry Brougham in 1778. His family was one of the first families to take up residency in St Andrew Square, another resident was philosopher and economist David Hume, friend of architect Robert Adam. Hume chose a site on the southwest side of the square at the corner of Princes Street, also on the north side, No.26 was the home to architect Sir William Chambers. St Andrew Square has been used as a hub for a number of years. The former St Andrew Square Bus station was redeveloped in 2003 to incorporate a new luxury shopping street, Multrees Walk, Edinburgh Bus Station is located to the east of the square. It is served by long-distance bus & coach operators, such as Scottish Citylink, local bus services have stops to the north of the square and on North St David Street. The square acquired a stop on its eastern side in May 2014 when the new Edinburgh Trams came into operation
31.
Dublin
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Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle
32.
Cork (city)
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Cork is a city in Ireland, located in the South-West Region, in the province of Munster. It has a population of 125,622 and is the second largest city in the state, the greater Metropolitan Cork area has a population exceeding 300,000. In 2005, the city was selected as the European Capital of Culture, the city is built on the River Lee which splits into two channels at the western end of the city, the city centre is divided by these channels. They reconverge at the end where the quays and docks along the river banks lead outwards towards Lough Mahon and Cork Harbour. The citys cognomen of the city originates in its support for the Yorkist cause during the English 15th century Wars of the Roses. Corkonians often refer to the city as the capital in reference to the citys role as the centre of anti-treaty forces during the Irish Civil War. Cork was originally a settlement, reputedly founded by Saint Finbarr in the 6th century. Cork achieved an urban character at some point between 915 and 922 when Norseman settlers founded a trading port and it has been proposed that, like Dublin, Cork was an important trading centre in the global Scandinavian trade network. The citys charter was granted by Prince John, as Lord of Ireland, the city was once fully walled, and some wall sections and gates remain today. Neighbouring Gaelic and Hiberno-Norman lords extorted Black Rent from the citizens to them from attacking the city. The present extent of the city has exceeded the boundaries of the Barony of Cork City. Together, these baronies are located between the Barony of Barrymore to the east, Muskerry East to the west and Kerrycurrihy to the south, the medieval population of Cork was about 2,100 people. It suffered a blow in 1349 when almost half the townspeople died of plague when the Black Death arrived in the town. The then mayor of Cork and several important citizens went with Warbeck to England, oBrien published a third local newspaper, the Cork Free Press. In the War of Independence, the centre of Cork was burnt down by the British Black and Tans, during the Irish Civil War, Cork was for a time held by anti-Treaty forces, until it was retaken by the pro-Treaty National Army in an attack from the sea. The climate of Cork, like the rest of Ireland, is mild oceanic and changeable with abundant rainfall, Cork lies in plant Hardiness zone 9b. Met Éireann maintains a weather station at Cork Airport, a few kilometres south of the city. It should be noted that the airport is at an altitude of 151 metres and temperatures can often differ by a few degrees between the airport and the city itself, there are also smaller synoptic weather stations at UCC and Clover Hill
33.
