1.
2/15th Battalion (Australia)
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The 2/15th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army that served during World War II. After completing training in Palestine, in early 1941, the 2/15th took up positions along the front line in the Western Desert and it was withdrawn by sea in late October 1941 as the 9th Division was relieved by the British 70th Division. Following its withdrawal from Tobruk, the battalion re-formed at Gaza before undertaking garrison duties in Syria, in mid-1942, the 2/15th returned to North Africa to fight in the First and Second Battles of El Alamein. In early 1943, the 2/15th returned to Australia and was re-organised and re-trained for jungle warfare and it took part in campaigns against the Japanese in New Guinea in 1943–1944 and Borneo in 1945, before being disbanded in 1946. The 2/15th Battalion was raised at Victoria Barracks in Brisbane on 26 April 1940 from Second Australian Imperial Force volunteers and it was one of three infantry battalions assigned to the 20th Brigade that were initially part of the 7th Division, the other two being the 2/13th and 2/17th Battalions. These colours were purple and red in a diamond shape. Following the battalions establishment, Marlan set about choosing a cadre of commissioned and non-commissioned personnel around which to build the battalion. These personnel included the battalion second-in-command, the quartermaster and adjutant, as well as enlisted soldiers to undertake administrative. These were recruited from several of the existing Queensland-based Militia battalions including the 25th, 42nd, one member recruited at the time had served with the 15th Battalion that had been raised as part of the First Australian Imperial Force, during World War I. In early July, the majority of the battalion was transported by train to Pinkenba, personnel were joined by the majority of their vehicles, including 14 tracked Bren carriers in August, as well as a group of reinforcements. In October, elements of the battalion were used as stevedores during a wharf labourers strike, in the absence of the Darwin personnel, the battalions rear details shifted from Redbank to Grovely where route marches were carried out in the Samford Valley. In late October, the rear details personnel returned to Redbank at the end of the month where more equipment was received, the main body of the battalion remained in Darwin, forming part of the towns defensive garrison. They were relieved by the 2/25th Battalion in late October 1940, sailing via Bowen where shore leave was granted, the 2/15th reached Hamilton, in Brisbane, in early November to marry up with the rear details at Redbank. Further training was undertaken at Redbank at this time before the battalion entrained for Brisbane on Christmas Day. There, the ship joined up with a convoy that was bound for the Middle East theatre. Sailing via Colombo, the battalion disembarked in Bombay, transferring to the Rohna for the remainder of the journey, transitting the Suez Canal, it disembarked at El Kantara, in Egypt, in February 1941. En route to the Middle East, the 20th Brigade was reassigned to the 9th Division, individual training undertaken at this time was aimed at identifying those who would be unfit for the coming battle, and many were subsequently transferred to the divisional guard battalion. A few days later the battalion was moved to Tobruk, from there it moved by road in captured Italian vehicles to Derna and on to Tochra, then Benghazi, and eventually Barce
2.
Australian Army
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The Australian Army is Australias military land force. It is part of the Australian Defence Force along with the Royal Australian Navy, while the Chief of the Defence Force commands the ADF, the Army is commanded by the Chief of Army. The CA is therefore subordinate to the CDF, but is directly responsible to the Minister for Defence. Although Australian soldiers have been involved in a number of minor and major conflicts throughout its history, Australias largest peacekeeping deployment began in 1999 in East Timor, while other ongoing operations include peacekeeping on Bougainville, in the Sinai, and in the Solomon Islands. Humanitarian relief after 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake in Aceh Province, Indonesia, Operation Sumatra Assist, the 1st Division comprises a deployable headquarters, while 2nd Division under the command of Forces Command is the main home-defence formation, containing Army Reserve units. 2nd Divisions headquarters only performs administrative functions, the Australian Army has not deployed a divisional-sized formation since 1945 and does not expect to do so in the future. 1st Division carries out training activities and deploys to command large-scale ground operations. It does not have any combat units permanently assigned, Forces Command controls for administrative purposes all non-special-forces assets of the Australian Army. It is neither an operational nor a deployable command,1 Brigade – Multi-role Combat Brigade based in Darwin and Adelaide. 3 Brigade – Multi-role Combat Brigade based in Townsville,6 Brigade – Mixed brigade based in Sydney. 7 Brigade – Multi-role Combat Brigade based in Brisbane,16 Aviation Brigade – Army Aviation brigade based in Enoggera, Brisbane. 17 Combat Service Support Brigade – Logistic brigade based in Sydney, 2nd Division administers the reserve forces from its headquarters located in Sydney. 4 Brigade – based in Victoria,5 Brigade – based in New South Wales. 8 Brigade – based in New South Wales,9 Brigade – based in South Australia and Tasmania. 11 Brigade – based in Queensland,13 Brigade – based in Western Australia. Special Operations Command comprises a command formation of equal status to the commands in the ADF. It includes all of Armys special forces assets, the force will be known as the Amphibious Ready Element and will be embarked on the Navys new Canberra-class amphibious assault ships. Infantry, and some combat units of the Australian Army carry flags called the Queens Colour
3.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
4.
4th Brigade (Australia)
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The 4th Brigade is a brigade-level formation of the Australian Army. Originally formed in September 1914 for service during World War I, elements of the brigade served at Gallipoli, in 1921, the brigade was re-raised as a unit of Australias part-time military forces, based in the state of Victoria. During World War II the brigade served in the New Guinea, under the command of Colonel John Monash, at that time the brigade consisted of four infantry battalions which were raised from all Australian states, the 13th, 14th, 15th and 16th Battalions. Following initial training at Broadmeadows in Victoria, they embarked for overseas in the wave of Australian forces to be dispatched. They arrived in Egypt in early 1915, where they were assigned to the New Zealand, in April 1915, the brigade participated in the ANZAC landing at Gallipoli, arriving on the second day as the divisions reserve, before joining the eight-month campaign that followed. During the August Offensive, the brigade attacked Hill 971 and then, later, in December 1915 the decision was made to evacuate Gallipoli and subsequently the brigade was transported back to Egypt. Following this, the AIF underwent a period of reorganisation and expansion, as a part of this process, the 4th Brigade provided a cadre of experienced personnel to the newly formed 12th Brigade. At the same time, the brigade was reassigned to the 4th Division, assigned to the front line around Armentières, they undertook their first operation on 2 July, undertaking an unsuccessful raid. During the next two years, the brigade rotated in and out of the line along with the rest of the 4th Division. In April 1917, the took part in heavy fighting around Bullecourt where, on 11 April, they suffered heavy casualties. In April 1918, the 4th Brigade was involved in significant fighting around Villers-Bretonneux, the liberation was the third anniversary of ANZAC Day,25 April 1918. In commemoration of the sacrifices made by Australians, in 1926 the main street of the town was renamed Rue de Melbourne, the school, which was damaged during the fighting, was rebuilt with donations from Victorian school children and was subsequently called Victoria School. Later, in July, the 4th Brigade took part in the fighting around Le Hamel, the tactics used during the battle on 4 July 1918 were conceived by General John Monash and largely carried out by Australian infantrymen, along with a number of US troops. It was the scene of one of Allies greatest military victories during the war, on 12 August 1918 Monash was knighted in the field by King George V. In early October the rest of the Australian Corps was withdrawn from the line for rest, during the course of the war, eight members of the brigade received the Victoria Cross. These were, Albert Jacka, Martin OMeara, John Dwyer, Harry Murray, Henry Dalziel, Thomas Axford, Maurice Buckley, in 1921, Australias part-time military forces were re-organised to perpetuate the numerical designations and structure of the AIF formations that had existed during World War I. As a result, in May the 4th Brigade was re-raised as part of the Citizens Forces, where possible the decision was made to raise the new formations in the recruiting areas from where the World War I units had drawn their personnel. The four infantry battalions that were assigned to it at time were
5.
4th Division (Australia)
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The Australian 4th Division was formed in the First World War during the expansion of the Australian Imperial Force infantry brigades in February 1916. In addition to the experienced 4th Brigade were added the new 12th and 13th Brigades, from Egypt the division was sent to France. After the war ended and the AIF was demobilised, the division was dissolved, in 1921, the 4th Division name was reactivated as a Citizen Military Forces formation. The division performed home defence duties for most of World War II, the Australian government concurred and the Australian 4th Division was formed in this expansion of the Australian Imperial Force infantry brigades in February 1916. In addition to the experienced 4th Brigade there were added the new 12th and 13th Brigades, the 4th Division began forming in Egypt in February 1916. The new division included the 4th Infantry Brigade, 4th Field Company, 4th Field Ambulance, the 12th and 13th Infantry Brigades were formed by taking half the personnel of the 4th and 3rd Infantry Brigades. Delays in assembling the artillery meant that the division could not depart for France before June 1916, the division was initially stationed on the Suez Canal. In June 1916 it moved to France, taking part of the nursery sector near Armentières. Its stay there was brief and soon it was accompanying the First, in August 1916 it relieved the Second Division on the Pozières Heights and repulsed a major German counterattack. It then drove north to the outskirts of Mouquet Farm, a second tour of the Somme at Mouquet Farm followed in September and a third at Flers in October. On 11 April 1917 the division assaulted the Hindenburg Line in the First Battle of Bullecourt, the battle was a disaster and 1170 Australian prisoners were taken by the Germans. In June it participated in the Battle of Messines, in September it participated in the Battle of Polygon Wood. In March 1918 the division was rushed to the Somme region to stem the German Offensive, the Australian 3rd and 4th Divisions had been ordered to proceed to Amiens to strengthen the retreating British 5th Army. There it repulsed the advancing Germans in hard fought battles at Hebuterne, the Battle of Dernancourt involved the Australian 12th and 13th Brigades on the railway embankment and cuttings in Dernancourt, just south of Albert. The under strength Australian Brigades faced 4 German Divisions totalling about 25,000, situated on the western side of the Ancre River valley, the Australians formed a defensive line at the railway embankment, from which they held back German attacks. The Australian 48th Battalion soon found itself outflanked by German to its rear, the 48th was ordered to hold at all costs but by midday was facing annihilation and the senior officer ordered a withdrawal. Much like the actions at Bullecourt the previous year, the Australian battalion withdrew successfully and this action costs 12th and 13th Brigades 1,100 casualties. In April its 13th Infantry Brigade was involved in the counterattack at Villers-Bretonneux, on April 21, German deserters revealed that German attack preparations were nearing completion
6.