Occupy Dame Street
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Part of the global Occupy movement, it took its name from the Occupy Wall Street demonstration in New York Citys Wall Street financial district. The national police force, Garda Síochána, dismantled their camp during a raid on 8 March 2012. The movement started with an online Facebook and Twitter campaign, the occupation began on 8 October 2011, a Saturday afternoon, initially with around 60 protesters who set up camp in tents outside the Central Banks head office on Dame Street. The tents were attached to other and were not pegged to the concrete as that would not be permitted. A free Wi-Fi connection was established anonymously in the first days of the movement, the original group was then joined by further people during the days that followed. Around 1,000 people passed through the encampment from the afternoon of 8 October, on 12 November 2011, organisers of the movement marched from the Garden of Remembrance at Parnell Square to their Tent Town outside the Central Bank. In mid-November 2011, the Central Bank of Ireland announced it would seek an order to put an end to the protest taking place outside its headquarters. The group gained the support of Irish musicians Christy Moore, Damien Dempsey and Glen Hansard, parade Grand Marshal Johnny Giles also suggested the protest move for the parade. Until March 2012, Occupy Dame Street continued to engage in organised meetings, events, Occupy Dame Streets camp was dismantled by Gardaí in the early hours of 8 March during which time some 15 protesters affiliated with the group were present. Protesters announced a demonstration at the Central Bank for later that day, on the evening of 8 March over 70 people took part in a spontaneous march from Dame Street to a nearby Garda station on Pearse Street in protest of the removal of the camp. Aubrey Robinson, the son of former President of Ireland Mary Robinson, is among the people to have participated, the movement held assemblies at 18,00 three days per week. Occupy movement hand signals were encouraged instead of loud cheers, in 2011, local Garda Síochána described the movement as peaceful and well behaved. In March 2012, they dismantled the Occupy Dame Street camp, Dublin City Council received one complaint, but a spokeswoman said, As it is private property, Dublin City Council has no authority to move these people. This is because the encampment is clear of the public footpath, some local businesspeople had complained about the camp saying it affected their businesses. In December 2011, TD Aengus Ó Snodaigh and Luke Ming Flanagan praised the efforts of the group in interviews to RTÉ Radio 1, on 9 October 2011, the United States Embassy in Dublin warned its citizens to avoid the area where the protest movement is occurring. Anti-austerity protests in Ireland List of Occupy movement protest locations Post-2008 Irish banking crisis Post-2008 Irish economic downturn Official website Occupy Dublin on Facebook
34.
Central Bank of Ireland
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The Central Bank of Ireland is Irelands central bank, and as such part of the European System of Central Banks. It is also the financial services regulator for most categories of financial firms. It was the issuer of Irish pound banknotes and coinage until the introduction of the euro currency and its head office is located on Dame Street, Dublin, where the public may exchange non-current Irish coinage and currency for euros. It also operates from premises in Spencer Dock, Iveagh Court, the Currency Centre at Sandyford is the currency manufacture, warehouse and distribution site of the bank. By March 2017 its city centre staff will move to a new building at North Wall Quay, on the independence of the Irish Free State in 1922, the new states trade was overwhelmingly with the United Kingdom, so the introduction of an independent currency was a low priority. British banknotes, and notes issued by Irish banks circulated and coins remained in circulation and these coins entered circulation on 12 December 1928. The Central Bank broadened its activities over the decades, but it remained in effect a currency board until the 1970s, such was the proliferation of small industrial banks and hire purchase firms in the late 1960s, the 1971 Central Bank Act introduced significantly enhanced authorisation and supervision standards. In the inevitable consolidation in the marketplace, in 1976 a liquidator was appointed to Irish Trust Bank Ltd after Central Bank investigations and in 1982 Merchant Banking Ltd also collapsed. The 1970s was a decade of change, which began with the decimalisation of the currency came into effect on 15 February 1971. Decimalisation would have provided an opportunity to break the link with Sterling. At the same time moves to create a market in Dublin. In the mid to late 1970s, opinion within the bank was moving toward breaking the link with sterling and devaluing the Irish currency in order to limit inflationary effects from abroad, at this time, however, an alternative option became available. The Irish government had to decide whether or not to participate in the EMS, despite this, on 15 December 1978 it was announced that Ireland would participate in the EMS. Countries were given the option of either a 2. 25% or 6% margin of fluctuation within the EMS Exchange Rate Mechanism, after over 50 years, the parity of the Irish and British currencies was broken, and the Irish currency became known as the Irish pound. The initial experience of the EMS was disappointing, by late 1980 the Irish Pound had fallen in value to less than 80 British pence, and Irish inflation was higher than British. Eventually the EMS settled down, and Irish inflation was consistently the same or lower than Britains inflation rate from 1987 onwards, the idea of a single European currency goes back to the Schumann Plan of 1950. The first blueprint for how to go about implementing the currency, the Werner Report of 1970 was not proceeded with, but the ultimate aim was always kept in mind. The Delors Report endorsed by the Madrid Summit of June 1989 envisaged a three-stage process to monetary union, and this envisaged the start of monetary union on 1 January 1999 and the introduction of notes and coins on 1 January 2002
35.
Occupy Wall Street
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The Canadian, anti-consumerist, pro-environment group/magazine Adbusters initiated the call for a protest. The OWS slogan, We are the 99%, refers to income inequality, to achieve their goals, protesters acted on consensus-based decisions made in general assemblies which emphasized direct action over petitioning authorities for redress. The protesters were forced out of Zuccotti Park on November 15,2011, protesters turned their focus to occupying banks, corporate headquarters, board meetings, foreclosed homes, and college and university campuses. The New York Times reported in May 2014 that declassified documents showed extensive surveillance, earlier, on November 25, Wolf asserted in the Guardian that the crackdown itself was coordinated by federal agencies. The first such proposal appeared on the Adbusters website on February 2,2011, lasn registered the OccupyWallStreet. org web address on June 9. That same month, Adbusters emailed its subscribers saying “America needs its own Tahrir. ”White said the reception of the idea snowballed from there, the protest was promoted with an image featuring a dancer atop Wall Streets iconic Charging Bull statue. Meanwhile, several proposals were being explored by independent groups, as reported by journalist Nathan Schneider in his book Thank You, Anarchy. Which eventually became known as Occupy Washington, D. C, on August 1,2011, almost a month prior to the major media event, a group of artists were arrested after a series of days protesting nude as an art performance on Wall Street. This event may have inspired or triggered the event to follow. This was a protest by the 49 participants on American Institutions and was titled Ocularpation, Wall Street by artist Zefrey Throwell. The group began holding meetings to work out issues and the movements direction, such as whether or not to have a set of demands, forming working groups. The Internet group Anonymous created a video encouraging its supporters to take part in the protests, Day of Rage, a group that organized to protest corporate influence corrupts our political parties, our elections, and the institutions of government, also joined the movement. The protest itself began on September 17, a Facebook page for the demonstrations began two days later on September 19 featuring a YouTube video of earlier events, by mid-October, Facebook listed 125 Occupy-related pages. The original location for the protest was One Chase Manhattan Plaza, with Bowling Green Park, Police discovered this before the protest began and fenced off two locations, but they left Zuccotti Park, the groups third choice, open. Since the park was private property, police could not legally force protesters to leave without being requested to do so by the property owner. Because of its connection to the system, lower Manhattan has seen many riots and protests since the 1800s. Occupy Wall Street, in turn, gave rise to the Occupy movement in the United States and it derives from a We the 99% flyer calling for OWSs second General Assembly in August 2011. The variation We are the 99% originated from a page of the same name
36.
Koper
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Having a unique ecology and biodiversity, it is considered an important national natural resource. The citys Port of Koper is the contributor to the economy of the eponymous city municipality. The city is a destination on a number of Mediterranean cruising lines, in 2016, the city expects 65 cruise ship arrivals with the season spanning from March to December. Koper is the urban centre of the Slovenian Istria, with a population of about 25,000. The city of Koper is officially bilingual, with both Slovene and Italian as official languages, sights in Koper include the 15th-century Praetorian Palace and Loggia in Venetian Gothic style, the 12th-century Carmine Rotunda church, and the Cathedral of St Nazarius, with its 14th-century tower. Koper is also one of the main entry points into Slovenia from Italy. The main motorway crossing is at Spodnje Škofije to the north of the city of Koper, the motorway continues into Rabuiese and Trieste. Koper also has a connection with the capital city, Ljubljana. On the coast, there is a crossing at Lazaret into Lazaretto in Muggia municipality in Trieste province, the Italian border crossing is known as San Bartolomeo. The Italian name of the city was spelled as Capo dIstria. Modern names of the city include, Croatian, Kopar, Serbian, Копар, Kopar, German, Koper developed from an ancient settlement built on an island in the southeastern part of the Gulf of Koper in the northern Adriatic. In Ancient Greek, the town was known as Aegida, later it became known by the Latin names of Capris, Caprea, Capre, or Caprista, from which the modern Slovenian name stems. In 568, Roman citizens of nearby Tergeste fled to Capris due to an invasion of the Lombards, in honour of the Byzantine emperor Justinian II, the town was renamed Justinopolis. Later, Justinopolis was under both Lombard and Frankish rule and was occupied by Avars in the 8th century. Since the 8th century, possibly even since the 6th century, one of Kopers bishops was the Lutheran reformer Pier Paolo Vergerio. In 1828, it was merged into the diocese of Trieste, trade between Koper and Venice has been recorded since 932. In the war between Venice and the Holy Roman Empire, Koper was on the German side, and as a result was awarded town rights. After 1232, Koper was under the Patriarch of Aquileia, and it was at this time that the city walls and towers were partly demolished
37.