7th Brigade (Australia)
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7th Brigade is a combined arms formation or brigade of the Australian Army. The brigade was first raised in 1915 as part of the First Australian Imperial Force and saw action at Gallipoli, following the end of the war the brigade was disbanded before being re-raised in 1921 as part of the Citizens Force. During World War II the brigade took part in the fighting against the Japanese in New Guinea, today, the 7th Brigade is part of Forces Command and is based in Brisbane, Queensland and is composed mainly of units of the Regular Army. While the brigade has not deployed as a unit since World War II, component units have deployed on operations to East Timor. The 7th Brigade was formed in early 1915 as part of the First Australian Imperial Force, consisting of four infantry battalions raised in Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia—the 25th, 26th, 27th and 28th Battalions—the brigade was assigned to the 2nd Division in July 1915. The next several months were spent defending the beachhead, until the order to evacuate was given in mid-December, after the evacuation, the brigade was re-constituted in Egypt, where a further period of training followed. At this time, the AIF was expanded and re-organised, for the next two-and-a-half years they would take part in a number of major Australian battles including the Battle of Pozières in July 1916, and Lagnicourt, Passchendaele and Broodseinde in 1917. In 1918, the 7th undertook a role during the German Spring Offensive, fighting around Villers-Bretonneux. During the subsequent Battle of Mont St Quentin–Peronne, the 7th Brigades advanced towards Aizecourt-le-Haut, in early October 1918, after fighting an action around Grandcourt, the 7th Brigade was withdrawn from the line to reorganise. At this time, the 25th Battalion was disbanded to provide reinforcements to the rest of the brigade and they remained out of the line until 7 November, when orders were received to move forward from the rest camp around St Owen. The brigade was in the process of marching towards the front when news that the armistice had been signed reached them, following the end of hostilities, 7th Brigade was disbanded in 1919. As a consequence, 7th Brigade was re-raised on 21 May 1921 under the command of Brigadier James Robertson. During World War II, the 7th Brigade was a Militia unit made up of five infantry battalions—the 9th, 15th, 25th, 47th and 61st Battalions—which were assigned to the brigade at various times. At the beginning of the war the brigade was responsible for the defence of South East Queensland, with battalions located at Chermside, Cabarlah. On 13 December 1941, the brigade received order to partially mobilise, the brigade then only had 1,393 men in all ranks. Because of the issue of the order, by 27 December. The Australian Army transitioned from the four battalion brigade structure to the three battalion structure favoured by the British during 1940–41, at this time it relocated to Townsville to act as the citys covering force along with the 11th Brigade and the 29th Brigade. On 9 July 1942, the first elements of the brigade departed Townsville for Milne Bay, in the end, the brigade was not employed in further combat and in November 1943 it returned to Australia where it undertook a period of reorganisation and training on the Atherton Tablelands
7.
29th Brigade (Australia)
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The 29th Brigade was an infantry brigade of the Australian Army that was raised for service during World War II. Formed in late 1941 as part of the Militia, the brigade was formed for home defence in response to Japans entry into the war. There, the brigade undertook garrison duties before taking part in the Salamaua–Lae campaign, after the war, the brigade was disbanded in December 1945, along with its component units. Raised on 20 December 1941 under the command of Brigadier Thomas Louch for service during World War II, in April 1942, the brigade began moving to Townsville to take up defensive duties, constructing defences along line between Giru and Rollingstone. In January 1943, with the threat of invasion over, the brigade was deployed to New Guinea, meanwhile, the 47th Battalion garrisoned Goodenough Island and the 15th Battalion was stationed at Buna initially before later moving to Morobe. The brigade was committed to the Salamaua–Lae campaign in August 1943, taking part in the fighting around Nassau and Tambu Bays. Against steep terrain and heavy resistance, the battalion took the ridge. Following up, on 9 September the 42nd Battalion attacked Charlie Hill as part of the assault on Salamaua. The brigade was concentrated around Petrie and Strathpine, in Queensland. The brigade was assigned to the 3rd Division and 1944–45 took part in the Bougainville campaign. On Bougainville, the Australians had taken over from an American garrison in late 1944 in order to free up US troops for the fighting in the Philippines. The 29th Brigade relieved the US182 Infantry Regiment and was assigned to the southern drive towards Buin. The 15th Battalion commenced the brigades campaign on Bougainville, being committed to the fighting in December 1944, while the 42nd, during the initial stages, the 15th Battalion patrolled along the western coast, clearing the Japanese from an area between the Jaba and the Tavera Rivers. The brigades headquarters was disbanded in December 1945, its component units subsequently returned to Australia where they were disbanded during the months of 1946. The 29th Brigade typically consisted of, Brigade Headquarters, 15th Battalion, 42nd Battalion, 47th Battalion,11 Field Company RAE7 Field Ambulance AAMC Supporting artillery, and other units. The following officers served as commanding officer of the 29th Brigade, Brigadier Thomas Louch, Brigadier Raymond Monaghan, the Story of the 42 Aust. Sydney, New South Wales, Dymocks Book Arcade for the 42nd Australian Infantry Battalion Association, the 47th Battalion and the 47th Battalion Memorial Trophy and Rugby League
8.
Gallipoli Campaign
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The peninsula forms the northern bank of the Dardanelles, a strait that provided a sea route to the Russian Empire, one of the Allied powers during the war. Intending to secure it, Russias allies Britain and France launched an attack followed by an amphibious landing on the peninsula. The naval attack was repelled and after eight months fighting, with casualties on both sides, the land campaign was abandoned and the invasion force was withdrawn to Egypt. The campaign was one of the greatest Ottoman victories during the war, in Turkey, it is regarded as a defining moment in the nations history, a final surge in the defence of the motherland as the Ottoman Empire crumbled. In 1908, a group of officers, known as the Young Turks. The new régime implemented a program of reform to modernise the political and economic system. An enthusiastic supporter, Germany provided significant investment, German diplomats subsequently found increasing influence, despite Britain previously being the predominant power in the region, while German officers assisted in training and re-equipping the army. Despite this support, the resources of the Ottoman Empire were depleted by the cost of the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. In December 1913, the Germans sent a mission to Constantinople. The geographical position of the Ottoman Empire meant that Russia and her allies France, during the Sarajevo Crisis in 1914, German diplomats offered Turkey an anti-Russian alliance and territorial gains in Caucasia, north-west Iran and Trans-Caspia. The pro-British faction in the Cabinet was isolated due to the British ambassador taking leave until 18 August, as the crisis deepened in Europe, Ottoman policy was to obtain a guarantee of territorial integrity and potential advantages, unaware that the British might enter a European war. This action strained diplomatic relations between the two empires and the German government offered SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau to the Ottoman navy as replacements, by allowing the German ships to enter the Dardanelles, the Ottomans confirmed their links to Germany. In September, the British naval mission to the Ottomans, which had established in 1912 under Admiral Arthur Limpus, was recalled due to increasing concern that Turkey would soon enter the war. Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon of the Imperial German Navy took over command of the Ottoman navy, the German naval presence and the success of German armies on all fronts, gave the pro-German faction in the Ottoman government enough influence to declare war on Russia. On 27 October, Goeben and Breslau, having been renamed Yavûz Sultân Selîm and Midilli, sortied into the Black Sea, bombarded the Russian port of Odessa and sank several Russian ships. The Ottomans refused an Allied demand that they expel the German missions and on 31 October 1914, Russia declared war on Turkey on 2 November. The next day, the British ambassador left Constantinople and a British naval squadron off the Dardanelles bombarded the outer defensive forts at Kum Kale, a shell hit a magazine, knocked the guns off their mounts and killed 86 soldiers. Fighting also began in Mesopotamia, following a British landing to occupy the oil facilities in the Persian Gulf, the Ottomans prepared to attack Egypt in early 1915, aiming to occupy the Suez Canal and cut the Mediterranean route to India and the Far East
9.
Western Front (World War I)
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The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. This line remained unchanged for most of the war. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front, the attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire, as a result, no significant advances were made. In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of new technology, including poison gas, aircraft. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored, the German Armys Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front. In spite of the stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, belgiums neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London, this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914, Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August, Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August, for their part, the French had five armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities, on 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine, in keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back
10.