Maribor
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Maribor is the second-largest city in Slovenia with about 96,000 inhabitants in 2015. It is also the largest city of the region of Lower Styria. Maribor was attested in sources as Marpurch circa 1145, and is a compound of Middle High German march march + burc fortress. In modern times, the towns German name was Marburg an der Drau, the Slovene name Maribor is an artificial Slovenized creation, coined by Stanko Vraz in 1836. Vraz created the name in the spirit of Illyrianism by analogy with the name Brandenburg, locally, the town is known in Slovene as Marprk or Marprog. In addition to its Slovene and German names, the city is known as Marburgum in Latin. In 1164, a known as Castrum Marchburch was documented in the March of Drava. The castle was built on Piramida Hill, which is located just above the city. Maribor was first mentioned as a market near the castle in 1204 and it began to grow rapidly after the victory of Rudolf I of the Habsburg dynasty over King Otakar II of Bohemia in 1278. Maribor withstood sieges by Matthias Corvinus in 1480/1481 and by the Ottoman Empire in 1532 and 1683, in 1900 the city had a population that was 82. 3% Austrian Germans and 17. 3% Slovenes, most of the citys capital and public life was in Austrian German hands. Thus, it was known by its Austrian name Marburg an der Drau. The surrounding area however was populated almost entirely by Slovenes, although many Austrian Germans lived in towns like Ptuj. During World War I many Slovenes in the Carinthia and Styria were detained on suspicion of being enemies of the Austrian Empire and this led to distrust between Austrian Germans and Slovenes. After the collapse of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire in 1918, Maribor was claimed by both the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and German Austria. On 1 November 1918, a meeting was held by Colonel Anton Holik in the Melje barracks, ethnic Slovene Major Rudolf Maister, who was present at the meeting, denounced the decision and organised Slovenian military units that were able to seize control of the city. All Austrian officers and soldiers were disarmed and demobilised to the new German Austria state, the city council then held a secret meeting, where it was decided to do whatever possible to regain Maribor for German Austria. They organised a military unit called the Green Guard, and approximately 400 well-armed soldiers of this unit opposed the pro-Slovenian, Slovenian troops surprised and disarmed the Green Guard early in the morning of 23 November. Thereafter, there was no threat to the authority of Rudolf Maister in the city, nine citizens were killed and some eighteen were seriously wounded, who had actually ordered the shooting has never been unequivocally established
38.
Ljubljana
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Ljubljana is the capital and largest city of Slovenia. It has been the cultural, educational, economic, political, during antiquity, a Roman city called Emona stood in the area. Ljubljana itself was first mentioned in the first half of the 12th century and it was under Habsburg rule from the Middle Ages until the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918. Situated at the middle of a route between the northern Adriatic Sea and the Danube region, it was the historical capital of Carniola. The origin of the name is unclear. In the Middle Ages, both the river and the town were known by the German name Laibach. This name was in use as an endonym until 1918. The city is called in Italian Lubiana and in Latin, Labacum or Aemona For most scholars, the problem has been in how to connect the Slovene and he supported the thesis that the name of the river derived from the name of the settlement. The name Laibach, he claimed, was actually a hybrid of German and Slovene, the symbol of the city is the Ljubljana Dragon. It is depicted on the top of the tower of Ljubljana Castle in the Ljubljana coat of arms and it symbolizes power, courage, and greatness. There are several explanations on the origin of the Ljubljana Dragon and it was there that Jason struck down a monster. This monster has evolved into the dragon that today is present in the city coat of arms and it is historically more believable that the dragon was adopted from Saint George, the patron of the Ljubljana Castle chapel built in the 15th century. In the legend of Saint George, the dragon represents the old ancestral paganism overcome by Christianity, according to another explanation, related to the second, the dragon was at first only a decoration above the city coat of arms. In the Baroque, it part of the coat of arms. Around 2000 BC, the Ljubljana Marshes in the vicinity of Ljubljana were settled by people living in pile dwellings. Prehistoric pile dwellings and the oldest wooden wheel in the world are among the most notable archeological findings from the marshland and these lake-dwelling people lived through hunting, fishing and primitive agriculture. To get around the marshes, they used dugout canoes made by cutting out the inside of tree trunks and their archeological remains, nowadays in the Municipality of Ig, have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site since June 2011, in the common nomination of six Alpine states. Around 50 BC, the Romans built a military encampment that later became a permanent settlement called Iulia Aemona and this entrenched fort was occupied by the Legio XV Apollinaris
39.
Port of Koper
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Port of Koper is a public limited company, which provides port and logistics services in the only Slovenian port, in Koper. It is situated in the part of the Adriatic Sea, connecting mainly markets of Central and Southeast Europe with the Mediterranean Sea. The company manages the commercial zone and provides for the development, from its establishment during the era of the Roman Republic, maritime trade has played an important role in the history and development of Koper. In 1279, Koper was absorbed by the Venetian Republic, and developed into the pre-eminent commercial, following the fall of Venice in 1797, the entire region was absorbed into the Habsburg Monarchy, and, for a short while, Koper was known as the Imperial Austrian Port. When Trieste and Rijeka were proclaimed as free ports in 1719, Kopers status, trade, the collapse of the Venetian Republic and the transfer of local administrative and political power to Trieste that followed further hastened this decline. Kopers maritime and commercial stagnation continued, first under Habsburg rule, despite liberation in 1945, insecurity as to its future continued into the post-war era, during the period of the Free Territory of Trieste. The partition of the Trieste Free Territory led to emigration by ethnic Italians living in Istrian coastal towns. Neglected for more than two centuries, their potential was poor and their industries obsolete, whilst maritime traffic. In investigating new possibilities for the development of Slovenian Istria, a group of enthusiasts began considering the potentials for construction of an international seaport, thus the new venture was established, employing local workers whose experience was crucial in the organisation of this new and intrepid undertaking. By August 1957, the Peter Klepec, a floating dredger had deepened the seabed along the shore of town. At the same time, work began on a dyke across the Stanjon inlet, the Port of Koper was eventually permitted to join the Association of Yugoslav Ports, and in October 1958 received the state consent for its investment programme. At last due recognition was at hand, despite developing in an era in which imports were rising, it was difficult to attract business away from the established ports in the region, such as nearby Port of Trieste and Port of Rijeka. Based on the resolution of the companys Workers Council in October 1961, Pristanišče Koper changed its name to Luka Koper, the companys objectives were clear, and by the end of 1962 its integrated operations were functioning efficiently. Development continued with the acquisition of the Dekani cold storage facility, by 1962, annual throughput amounted to 270,000 tonnes. Freight passing through the port was for the most part hauled by road, with a portion travelling by rail to Kozina, and from there transported by truck to Koper. Imports were destined for the Slovenian and Serbian markets, unlike neighbouring Croatia, Serbia did not have its own access to the sea. During the early 1960s, outgoing maritime cargo, exports from the European continent, amounted to a mere 20 percent of total traffic, with nearly the same capacities and improved organisation,1963 witnessed a throughput of 628,456 tonnes of cargo. This rapid growth was the result of increased imports of wheat, rice, as a consequence of its solid performance, in conjunction with its geographic and other advantages, Luka Koper gained the trust of its foreign partners, and recorded record growth
40.