New Guinea campaign
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The New Guinea campaign of the Pacific War lasted from January 1942 until the end of the war in August 1945. The campaign resulted in a defeat and very heavy losses for Empire of Japan. As in most Pacific War campaigns, disease and starvation claimed more Japanese lives than enemy action, most Japanese troops never even came into contact with Allied forces, and were instead simply cut off and subjected to an effective blockade by the US Navy. Garrisons were effectively besieged and denied shipments of food and medical supplies, according to John Laffin, the campaign. was arguably the most arduous fought by any Allied troops during World War II. The struggle for New Guinea began with the capture by the Japanese of the city of Rabaul at the tip of New Britain Island in January 1942. Rabaul overlooks Simpson Harbor, a natural anchorage, and was ideal for the construction of airfields. Over the next year, the Japanese built up the area into a major air, the Japanese 8th Area Army, under General Hitoshi Imamura at Rabaul, was responsible for both the New Guinea and Solomon Islands campaigns. The Japanese 18th Army, under Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi, was responsible for Japanese operations on mainland New Guinea, the colonial capital of Port Moresby on the south coast of Papua was the strategic key for the Japanese in this area of operations. Capturing it would both neutralize the Allies principal forward base and serve as a springboard for the invasion of Australia, for the same reasons, General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander Allied Forces South West Pacific Area was determined to hold it. MacArthur was further determined to conquer all of New Guinea in his progress toward the eventual recapture of the Philippines, General Headquarters Southwest Pacific Area Operational Instruction No. Due north of Port Moresby, on the northeast coast of Papua, are Huon Gulf, the Japanese entered Lae and Salamaua, two locations on Huon Gulf, unopposed in early March 1942. MacArthur would have liked to deny this area to the Japanese, the Japanese at Rabaul and other bases on New Britain would have easily overwhelmed any such effort. Operation Mo was the designation given by the Japanese to their plan to take possession of Port Moresby. After this failure, the Japanese decided on a longer term, simultaneous operations from these two locations, one amphibious and one overland, would converge on the target city. Buna was easily taken as the Allies had no presence there. The Japanese occupied the village with a force of 1,500 on 21 July. Then began the grueling Kokoda Track campaign, an experience for both the Japanese and Australian troops involved. On 17 September, the Japanese had reached the village of Ioribaiwa, the Australians held firm and began their counterdrive on 26 September. the Japanese retreat down the Kokoda Trail had turned into a rout
11.
Bougainville Campaign
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The Bougainville Campaign was a series of land and naval battles of the Pacific campaign of World War II between Allied forces and the Empire of Japan. It was part of Operation Cartwheel, the Allied grand strategy in the South Pacific, the campaign took place in the Northern Solomons in two phases. The first phase, in which American troops invaded and held the perimeter around the beachhead at Torokina, before the war, Bougainville had been administered as part of the Australian Territory of New Guinea, even though, geographically, Bougainville is part of the Solomon Islands chain. As a result, within the accounts of the campaign it is referred to as part of both the New Guinea and the Solomon Islands campaigns. During their occupation the Japanese constructed naval aircraft bases in the north, east, and south of the island and they developed a naval anchorage at Tonolei Harbor near Buin, their largest base, on the southern coastal plain of Bougainville. On the nearby Treasury and Shortland Islands they built airfields, naval bases and anchorages, to the Allies, Bougainville would later also be considered vital for neutralizing the Japanese base around Rabaul. In March–April 1942, the Japanese landed on Bougainville as part of their advance into the South Pacific, at the time, there was only a small Australian garrison on the island which consisted of about 20 soldiers from the 1st Independent Company and some coastwatchers. Shortly after the Japanese arrived, the bulk of the Australian force was evacuated by the Allies, once secured, the Japanese began constructing a number of airfields across the island. The airfield at Kahili was known by the Japanese as Buin Airfield, at the opening of the Allied offensives, their estimates of Japanese strength on Bougainville varied widely, ranging between 45,000 and 65,000 Army, Navy, and labour personnel. These forces constituted the Japanese 17th Army, commanded by General Harukichi Hyakutake, hyukatake reported to General Hitoshi Imamura, commander of the Japanese Eighth Area Army, headquartered at Rabaul on New Britain Island. Naval command at Rabaul was the responsibility of Vice Admiral Jinichi Kusaka, the level of cooperation between these two officers was greater than that usually found between the branches of the Japanese armed forces. The 17th Infantry occupied northern Bougainville, while the 6th had responsibility for the south of Tarina. Reduction of the main Japanese base at Rabaul was the goal of the Allied offensive in the Solomons. To achieve this, Allied planners formulated Operation Cartwheel, by 1943 Rabaul was already within range of Allied heavy bombers, but a closer airfield was needed for light bombers and escort fighters. Thus, the island of Bougainville did not need to be occupied. According to Morison this was the one and only reason why the JCS authorized Halsey to seize a section of Bougainville, the area around Cape Torokina was settled on since, among other things, the Japanese were not there in force and had no airfield there. Bougainville lay within the Southwest Pacific Area, so operations were nominally under the command of General Douglas MacArthur, whose headquarters were in Brisbane, Australia. Although MacArthur had to all major moves, he gave planning and operational control to Admiral William F. Halsey
12.
James Cannan
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Major General James Harold Cannan, CB, CMG, DSO, VD was an Australian Army brigadier general in the First World War and the Quartermaster General during the Second World War. Cannan assumed command of the 15th Infantry Battalion in 1914 and landed with it at ANZAC Cove on the evening of Anzac Day,25 April 1915. The 15th Infantry Battalion garrisoned Quinns Post, one of the most exposed parts of the Anzac perimeter, later, Cannan led his battalion into action again on the Western Front at the Battle of Pozières and Battle of Mouquet Farm. He commanded the 11th Infantry Brigade at the Battle of Messines, the Battle of Broodseinde, between the wars Cannan worked at Insurance Office of Australia, becoming the manager of its Sydney office in 1932. He remained active in the Militia until he was placed on the unattached list in 1925, during the Second World War, Cannan was recalled to duty in 1940, first as Inspector General of Administration, and then as Quartermaster General. During the course of the war he visited operational areas to prepare, despite his immense responsibility and achievements, he received little recognition. He retired in 1946 as a general, and was the last surviving Australian general of the First World War before his death in 1976. James Harold Cannan was born in Townsville, Queensland on 29 August 1882, the child of John Kearsey Cannan. He was educated at Brisbane Central Boys State School and Brisbane Grammar School, James was employed by a firm of hardware merchants, and later worked for seven years for New Zealand Insurance. He was chief agent at the Queensland branch of the Patriotic Assurance Company, Cannan married Eileen Clair Ranken on 12 December 1911. Cannan was commissioned as a lieutenant in the 1st Queensland Regiment on 27 March 1903 and he transferred to the 9th Infantry Regiment on 1 July 1903. He was promoted to captain on 24 September 1907 and major on 14 August 1911, on 1 July 1912, he transferred to the 8th Infantry. He took command of the battalion and was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 9 May 1914, when war broke out, Cannan was appointed to command the Lytton Fixed Defences, holding this post from 5 to 31 August 1914. He was appointed to the Australian Imperial Force on 23 September 1914 with the rank of lieutenant colonel, and assumed command of the 15th Infantry Battalion. His older brother, Captain D. H. Cannan, was one of the original officers of this battalion. They embarked for the Middle East from Melbourne on the transport HMAT Ceramic on 22 December 1914, the ship passed through the Suez Canal safely, arriving at Alexandria on 31 January 1915, although a Turkish force was operating in the nearby desert. The 4th Infantry Brigade encamped at Heliopolis, where it resumed its training, the 15th Infantry Battalion arrived at ANZAC Cove on the evening of Anzac Day,25 April 1915. Cannan was sent with half of his battalion to fill the gap between the 2nd and 3rd Infantry Brigades, moving in the dark through the thick scrub of the Razorback, the 15th found in the scrub the empty positions that it was sent to fill
13.
Unit Colour Patch
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Unit Colour Patches are currently worn on the slouch hat in the Australian Army to identify the wearers unit. Unit colour patches are approximately 40 millimetres x 40 millimetres in size and have a variety of colours. While some are recent creations many date back to World War I and it was an extension of an order allowing the posting of distinctive colour flags to denote HQ and unit lines, and these flags were used as the basic design for 1st Division colour patches. These were worn on the sleeve,1 inch below the shoulder seam, Divisional Order 81 decreed a rectangular patch 1.25 inches by 2. Each Infantry Brigade within each Division was assigned a colour and the Brigade HQ colour patches were the Divisional shape in the Brigade colour. Each Battalion in each Brigade was then assigned a colour, and the patch was split horizontally with the Battalion colour across the top of the field, light Horse, Artillery, Engineer and Medical units were also allocated colour patches. Light Horse patches were divided diagonally, in total over 300 individual patches were authorized during the war. Military Order 206/21 in 1921 authorised the use of Unit Colour Patches for the Citizen Military Forces, which was raised in May,1921. As this new organisation was based on the AIF, this order granted authority to the Citizen Military Forces to wear Regimental Colour Patches similar to those worn by corresponding units of the AIF. It also allowed for ex-members of the AIF serving in Citizen Military Forces to wear a miniature colour patch of the last AIF unit in which they served, with the raising of the Second AIF in World War II, the unit colour patch was continued. A grey background of the shape as the divisional patch was then included to denote a unit of the Second AIF. New shapes were used, for example with the T-shaped patches instituted by the units of the 9th Division in 1943 representing their key role in the Siege of Tobruk, over 800 separate patches were authorised during the war. At right is the patch of the 2/17th Battalion. As a unit within 9th Division of the 2nd AIF, 17th Battalion has a T-shaped colour patch representing the Siege of Tobruk, with the grey background of the 2nd AIF. The original series of patches was discontinued in 1949. The Series I range are known as the Heritage patches and are the pre-1949 patches maintained in a register with the Series I Extended, both are used in the Australian Army due to some units tracing their lineage to the First AIF units. The register also includes the patches for the Royal Australian Air Force, Colour Patches of the Australian Forces. The Australian Imperial Force in France,1916, official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918
14.