Congress Square
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Congress Square is one of the central squares in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. The square was built in 1821 at the site of the ruins of a medieval Capuchin monastery, the square was used for ceremonial purposes during the Congress of Ljubljana, after which it was named. After the congress, a park was laid out in the center of the square, during the communist period it was renamed Revolution Square and a few years later Liberation Square, but the local population continued to use the old name. In 1990, it regained its original name, the square has had a highly symbolic role in modern Slovenian history. On October 29,1918, independence from Austrian-Hungarian rule and the establishment of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs was proclaimed during a mass demonstration on the square. In May 1945, the Yugoslav Communist leader Josip Broz Tito first visited Slovenia after World War II and held a speech on the balcony of the University of Ljubljana, which faces the square. On June 22,1988, the first free mass demonstration was held on the square demanding the release of four Slovene journalists imprisoned by the Yugoslav army, the demonstration marked the beginning of the Slovenian spring which culminated in the declaration of Slovenias independence on June 25,1991. In 1999 Bill Clinton became the first U. S. president to visit Slovenia, on June 21, he publicly addressed the crowd gathered on Congress Square, quoting the opening verses of the Slovenian national anthem. Several important buildings face the square, the Slovenska matica publishing house also has its seat on the square. In 1852, a full statue of the Austrian field marshal Joseph Radetzky, was erected in the square. It depicted Radetzky in the battle against the Italian army encouraging his soldiers, the statue was removed six years later, after Radetzkys death, because the town councillors found out that a cast was not decent enough for a monument. In 1860, they erected in a ceremony a bust statue created by the Austrian sculptor Anton Dominik Fernkorn and it was almost two meters high and made of bronze, and was the first representative public statue. The field marshal was depicted highly realistically in his suit with decorations, the statue was meant to reflect the loyalty to the Habsburg crown and was the place of all events on a high level in Ljubljana, but also the meeting place for drunk citizens at night. The statue was removed by patriots in the night of the 30 December 1918, after the collapse of the Austria-Hungary and the end of World War II, in the late 1930s, the square was renovated by the prominent Slovene architect Jože Plečnik. New trees on the park were planted, most of which are there today. In 1940, a statue of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia created by the architect Lojze Dolinar was erected in the middle of the square. In 1941, the statue was removed by the Fascist Italian occupation forces, a Biedermeier bandstand from the 1830s also stands in the park. In December 2004 the artist Matej Andraž Vogrinčič set up an Enchanted Forest in the square consisting of 1,000 potted fir trees, the trees were later donated to the Slovene Forestry Institute, which used them to reforest areas in the north-west of the country
41.