Battalion
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A battalion is a military unit. The use of the term varies by nationality and branch of service. Typically a battalion consists of 300 to 800 soldiers and is divided into a number of companies, a battalion is typically commanded by a lieutenant colonel. In some countries the word battalion is associated with the infantry, the term was first used in Italian as battaglione no later than the 16th century. It derived from the Italian word for battle, battaglia, the first use of battalion in English was in the 1580s, and the first use to mean part of a regiment is from 1708. The battalion must, of course, have a source of re-supply to enable it to sustain operations for more than a few days, the battalion is usually part of a regiment, brigade, or group, depending on the organizational model used by that service. The bulk of a battalions companies are often homogeneous with respect to type, a battalion includes a headquarters company and some sort of combat service support, typically organized within a combat support company. The term battalion is used in the British Army Infantry and some including the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. It was formerly used in the Royal Engineers, and was used in the now defunct Royal Army Ordnance Corps. Other corps usually use the term regiment instead, an infantry battalion is numbered ordinarily within its regiment. It normally has a company, support company, and three rifle companies. Each company is commanded by a major, the officer commanding, the HQ company contains signals, quartermaster, catering, intelligence, administration, pay, training, operations and medical elements. The support company usually contains anti-tank, machine gun, mortar, pioneer, mechanised units usually have an attached light aid detachment of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers to perform field repairs on vehicles and equipment. A British battalion in theatre during World War II had around 845 men in it, and, as of 2012, with successive rounds of cutbacks after the war, many infantry regiments were reduced to a single battalion. A battalion group or battlegroup consists of a battalion or armoured regiment with sub-units detached from other military units acting under the command of the battalion commander. In the Canadian Forces, most battalions are reserve units of between 100–200 soldiers that include an operationally ready, field-deployable component of approximately a half-company apiece, the nine regular force infantry battalions each contain three or four rifle companies and one or two support companies. Canadian battalions are generally commanded by lieutenant-colonels, though smaller reserve battalions may be commanded by majors, with the Dutch artillery units, the equivalent of a battalion is called an afdeling. Combat companies consist of infantry, combat engineers, or tanks, in the latter case, the unit is called an eskadron, which translates roughly to squadron
15.
First Australian Imperial Force
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The First Australian Imperial Force was the main expeditionary force of the Australian Army during World War I. It was formed on 15 August 1914, following Britains declaration of war on Germany, initially with a strength of one infantry division and one light horse brigade. The infantry division fought at Gallipoli between April and December 1915, being reinforced by a second division which was later raised. After being evacuated to Egypt the AIF was expanded to five infantry divisions, a sixth infantry division was partially raised in 1917 in the United Kingdom, but was broken up and used as reinforcements following heavy casualties on the Western Front. Meanwhile, two mounted divisions remained in the Middle East to fight against Turkish forces in the Sinai and Palestine. An all volunteer force, by the end of the war the AIF had gained a reputation as being a well-trained and highly effective military force, however, this reputation came at a heavy cost with a casualty rate among the highest of any belligerent for the war. After the war, the AFC evolved into the Royal Australian Air Force, after the war the achievements of the AIF and its soldiers, known colloquially as Diggers, became central to the national mythology of the Anzac legend. Generally known at the time as the AIF, it is referred to as the 1st AIF to it distinguish from the Second Australian Imperial Force raised during World War II. At the start of the war, Australias military forces were focused upon the part-time Militia, the small number of regular personnel were mostly artillerymen or engineers, and were generally assigned to the task of coastal defence. The Australian government pledged to supply 20,000 men organised as one division and one light horse brigade plus supporting units. Officially coming into being on 15 August 1914, the word imperial was chosen to reflect the duty of Australians to both nation and empire, the AIF was initially intended for service in Europe. Meanwhile, a separate 2, 000-man force—known as the Australian Naval, in addition, small military forces were maintained in Australia to defend the country from attack. Upon formation, the AIF consisted of one infantry division, the 1st Division. The 1st Light Horse Brigade was commanded by Colonel Harry Chauvel, the initial response for recruits was so good that in September 1914 the decision was made to raise the 4th Infantry Brigade and 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades. The 4th Infantry Brigade was commanded by Colonel John Monash, a prominent Melbourne civil engineer, the AIF continued to grow through the war, eventually numbering five infantry divisions, two mounted divisions and a mixture of other units. As the AIF operated within the British war effort, its units were organised along the same lines as comparable British Army formations. However, there were small differences between the structures of British and Australian units, especially in regards to the AIF infantry divisions support units. Hastily deployed, the first contingent of AIF was essentially untrained and suffered from widespread equipment shortages, in early 1915 the AIF was largely an inexperienced force, with only a small percentage of its members having previous combat experience
16.
Queensland
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Queensland is the second-largest and third-most-populous state in the Commonwealth of Australia. Situated in the north-east of the country, it is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west, to the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean. Queensland has a population of 4,750,500, concentrated along the coast, the state is the worlds sixth largest sub-national entity, with an area of 1,852,642 km2. The capital and largest city in the state is Brisbane, Australias third largest city, often referred to as the Sunshine State, Queensland is home to 10 of Australias 30 largest cities and is the nations third largest economy. Tourism in the state, fuelled largely by its tropical climate, is a major industry. Queensland was first inhabited by Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders, the first European to land in Queensland was Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon in 1606, who explored the west coast of the Cape York Peninsula near present-day Weipa. In 1770, Lieutenant James Cook claimed the east coast of Australia for the Kingdom of Great Britain. The colony of New South Wales was founded in 1788 by Governor Arthur Phillip at Sydney, New South Wales at that time included all of what is now Queensland, Queensland was explored in subsequent decades until the establishment of a penal colony at Brisbane in 1824 by John Oxley. Penal transportation ceased in 1839 and free settlement was allowed from 1842, the state was named in honour of Queen Victoria, who on 6 June 1859 signed Letters Patent separating the colony from New South Wales. The 6th of June is now celebrated statewide as Queensland Day. Queensland achieved statehood with the Federation of Australia on 1 January 1901, the history of Queensland spans thousands of years, encompassing both a lengthy indigenous presence, as well as the eventful times of post-European settlement. The north-eastern Australian region was explored by Dutch, Spanish and French navigators before being encountered by Lieutenant James Cook in 1770, the Australian Labor Party has its origin as a formal organisation in Queensland and the town of Barcaldine is the symbolic birthplace of the party. June 2009 marked the 150th anniversary of its creation as a colony from New South Wales. The Aboriginal occupation of Queensland is thought to predate 50,000 BC, likely via boat or land bridge across Torres Strait, during the last ice age Queenslands landscape became more arid and largely desolate, making food and other supplies scarce. This led to the worlds first seed-grinding technology, warming again made the land hospitable, which brought high rainfall along the eastern coast, stimulating the growth of the states tropical rainforests. In February 1606, Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon landed near the site of what is now Weipa and this was the first recorded landing of a European in Australia, and it also marked the first reported contact between European and Aboriginal Australian people. The region was explored by French and Spanish explorers prior to the arrival of Lieutenant James Cook in 1770. Cook claimed the east coast under instruction from King George III of the United Kingdom on 22 August 1770 at Possession Island, naming Eastern Australia, including Queensland, the Aboriginal population declined significantly after a smallpox epidemic during the late 18th century
17.
Tasmania
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Tasmania is an island state of the Commonwealth of Australia. It is located 240 km to the south of the Australian mainland, the state encompasses the main island of Tasmania, the 26th-largest island in the world, and the surrounding 334 islands. The state has a population of around 519,100, just over forty percent of which resides in the Greater Hobart precinct, Tasmanias area is 68,401 km2, of which the main island covers 64,519 km2. Though an island state, due to an error the state shares a land border with Victoria at its northernmost terrestrial point, Boundary Islet. The Bishop and Clerk Islets, about 37 km south of Macquarie Island, are the southernmost terrestrial point of the state of Tasmania, the island is believed to have been occupied by Aboriginals for 40,000 years before British colonisation. It is thought Tasmanian Aboriginals were separated from the mainland Aboriginal groups about 10,000 years ago when the sea rose to form Bass Strait. The conflict, which peaked between 1825 and 1831 and led to more than three years of law, cost the lives of almost 1100 Aboriginals and settlers. The near-destruction of Tasmanias Aboriginal population has been described by historians as an act of genocide by the British. The island was part of the Colony of New South Wales. In 1854 the present Constitution of Tasmania was passed and the year the state received permission to change its name to Tasmania. In 1901 it became a state through the process of the Federation of Australia, the state is named after Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, who made the first reported European sighting of the island on 24 November 1642. Tasman named the island Anthony van Diemens Land after his sponsor Anthony van Diemen, the name was later shortened to Van Diemens Land by the British. It was officially renamed Tasmania in honour of its first European discoverer on 1 January 1856, Tasmania was sometimes referred to as Dervon, as mentioned in the Jerilderie Letter written by the notorious Australian bushranger Ned Kelly in 1879. The colloquial expression for the state is Tassie, Tasmania is also colloquially shortened to Tas, especially when used in business names and website addresses. TAS is also the Australia Post abbreviation for the state, the reconstructed Palawa kani language name for Tasmania is Lutriwita. The island was adjoined to the mainland of Australia until the end of the last glacial period about 10,000 years ago, much of the island is composed of Jurassic dolerite intrusions through other rock types, sometimes forming large columnar joints. Tasmania has the worlds largest areas of dolerite, with many distinctive mountains, the central plateau and the southeast portions of the island are mostly dolerite. Mount Wellington above Hobart is an example, showing distinct columns known as the Organ Pipes
18.