Ljubljana Stock Exchange
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Ljubljana Stock Exchange or LJSE is a stock exchange located in Ljubljana, Slovenia. It is Slovenias only stock exchange, the exchange trades shares of Slovenian companies, as well as bonds and commercial papers. The only stockholder of the Ljubljana Stock Exchange is Zagreb Stock Exchange, additional activities include the services for trading members and listed companies. The existing Ljubljana Stock Exchange was established in 1989, however, brokerage in Slovenia has a much longer tradition, the first stock exchange in Ljubljana existed as early as in the period between 1924 and 1942. Unfortunately, during the Second World War the trading on the old exchange was suspended, slovenians were thus left without a stock exchange for almost half a century. Then in the 1989 the Ljubljana Stock Exchange was officially established, in the year 1993 LJSE introduced electronic trading on BTS - on complex Stock Exchange Information System three times a week, floor trading still remained on Tuesdays and Thursdays. The new system of information dissemination - SEOnet was launched in year 2002. Three years later LJSE introduced the segment of the official market, listing Slovenias prime companies. In the middle of the year 2008 the first regional road-show of SE Europe, in the same year Vienna Stock Exchange became the new majority owner of the LJSE. Year 2009 was crucial for establishment of CEE Stock Exchange Group, which at the time comprised the Vienna Stock Exchange, as of July 2015 Ljubljana Stock Exchange is owned by Zagreb Stock Exchange. On 22 February 2016, the Ljubljana Stock Exchange, along with the Belgrade Stock Exchange, decided to join SEE Link, trading on the Ljubljana Stock Exchange operates through an electronic order book in the Xetra® trading system. Xetra® trading system was implemented at the Ljubljana Stock Exchange on December 6,2010, the Slovene capital market is now more easily accessible, internationally comparable and competitive market. On the basis of meeting the LJSE liquidity criteria, securities are traded in the continuous or auction trading methods, SBI TOP is the first genuine LJSE blue-chip index and serves as the Slovene capital market benchmark index. It measures the performance of the most liquid and highly capitalized stocks on the LJSE Market and it is designed as a tradable index. Due to the liquidity of the constituents, it is intended to serve as underlying for index-linked financial instruments, List of stock exchanges List of European stock exchanges Official website of the Ljubljana Stock Exchange
42.
Helsinki
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Helsinki is the capital and largest city of Finland. It is in the region of Uusimaa, in southern Finland, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland. Helsinki has a population of 629,512, a population of 1,231,595. Helsinki is located some 80 kilometres north of Tallinn, Estonia,400 km east of Stockholm, Sweden, Helsinki has close historical connections with these three cities. The Helsinki metropolitan area includes the core of Helsinki, Espoo, Vantaa, Kauniainen. It is the worlds northernmost metro area of one million people. The Helsinki metropolitan area is the fourth largest metropolitan area in the Nordic countries, Helsinki is Finlands major political, educational, financial, cultural, and research center as well as one of northern Europes major cities. Approximately 75% of foreign companies operating in Finland have settled in the Helsinki region, the nearby municipality of Vantaa is the location of Helsinki Airport, with frequent service to various destinations in Europe and Asia. In 2009, Helsinki was chosen to be the World Design Capital for 2012 by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design, the city was the venue for the 1952 Summer Olympics and the 52nd Eurovision Song Contest 2007. In 2011, the Monocle magazine ranked Helsinki the most liveable city in the world in its Liveable Cities Index 2011, in the Economist Intelligence Units August 2015 Liveability survey, assessing the best and worst cities to live in globally, Helsinki placed among the worlds top ten cities. Helsinki is used to refer to the city in most languages, the Swedish name Helsingfors is the original official name of the city. The Finnish name probably comes from Helsinga and similar names used for the river that is known as the Vantaa River. Helsingfors comes from the name of the parish, Helsinge and the rapids, which flowed through the original village. As part of the Grand Duchy of Finland in the Russian Empire, one suggestion for the origin of the name Helsinge is that it originated with medieval Swedish settlers who came from Hälsingland in Sweden. Others have proposed that the name derives from the Swedish word helsing, other Scandinavian cities located at similar geographic locations were given similar names at the time, for example Helsingør and Helsingborg. The name Helsinki has been used in Finnish official documents and in Finnish language newspapers since 1819, the decrees issued in Helsinki were dated with Helsinki as the place of issue. This is how the form Helsinki came to be used in written Finnish, in Helsinki slang the city is called Stadi. Hesa, is not used by natives to the city, helsset is the Northern Sami name of Helsinki
43.