Australian Army Reserve
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The Australian Army Reserve is a collective name given to the reserve units of the Australian Army. For the first half of the 20th century, due to a widespread distrust of permanent military forces in Australia, the reserve military forces were the primary focus of Australian military planning. Since then, Australian defence policy has focused more upon the Regular Army. Nevertheless, the transfer of forces from the states to the Commonwealth occurred on 1 March 1901. At the outset, the bulk of the Commonwealth military force was to be made up of part-time volunteers and this was arguably due to two factors. After the initial transfer of forces in March 1901, further progress was slow as administrative and legislative instruments took time to develop. Indeed, it was not until 1 March 1904 that the Defence Act 1903 was proclaimed, amidst a background of political manoeuvring and personal agendas, the military forces were eventually reorganised into a more or less unified command structure. The result of this review was the realisation of the need to build a defence force that could not only defend the nation. However, it was the main factor contributing to the decision to recruit the AIF on the basis of voluntary enlistment, regardless, it has been estimated that up to 50,000 militiamen subsequently enlisted in the First AIF during the war. During the precautionary stage on 2 August 1914, Citizens Forces units were called up to guard essential points and man coastal forts, the first Australian shots of both World War I and World War II were fired by the garrison at Fort Nepean. By June 1918,9,215 home service troops were on duty in Australia. From 1915, only skeleton garrisons were maintained at coastal forts, just before the end of World War I, Australias home forces were reorganised to perpetuate the numerical identities of the AIF units. This was done renumbering the infantry regiments that had formed in 1912. It was also decided that the Citizens Force would be re-organised along the lines of the AIF, adopting the divisional structure of the AIF units and maintaining their battle honours. Although the compulsory training scheme was retained, it was decided that it would only be focused on the populated areas. The result of this was that the course of only a year the strength of the Citizens Forces fell from 127,000 to only 37,000 in 1922. Throughout the 1920s, numbers decreased even further and although the structure was maintained. At this time it was decided to change the name of the force
19.
Conscription in Australia
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Conscription in Australia, or mandatory military service also known as national service, has a controversial history dating back to the first years of nationhood. Australia currently only has provision for conscription during times of war, the legislation did not allow soldiers to be conscripted for overseas service. This legislation was passed through the support of the Protectionist Party. John Barrett, in his study of boyhood conscription, Falling In, noted, since universal was a misnomer, about half that number were exempted from training, or perhaps never registered, reducing the group to 175,000. Under Labor prime minister Billy Hughes, full conscription for overseas service was attempted during WWI through two plebiscites, the first plebiscite was held on 28 October 1916 and narrowly rejected conscription with a margin of 49% for and 51% against. A second plebiscite was held on 20 December 1917 and defeated by a greater margin, the question put to Australians was, Are you in favour of the proposal of the Commonwealth Government for reinforcing the Commonwealth Forces overseas. After the failure of the first plebiscite, Billy Hughes left the Australian Labor Party parliamentary caucus, the remainder of the Labor Party, under their new leader Frank Tudor, then expelled Hughes and all who had followed him. Following the split, Labor stayed out of office for ten years, H. Coombe of the Daily Herald. The young John Curtin, at the time a member of the Victorian Socialist Party, was also arrested, anti-conscriptionist publications, were seized by government censors in police raids. Other notable opponents to Conscription included the Catholic Archbishop of Melbourne Daniel Mannix, the Queensland Labor Premier Thomas Ryan, Vida Goldstein, most trade unions actively opposed conscription. The County Cork born Archbishop Mannix stated that Ireland had been wronged by Great Britain than Belgium had been by Germany. Many people thought positively of conscription as a sign of loyalty to Britain, however, trade unions feared that their members might be replaced by cheaper foreign or female labour and opposed conscription. Some groups argued that the war was immoral, and it was unjust to force people to fight. The conscription issue deeply divided Australia with large meetings held both for and against, the womens vote was seen as important with large womens meetings and campaign information from both sides aimed at women voters. The campaigning for the first plebiscite was launched by Hughes at a huge meeting at the Sydney Town Hall where he outlined the Governments proposals. This was followed by a huge meeting at the Melbourne Town Hall on 21 September. An anti-conscription stop work meeting called by five trade unions held on the Yarra Bank mid-week on 4 October attracted 15,000 people and it was passed on 21 September 1916 and mandatory registration and enrolment commenced while the first plebiscite campaign was underway. By 5 October The Age reported that of 11607 men examined,4581 were found fit, the Age noted, in the article Influence of the IWW, that the great bulk of the opposition to conscription is centred in Victoria
20.
13th Battalion (Australia)
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The 13th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army. Originally raised for the 1st Australian Imperial Force during the First World War, along with the 14th, 15th and 16th Battalions which were recruited from New South Wales, it formed the 4th Brigade. The battalion saw service initially at Gallipoli before being transferred to France in 1916, for the next two years it fought in the trenches of the Western Front, earning numerous battle honours in the process. Following the end of the war, the 13th Battalion was demobilised in early 1919 and it was re-raised in 1921 as a unit of the part-time Citizens Force, based around Maitland, New South Wales. During the Second World War the battalion undertook garrison duties before being amalgamated with the 33rd Battalion in October 1942. It was re-raised for a third and final time sometime after 1948, following the outbreak of war, the Australian government announced the decision to raise an all volunteer force for overseas service known as the Australian Imperial Force. Recruitment for this force began quickly and the 13th Battalion was among some of the first battalions to be raised, doing so in late September 1914, only six weeks after the declaration of war. Drawing its manpower from the state of New South Wales, it undertook training at the ANZAC Rifle Range in Long Bay, Sydney and Broadmeadows and it left Australia from Albany in late December and arrived in Egypt in February 1915. Along with the rest of the 4th Brigade, under the command of then Colonel John Monash, for the first four months, between May and August, they undertook defensive operations as the Anzacs attempted to establish themselves on the narrow beachhead that had been captured on the peninsula. On 8 August 1915 an attempt was made to break out from this position and the took part in a costly. Later in the month, on 27 August, they were involved in another attack, after this the 13th Battalion was mainly used in a defensive role until the final evacuation in December 1915. From there, the returned to Egypt where the AIF underwent a period of training. As a part of expansion, the 13th Battalion was split. At the same time the reconstituted 4th Brigade was allocated to the Australian 4th Division along with the 12th and 13th Brigades. In June 1916, the battalion embarked for France to join units of II Anzac Corps. During this time, the 13th Battalion saw action in a number of major battles, the first such action that they were involved in came at Pozières in August 1916. Later, in February 1917, Captain Harry Murray, became the first member of the battalion to earn the Victoria Cross when he was involved in an attack near Gueudecourt. After that, the 13th Battalion spent most of the remainder of 1917 in Belgium, in March 1918, the Germans launched the Spring Offensive, which saw them gain considerable ground before being halted
21.
14th Battalion (Australia)
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The 14th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army. It was raised again in 1921 as a unit of the Citizen Forces based in Victoria. The 14th Battalion was first raised in Melbourne in September 1914 as part of the Australian Imperial Force, forming part of the 4th Brigade which was commanded by Colonel John Monash, the battalion was assigned to the New Zealand and Australian Division. After undertaking initial training at Broadmeadows, the battalion embarked for Egypt in December 1914, the offensive failed to achieve the breakout that was designed and a period of stalemate followed before the decision was made to evacuate the peninsula in December 1915. Following this, the battalion was transferred back to Egypt where the AIF underwent a period of reorganisation as decisions were made about their future employment, during this time, the 14th Battalion provided a cadre of experienced officers and non-commissioned officers to the newly formed 46th Battalion. It was also reassigned to the newly raised 4th Division, in mid-1916 the decision was made to transfer elements of the AIF to Europe to take part in the fighting in the trenches along the Western Front. Following their arrival in France in July, the 14th Battalions first major engagement came in August 1916 when they were committed to the fighting around at Pozières, over the course of next two and a half years, it was involved in a number of other battles. During April 1917, it took part in the fighting around Bullecourt, following the initial attack, the battalion continued further operations as part of the Allied advance. Following the Armistice in November 1918, the battalion began to return to Australia for demobilisation, total casualties suffered by the battalion during the war included 915 killed and 2,229 wounded. The battalion received a total of 22 battle honours for its actions during the war, in 1921, as part of a re-organisation of Australias military forces, the battalion was raised again as part of the Citizen Forces. It also inherited the theatre honour South Africa 1899–1902, through its predecessor units, as a result of this, the battalions authorised strength was reduced to just 409 men of all ranks and training and recruitment efforts were reduced. It also adopted the motto Stand Fast at this time, the manpower issue became more critical in 1930, as a result of the combined effects of the suspension of the compulsory training scheme and the economic hardships the Great Depression. As the number of recruits available fell even further, the decision was made to amalgamate a number of infantry battalions, although the 14th Battalion was not affected at this time, nevertheless for most of the 1930s it struggled to maintain its numbers and training opportunities were limited. The role of the Militia at this time was to provide a core of experienced men upon which the 2nd AIF could be raised, in late 1941, after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and invasion of Malaya, the battalion was called up for full-time war service. Initially, they were used to build and man defences at various locations around Victoria, as a result, in September 1942, while at Geraldton, the 14th Battalion was merged with the 32nd Battalion, to become the 14th/32nd Battalion. United Kingdom – The West Yorkshire Regiment
22.
16th Battalion, Royal Western Australia Regiment
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It was re-formed as a part-time unit in Western Australia during the inter-war years, and served in the New Britain Campaign against the Japanese during the Second World War. In the post war years, the became part of the Royal Western Australia Regiment. The 16th Battalion was originally raised in September 1914 as part of the all volunteer Australian Imperial Force, assigned to the 4th Brigade, the battalion drew the majority of its personnel from the state of Western Australia, while the remainder came from South Australia. After completing rudimentary training in Victoria, the battalion embarked for Egypt, upon arrival, the 4th Brigade was assigned to the New Zealand and Australian Division, with whom it subsequently participated in the Gallipoli Campaign between April and December 1915. At the same time, the 4th Brigade was reassigned to the 4th Division, during the war, the battalions casualties amounted to 1,127 killed and 1,955 wounded. Three of its members received the Victoria Cross for their actions, Martin OMeara, Thomas Axford and it was amalgamated with the 11th Battalion in 1930, after the suspension of the compulsory training scheme reduced the size of the part-time military force. A new 16th Battalion was raised in 1936 as the Cameron Highlanders of Western Australia, during the Second World War, this battalion was mobilised for war service and gazetted as an AIF battalion. Throughout the early war years, it formed part of the garrison of Western Australia, in late 1944, the 13th Brigade was reassigned to the 5th Division and subsequently took part in the New Britain Campaign from November 1944 until the end of the war. The campaign was limited to containing the larger Japanese force, only limited combat occurred before the end of the war, and the battalions casualties were light, amounting to 10 killed and 14 wounded. After undertaking further garrison duties at Rabaul, the 16th Battalion returned to Australia in early 1946 and was disbanded at Puckapunyal, Victoria, in February. The part-time military forces were re-formed in 1948 following the conclusion of the demobilisation process, the two units remained linked until 1952 when they were split and re-raised in their own right as full battalions. In 1965, the Pentropic divisional structure was abolished and 1 RWAR was split to two new battalions,1 RWAR and 2 RWAR, the following year 1 RWAR was redesignated 16 RWAR. The Australian Imperial Force in France,1916, official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918. Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australian War Memorial, the Lineage of the Australian Army. The Evolution of the Infantry State Regiment System in the Army Reserve, garran, Australian Capital Territory, Military Historical Society of Australia
23.
Company (military unit)
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A company is a military unit, typically consisting of 80–250 soldiers and usually commanded by a major or a captain. Most companies are formed of three to six platoons, although the number may vary by country, unit type. Usually several companies are grouped as a battalion or regiment, the latter of which is formed by several battalions. Occasionally, independent or separate companies are organized for special purposes and these companies are not organic to a battalion or regiment, but rather report directly to a higher level organization such as a Marine Expeditionary Force headquarters. The modern military company became popularized during the reorganization of the Swedish Army in 1631 under King Gustav II Adolph, for administrative purposes, the infantry was divided into companies consisting of 150 men, grouped into regiments of eight companies. Tactically, the companies were organized into battalions and grouped with cavalry troops. From ancient times, some armies have used a base administrative. Furthermore, recent studies have indicated that humans are best able to maintain stable relationships in a group numbering between 100-250 members, with 150 members being the common number. The advent of accurate, long-range rifle fire, repeating rifles and this, coupled with the advent of radio communication, permitted relatively small numbers of men to have much greater firepower and combat effectiveness than previously possible. Companies, however, continue to remain within the range of 100-250 members, perhaps validating the premise that men fight best in organizations of around 150 members. These companies were not organic to any intermediate headquarters, but rather reported directly to the division headquarters, rifle companies consist of three platoons and a company headquarters. Until after the Second World War, the Royal Engineers and Royal Signals had both squadrons and companies depending on whether the units were supporting mounted or foot formations. The British Army infantry normally identifies its rifle companies by letter within a battalion, usually with the addition of a headquarters company and a support/heavy weapons company. Some units name their companies after regimental battle honours, this is commonly the case for composite units, for example the London Regiment with its Somme, Messines and Cambrai companies. The foot guards regiments use traditional names for some of their companies, for example Queens Company, Left Flank, Royal Marines companies are designated by a letter that is unique across the corps, not just within their command. The Intelligence Corps, Royal Army Medical Corps, Royal Military Police, the defunct Royal Army Service Corps, Royal Pioneer Corps and Royal Army Ordnance Corps had companies, the Royal Corps of Transport had squadrons. British companies are commanded by a major, the officer commanding. The Honourable Artillery Company is in fact a regiment, not a company, in terms of organisation, canadian Army organisation is modelled after the British
24.
Broadmeadows, Victoria
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Broadmeadows is a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia,16 km north from Melbournes central business district. Its local government area is the City of Hume, at the 2011 Census, Broadmeadows had a population of 10,578. The Broadmeadows area, home to the Wurundjeri Aboriginal tribe prior to European settlement, was settled by pastoralists in the 1840s, the original Broadmeadows aka Old Broady is now known as Westmeadows, which lies to the west of the present Broadmeadows. The first Broadmeadows township was laid out by a Government survey in 1850, ardlie Street was its commercial centre with a hotel, the police station and the shire office. Broadmeadows centre was altered when the line and station were opened two kilometres to the original centres east in 1872. Shire loyalties clung to the old township until new civic offices were built near the station in 1928. Broadmeadows was the site of the camp for the reception. Broadmeadows had been identified as a site for military training in 1913. The camp was established in August 1914 at Mornington Park, a property loaned to the government by Mr R. G. Wilson, early on, Broadmeadows was predominantly a tented camp and conditions were quite spartan. These facilities, combined with wet weather and poor drainage resulted in an increase in sickness among recruits in autumn 1915. Broadmeadows Camp remained in use throughout the war, however, with facilities being progressively improved, the Housing Commission of Victoria began the building of a 2,226 ha. estate in the Broadmeadows area in 1949. Not until 1975 did it begin building in the vicinity of the old township, between 1975 and 1979 it built over 900 houses in the area. The first Broadmeadows Post Office opened on 1 January 1855, was renamed Broadmeadows West in 1955, the second Broadmeadows Post Office was renamed in 1956 from Broadmeadows East. It closed in 1968 the day Dallas became the third Broadmeadows Post Office, a later Broadmeadows East office, near Widford Street to the southeast of the station, opened in 1961, was renamed Broadmeadows South in 1969, and also remains open. The City hosted the cycling event at the 1956 Summer Olympics. Broadmeadows has a manufacturing industry, including a large Ford factory in Campbellfield. Meadows Primary School Broadmeadows Primary School Broadmeadows Valley Primary School St, just over half of Broadmeadows population was born in Australia and 37. 1% were born overseas. Around one third were born overseas in a non-English speaking country, the most common overseas countries of birth of Broadmeadows residents are Turkey, Iraq and Lebanon
25.
Officer (armed forces)
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An officer is a member of an armed force or uniformed service who holds a position of authority. In this sense, officers are not enlisted, but hold appointments from their government that typically remain in force indefinitely unless resigned, the proportion of officers varies greatly. Officers typically make up between an eighth and a fifth of modern armed forces personnel, in 2013, officers were the senior 17% of the British armed forces, and the senior 13. 7% of the French armed forces. In 2012, officers made up about 18% of the German armed forces, historically, however, armed forces have generally had much lower proportions of officers. During the First World War, fewer than 5% of British soldiers were officers, in the early twentieth century, the Spanish army had the highest proportion of officers of any European army, at 12. 5%. Within a nations armed forces, armies tend to have a proportion of officers. For example,13. 9% of British army personnel and 22. 2% of the RAF personnel were officers in 2013, having officers is one requirement for combatant status under the laws of war, though these officers need not have obtained an official commission or warrant. Commissioned officers are typically the only persons, in an armed forces environment, a superior officer is an officer with a higher rank than another officer, who is a subordinate officer relative to the superior. Non-commissioned officers in positions of authority can be said to have control or charge rather than command per se, many advanced militaries require university degrees as a prerequisite for commissioning, even from the enlisted ranks. In the Israel Defense Forces, a university degree is a requirement for an officer to advance to the rank of lieutenant colonel, the IDF often sponsors the studies for its majors, while aircrew and naval officers obtain academic degrees as a part of their training programmes. In the United Kingdom, there are three routes of entry for British Armed Forces officers, the first, and primary route are those who receive their commission directly into the officer grades following completion at their relevant military academy. The third route is similar to the second, in that they convert from an enlisted to a commission, but these are taken from the highest ranks of SNCOs. LE officers, whilst holding the same Queens Commission, generally work in different roles from the DE officers, in the infantry, a number of Warrant Officer Class 1s are commissioned as LE officers. For Royal Navy and Royal Air Force officer candidates, a 30-week period at Britannia Royal Naval College or a 30-week period at RAF College Cranwell, Royal Marines officers receive their training in the Command Wing of the Commando Training Centre Royal Marines during a grueling 15-month course. The courses consist of not only tactical and combat training, but also leadership, management, etiquette, until the Cardwell Reforms of 1871, commissions in the British Army were purchased by officers. The Royal Navy, however, operated on a more meritocratic, or at least socially mobile, AOCS also also included the embedded Aviation Reserve Officer Candidate and Naval Aviation Cadet programs. NAVCADs were personnel who held associates degrees, but lacked bachelors degrees, nAVCADs would complete the entire AOCS program, but would not be commissioned until completion of flight training and receiving their wings. After their initial tour, they would be assigned to a college or university full-time for no more than two years in order to complete their bachelors degree
26.
Non-commissioned officer
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A non-commissioned officer or noncommissioned officer is a military officer who has not earned a commission. Such is also called sub-officer in some countries, Non-commissioned officers, in the English-speaking world, usually obtain their position of authority by promotion through the enlisted ranks. In contrast, commissioned officers hold higher ranks than NCOs, have more legal responsibilities, are paid more, commissioned officers usually earn their commissions without having risen through the enlisted ranks. Mustang is a term in the United States Armed Forces used to refer to a commissioned officer who began his or her career as an enlisted service member. The NCO corps usually includes all grades of corporal and sergeant, in some countries, the naval equivalent includes some or all grades of petty officer, although not all navies class their petty officers as NCOs. There are different classes of non-commissioned officer, including junior non-commissioned officers, the non-commissioned officer corps is often referred to as the backbone of the armed services, as they are the primary and most visible leaders for most military personnel. Additionally, they are the leaders responsible for executing a military organizations mission. NCO training and education typically includes leadership and management as well as service-specific, senior NCOs are considered the primary link between enlisted personnel and the commissioned officers in a military organization. Their advice and guidance is important for junior officers, who begin their careers in a position of authority. In the Australian Army, Lance corporals and corporals are classified as junior NCOs, while sergeants, in the New South Wales Police Force, NCOs perform supervisory and coordination roles. The ranks of probationary constable through to leading senior constable are referred to as constables, all NCOs within the NSW Police are given a warrant of appointment under the Commissioners hand and seal. All officers within the Australian Defence Force Cadets are non-commissioned, ADFC officers are appointed by the Director-General of their respective branch. In the Canadian Forces, the Queens Regulations and Orders formally defined a non-commissioned officer as A Canadian Forces member holding the rank of Sergeant or Corporal. In the 1990s, the term non-commissioned member was introduced to all ranks in the Canadian Forces from recruit to chief warrant officer. In the Royal Canadian Navy, however, the definition of NCO reflects the international use of the term. Junior Non-commissioned officers mess and billet with privates and seamen, their mess is usually referred to as the junior ranks mess, as a group, NCOs rank above privates and below warrant officers. The term non-commissioned members includes these ranks, in the Finnish Defence Force, NCOs includes all ranks from corporal to sergeant major. Ranks of lance corporal and leading seaman are considered not to be NCO ranks and this ruling applies to all branches of service and also to the troops of the Border Guard
27.