Turku
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Turku is a city on the southwest coast of Finland at the mouth of the Aura River, in the region of Southwest Finland. Turku, as a town, was settled during the 13th century and founded most likely at the end of the 13th century and it quickly became the most important city in Finland, a status it retained for hundreds of years. Because of its history, it has been the site of many important events. Along with Tallinn, the city of Estonia, Turku was designated the European Capital of Culture for 2011. In 1996, it was declared the official Christmas City of Finland, due to its location, Turku is a notable commercial and passenger seaport with over three million passengers traveling through the Port of Turku each year to Stockholm and Mariehamn. As of 31 December 2016, the population of Turku was 187,564, there were 318,168 inhabitants living in the Turku sub-region, ranking it as the third largest urban area in Finland after the Greater Helsinki area and Tampere sub-region. The city is bilingual as 5.2 percent of its population identify Swedish as a mother-tongue. The Finnish name Turku originates from an Old East Slavic word, tǔrgǔ, the word turku still means market place in some idioms in Finnish. The Swedish word for market place is torg, and was borrowed from Old East Slavic. The Swedish name Åbo may be a combination of å. As this pattern does not appear in any other Swedish place names in Finland, one theory is that it comes from Aabo, the Finnish rendition of the Russian Avram, which could also be the origin of the name of the river Aura. There is however an old legal term called åborätt, which gave citizens the right to live at land owned by the crown. In Finnish, the genitive of Turku is Turun, meaning of Turku, the Finnish names of organizations and institutes of Turku often begin with this word, as in Turun yliopisto for the University of Turku. Turku has a history as Finlands largest city and occasionally as the administrative center of the country. The citys identity stems from its status as the oldest city in Finland, originally, the word Finland referred only to the area around Turku. Although archaeological findings in the date back to the Stone Age. The Cathedral of Turku was consecrated in 1300, during the Middle Ages, Turku was the seat of the Bishop of Turku, covering the then eastern half of the Kingdom of Sweden until the 17th century. Even if Turku had no official status, both the short-lived institutions of Dukes and Governors-General of Finland usually had their Finnish residences there
44.
Tampere
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Tampere is a city in Pirkanmaa, southern Finland. It is the most populous city in any of the Nordic countries. The city has a population of 223,292 growing to 313,058 people in the urban area, Tampere is the second-largest urban area and third most-populous individual municipality in the country, after Helsinki and Espoo municipalities. Its also the most populous Finnish city outside the Greater Helsinki area and inner Finlands major urban, economic, Tampere is between two lakes, Näsijärvi and Pyhäjärvi. Since the two differ in level by 18 metres, the rapids linking them, Tammerkoski, have been an important power source throughout history. Tampere is dubbed the Manchester of Finland for its industrial past as the center of Finnish industry. Helsinki is approximately 160 kilometres south of Tampere, and can be reached in 1.5 hours by train and 2 hours by car, the distance to Turku is roughly the same. Tampere–Pirkkala Airport is Finlands third-busiest airport, with over 400,000 passengers annually, there have been many debates on the origin of the name Tampere. One theory is that it comes from the Swedish word damber, other suggestions have been the Swedish tamper-dagar, fasting days, and also the Finnish word tammi. Although the name Tampere or its Swedish counterparts Tammer- part cannot be completely confirmed, Tampere was founded as a market place on the banks of the Tammerkoski channel in 1775 by Gustav III of Sweden and four years later,1 October 1779, Tampere was granted full city rights. At this time, it was a small town, consisting of only a few square kilometres of land around the Tammerkoski. Tampere grew as a market town and industrial centre in the 19th century. The towns industrial nature in the 19th and 20th centuries gave it the nickname Manchester of the North, Tampere was the centre of many important political events of Finland in the early 20th century. On 1 November 1905, during the strike, the famous Red Declaration was proclaimed on the Keskustori. In 1918, when Finland had recently gained independence, Tampere also played a major role, Tampere was a red stronghold during the war, with Hugo Salmela in command. White forces captured the town after the Battle of Tampere, seizing about 10,000 Red prisoners on 6 April 1918, prevalent in Tamperes post-World War II municipal politics was the Brothers-in-Arms Axis. From 2007 on, Tampere switched to a new model of having a mayor and four deputy mayors, timo P. Nieminen was elected by the city council as the first mayor of Tampere for the years 2007–09. He was re-elected in 2009 and was succeeded by Anna-Kaisa Ikonen in 2013, after World War II, Tampere was enlarged by joining some neighbouring areas
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