Second Boer War
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The Second Boer War, usually known as the Boer War and also at the time as the South African War, started on 11 October 1899 and ended on 31 May 1902. Great Britain defeated two Boer states in South Africa, the South African Republic and the Orange Free State, Britain was aided by its Cape Colony, Colony of Natal and some native African allies. The British war effort was supported by volunteers from the British Empire, including Southern Africa, the Australian colonies, Canada, India. All other nations were neutral, but public opinion in them was largely hostile to Britain, inside Britain and its Empire there also was significant opposition to the Second Boer War. The British were overconfident and under-prepared, the Boers were very well armed and struck first, besieging Ladysmith, Kimberley, and Mafeking in early 1900, and winning important battles at Colenso, Magersfontein and Stormberg. Staggered, the British brought in numbers of soldiers and fought back. General Redvers Buller was replaced by Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener and they relieved the three besieged cities, and invaded the two Boer republics in late 1900. The onward marches of the British Army were so overwhelming that the Boers did not fight staged battles in defense of their homeland, the British quickly seized control of all of the Orange Free State and Transvaal, as the civilian leadership went into hiding or exile. In conventional terms, the war was over, Britain officially annexed the two countries in 1900, and called a khaki election to give the government another six years of power in London. However, the Boers refused to surrender and they reverted to guerrilla warfare under new generals Louis Botha, Jan Smuts, Christiaan de Wet and Koos de la Rey. Two more years of attacks and quick escapes followed. As guerrillas without uniforms, the Boer fighters easily blended into the farmlands, which provided hiding places, supplies, the British solution was to set up complex nets of block houses, strong points, and barbed wire fences, partitioning off the entire conquered territory. The civilian farmers were relocated into concentration camps, where very large proportions died of disease, especially the children, then the British mounted infantry units systematically tracked down the highly mobile Boer guerrilla units. The battles at this stage were small operations with few combat casualties The war ended in surrender, the British successfully won over the Boer leaders, who now gave full support to the new political system. Both former republics were incorporated into the Union of South Africa in 1910, the conflict is commonly referred to as simply the Boer War, since the First Boer War is much less well known. Boer was the term for Afrikaans-speaking white South Africans descended from the Dutch East India Companys original settlers at the Cape of Good Hope. It is officially called the South African War and it is known as the Anglo-Boer War among some South Africans. In Afrikaans it may be called the Anglo-Boereoorlog, Tweede Boereoorlog, in South Africa it is officially called the South African War
28.
Melbourne
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Melbourne is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in Australia and Oceania. The name Melbourne refers to an urban agglomeration spanning 9,900 km2, the metropolis is located on the large natural bay of Port Phillip and expands into the hinterlands towards the Dandenong and Macedon mountain ranges, Mornington Peninsula and Yarra Valley. It has a population of 4,641,636 as of 2016, and its inhabitants are called Melburnians. Founded by free settlers from the British Crown colony of Van Diemens Land on 30 August 1835, in what was then the colony of New South Wales, it was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837. It was named Melbourne by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Richard Bourke, in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne. It was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria, to whom Lord Melbourne was close, in 1847, during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s, it was transformed into one of the worlds largest and wealthiest cities. After the federation of Australia in 1901, it served as the interim seat of government until 1927. It is a financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. It is recognised as a UNESCO City of Literature and a centre for street art, music. It was the host city of the 1956 Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the main passenger airport serving the metropolis and the state is Melbourne Airport, the second busiest in Australia. The Port of Melbourne is Australias busiest seaport for containerised and general cargo, Melbourne has an extensive transport network. The main metropolitan train terminus is Flinders Street Station, and the regional train. Melbourne is also home to Australias most extensive network and has the worlds largest urban tram network. Before the arrival of settlers, humans had occupied the area for an estimated 31,000 to 40,000 years. At the time of European settlement, it was inhabited by under 2000 hunter-gatherers from three indigenous tribes, the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung and Wathaurong. The area was an important meeting place for the clans of the Kulin nation alliance and it would be 30 years before another settlement was attempted. Batman selected a site on the bank of the Yarra River. Batman then returned to Launceston in Tasmania, in early August 1835 a different group of settlers, including John Pascoe Fawkner, left Launceston on the ship Enterprize
29.
1st Division (Australia)
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The 1st Division is the main formation of the Australian Army and contains the majority of the Armys regular forces. Its headquarters is in Enoggera, a suburb of Brisbane, the division was first formed in 1914 for service during World War I as a part of the Australian Imperial Force. It was initially part of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps and served with that formation during the Gallipoli campaign, before later serving on the Western Front. After the war, the became a part-time unit based in New South Wales. After World War II, the division remained off the Australian Armys order of battle until the 1960s, in 1965 it adopted a certification role, determining the operational readiness of units deploying to Vietnam. It was re-formed in 1973 as a division based in Queensland and in the decades that followed it formed the Australian Armys main formation. Throughout this period, the component units undertook multiple operations, mainly focused on peacekeeping in Africa, Asia. Following the restructuring of the Australian Army under the Adaptive Army initiative, nevertheless, it is tasked with co-ordinating the Armys high-level training activities and maintaining the Deployable Joint Force Headquarters. The Australian 1st Division was raised during the formation of the Australian Imperial Force on 15 August 1914. Each infantry battalion consisted of eight companies, although in January 1915. Its first commander was the senior Australian general and head of the AIF, over the course of six weeks, the divisions subordinate units were raised separately in the various states before embarking overseas. The transports then concentrated off the Western Australian coast and the fleet sailed for Britain. While in Egypt, the division was assigned to the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps along with the New Zealand and Australian Division. Following the Allied decision to force a passage through the Dardanelles, the 1st Division made the initial landing at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915. The 3rd Brigade formed the force which landed first, around dawn. The 1st and 2nd Brigades followed, landing from transports, on 15 May 1915, after Bridges was mortally wounded by a sniper, an English officer, Brigadier-General Harold Walker was given temporary command while a replacement was dispatched from Australia. They were later joined by several heavier guns including a 4. 7-inch gun, the 1st Divisions role in the August Offensive was to hold the front line and conduct a diversion on 400 Plateau at Lone Pine on 6 August. The resulting battle was the occasion when a significant length of the Turkish trench line was captured
30.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
31.
Raid on the Suez Canal
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Substantial Ottoman forces crossed the Sinai peninsula, but their attack failed mainly because of strongly held defences and alert defenders. Since its opening in 1869 the Suez Canal had featured prominently in British policy, among its great advantages were as a line of communication and also the site for a military base as the well equipped ports at Alexandria and Port Said made the region particularly useful. However, the popularity of the British was in decline in Egypt as the people disliked the occupation, the Convention of Constantinople of 1888 by the European Powers guaranteed freedom of navigation of the Suez Canal. In August 1914 Egypt was defended by 5,000 men in the Force in Egypt, Abbas Hilmi, the reigning Khedive, who had opposed the British occupation, was out of the country when the war started. When the British declared the Protectorate on 18 December 1914 they deposed Abbas Hilmi, the population agreed to these changes while the outcome of the war was unknown and the fighting continued. The first hostilities occurred on 20 November when a 20-man patrol of the Bikanir Camel Corps was attacked at Bir en Nuss 20 miles east of Qantara by 200 Bedouin, the Bikanir Camel Corps lost more than half their patrol. By December El Arish was occupied by an Ottoman force and the defence of the Suez Canal was organised, there had been a pre-war suggestion that a force of camels could hold Nekhl just to the south and in the centre of the Ottoman Empire and Egyptian frontier. The 100 miles long canal had a railway running along its length and was supplied with water from the west. The length of the canal included about 29 miles of the Great and Little Bitter Lakes and Lake Timsah, which divided the three sectors organised for the defence. The northern stretch of the canal was shortened by 20 miles by cutting the Canal bank at Port Said on 25 November to flood a portion of the desert which stretched to El Kab. Another major cutting in the Asiatic bank was made on 2 January north of Qantara and these troops were deployed at the Ballah, Qantara East, Qantara West, El Kab, Tina, Ras El Esh, Salt Works, New Canal Works and Port Said posts. Section 1 Egyptian Mountain Battery 2 Sections Field Artillery with Cavalry Brigade 3 Indian Field Ambulances and this force would be supported by warships located in the Suez Canal and the lakes. Three floating bridges were constructed, at Ismailia, Kubri and Qantara, on the western bank trenches were dug at intervals between the posts. The canal was closed each night during the threat, two battalions of the 32nd Brigade were deployed north of Lake Timsah to Ballah in Sector II commanded by Brigadier General H. D. Watson with the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and the Otago and Wellington Battalions reinforcing Sector I, to protect their strategic interests, by January 1915 the British had assembled some 70,000 troops in Egypt. 30,000 of the troops stationed in Egypt manned defences along the Suez Canal, the Ottomans had only three available routes to reach the Suez Canal through the road-less and waterless Sinai Peninsula. A coastal advance that would have water supplies and usable tracks, a central route from Beersheba to Ismailia or a southern track between El Kossaima and the Suez Canal. The central route was chosen as it would provide the Ottoman soldiers with proper tracks to follow once they crossed the canal, the Bavarian Colonel Kress von Kressenstein had been appointed Chief of Staff of the VIII Corps, Fourth Army on arrival from Constantinople on 18 November 1914
32.
Suez Canal
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The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez. It was constructed by the Suez Canal Company between 1859 and 1869, after 10 years of construction, it was officially opened on November 17,1869. It extends from the terminus of Port Said to the southern terminus of Port Tewfik at the city of Suez. Its length is 193.30 km, including its northern and southern access channels, in 2012,17,225 vessels traversed the canal. The original canal was a waterway with passing locations in the Ballah Bypass. It contains no locks system, with seawater flowing freely through it, in general, the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. South of the lakes, the current changes with the tide at Suez, the canal is owned and maintained by the Suez Canal Authority of Egypt. Under the Convention of Constantinople, it may be used in time of war as in time of peace, by every vessel of commerce or of war, without distinction of flag. In August 2014, construction was launched to expand and widen the Ballah Bypass for 35 km to speed the canals transit time, the expansion was planned to double the capacity of the Suez Canal from 49 to 97 ships a day. At a cost of $8.4 billion, this project was funded with interest-bearing investment certificates issued exclusively to Egyptian entities, the New Suez Canal, as the expansion was dubbed, was opened with great fanfare in a ceremony on 6 August 2015. On 24 February 2016, the Suez Canal Authority officially opened the new side channel and this side channel, located at the northern side of the east extension of the Suez Canal, serves the East Terminal for berthing and unberthing vessels from the terminal anytime of day and night. Ancient west–east canals were built to travel from the Nile River to the Red Sea. One smaller canal is believed to have been constructed under the auspices of Senusret II or Ramesses II. Another canal, probably incorporating a portion of the first, was constructed under the reign of Necho II, the legendary Sesostris may have started work on an ancient canal joining the Nile with the Red Sea. In his Meteorology, Aristotle wrote, One of their kings tried to make a canal to it, so he first, and Darius afterwards, stopped making the canal, lest the sea should mix with the river water and spoil it. Strabo wrote that Sesostris started to build a canal, and Pliny the Elder wrote,165. Later the Persian king Darius had the idea, and yet again Ptolemy II. This proved to be the canal made by the Persian king Darius I
33.
Albany, Western Australia
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Albany /ˈælbəni/ is a port city in the Great Southern region of Western Australia,418 km SE of Perth, the state capital. Albany is the oldest permanently settled town in Western Australia, predating Perth, at June 2015, Albanys estimated urban population was 33,970, making it the states sixth-largest population centre. The city centre is at the edge of Princess Royal Harbour. The central business district is bounded by Mount Clarence to the east, the city is in the local government area of the City of Albany. Albany was founded on 26 December 1826 as a military outpost of New South Wales as part of a plan to forestall French ambitions in the region. To that end, on 21 January 1827 the commander of the outpost, Major Edmund Lockyer, the area was initially named Frederick Town in honour of Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. In 1831, the settlement was transferred to the control of the Swan River Colony, during the last decade of the 19th century the town served as a gateway to the Eastern Goldfields. For many years, it was the colonys only deep-water port, the opening of the Fremantle Inner Harbour in 1897, however, saw its importance as a port decline, after which the towns industries turned primarily to agriculture, timber and later, whaling. Today the town is a significant tourist destination and base from which to explore the south-west of the state, the town has an important role in the ANZAC legend, being the last port of call for troopships departing Australia in the First World War. Also an auxiliary submarine base for the US Navys 7th Fleet was developed during the Second World War in the event the submarine base at Fremantle was lost, also in the harbour was an RAN Naval Installation which provided for alongside refuelling from four 5000 ton fuel tanks. See also History of Albany, Western Australia The Albany region was home to the Menang Noongar indigenous people and they called the area Kinjarling which means the place of rain. Many town names in South-Western Australia end in up or ing and they would sometimes camp near Boondie Yokine – roughly translated as Dog Rock. Early European explorers discovered evidence of fish traps located on Emu Point and on the French, now the Kalgan, River, the following Information is derived from the State Heritage Register where these places are registered. The assessment criteria contain more details and it became the home of the Government Resident in 1883. After a chequered history the property was vested in the National Trust WA in 1964 and is now a house museum, st Johns Church is a stone building with shingled roofs in the Old Colonial Gothick Picturesque style. Set among trees, it was designed to be part of an overall contrived picturesque scene in the manner of an English garden landscape, scots Uniting Church was designed in the Victorian Academic Gothic style by Melbourne architect Evander McIver and built with local granite stonework. The complex now known as The Residency Museum was established in 1850 as a depot for the Convict Establishment in Albany and it is an L shaped, single storied, masonry building with a timber framed, timber shingled roof. In 1873 it was converted into the Resident Magistrates home and it now serves as a museum
34.
Alexandria
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Alexandria is the second largest city and a major economic centre in Egypt, extending about 32 km along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country. Its low elevation on the Nile delta makes it vulnerable to rising sea levels. Alexandria is Egypts largest seaport, serving approximately 80% of Egypts imports and exports and it is an important industrial center because of its natural gas and oil pipelines from Suez. Alexandria is also an important tourist destination, Alexandria was founded around a small Ancient Egyptian town c.331 BC by Alexander the Great. Alexandria was the second most powerful city of the ancient world after Rome, Alexandria is believed to have been founded by Alexander the Great in April 331 BC as Ἀλεξάνδρεια. Alexanders chief architect for the project was Dinocrates, Alexandria was intended to supersede Naucratis as a Hellenistic center in Egypt, and to be the link between Greece and the rich Nile valley. The city and its museum attracted many of the greatest scholars, including Greeks, Jews, the city was later plundered and lost its significance. Just east of Alexandria, there was in ancient times marshland, as early as the 7th century BC, there existed important port cities of Canopus and Heracleion. The latter was rediscovered under water. An Egyptian city, Rhakotis, already existed on the shore also and it continued to exist as the Egyptian quarter of the city. A few months after the foundation, Alexander left Egypt and never returned to his city, after Alexanders departure, his viceroy, Cleomenes, continued the expansion. Although Cleomenes was mainly in charge of overseeing Alexandrias continuous development, the Heptastadion, inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the center of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East, the city grew in less than a generation to be larger than Carthage. In a century, Alexandria had become the largest city in the world and and it became Egypts main Greek city, with Greek people from diverse backgrounds. Alexandria was not only a center of Hellenism, but was home to the largest urban Jewish community in the world. The Septuagint, a Greek version of the Tanakh, was produced there, in AD115, large parts of Alexandria were destroyed during the Kitos War, which gave Hadrian and his architect, Decriannus, an opportunity to rebuild it. On 21 July 365, Alexandria was devastated by a tsunami, the Islamic prophet, Muhammads first interaction with the people of Egypt occurred in 628, during the Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha. He sent Hatib bin Abi Baltaeh with a letter to the king of Egypt and Alexandria called Muqawqis In the letter Muhammad said, I invite you to accept Islam, Allah the sublime, shall reward you doubly. But if you refuse to do so, you bear the burden of the transgression of all the Copts
35.
Heliopolis, Cairo
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Heliopolis was a suburb outside Cairo, Egypt, which has since merged with Cairo as a district of the city and is one of the more affluent areas of Cairo. It was established in 1905 by the Heliopolis Oasis Company headed by the Belgian industrialist Baron Empain and by Boghos Nubar and it is the location of the Cairo International Airport. Despite losing the contract to the British, Empain stayed on in Egypt. His efforts culminated in 1907 with the building of the new town of Heliopolis, the new city represented the first large-scale attempt to promote its own architecture, known now as the Heliopolis style. Baron Empains own residence adopted a unique south Asian architectural style, alexander Marcel, a French architect and a member of the prestigious French Institute, was commissioned by Empain to build him a Hindu style palace. Modelled on Angkor Wat in Cambodia and the Hindu temples of Orissa and it still stands today, remaining one of the finest examples of early creative use of concrete, of which it was entirely built. The neighborhood had some of the wealthiest Egyptian residences, on the left facing Avenue Baron was the Arabesque palace of Boghos and Marie Nubar Pasha, now a military headquarters. The Pasha assisted Baron Empain in purchasing the 6,000 acres of desert, at one pound each. Diagonally opposite stands the former residence of Sultan Hussein Kamel, who reigned over Egypt between 1914 and 1917, Today, it is a presidential guest house. The Heliopolis War Cemetery is on Nabil el Wakkad street, modern Heliopolis was originally filled primarily with aristocratic Egyptians, as well as some European nationals. Unlike other modern Cairene suburbs around the start of the 20th century, after the 1952 revolution led by Nasser, it became home to much of Cairos educated middle class. As Cairo has expanded, the large distance between Heliopolis and Cairo has vanished and it is now well inside the city. Because of the growth in population, the original gardens that filled the city have mostly been built over. The Catholic Basilica church on Al-Ahram street is a landmark in Heliopolis. Since 1886 it was the see of the Latin Catholic Apostolic Vicariate of Heliopolis until its title was merged in 1987 into the Apostolic Vicariate of Alexandria in Egypt and its Marian former Our Lady cathedral remains a Co-cathedral. Heliopolis contains recreational places, as it was established to offer its residents and visitors rest. Heliopolis club is one of the most luxurious sporting clubs in Egypt and it was established along with Heliopolis in 1905. From 1911 until 1915, Heliopolis had Luna Park, Africas first amusement park, the Merryland is also a famous recreational park, it contains a lake and was at the height of its elegance in the 1960s and 70s
36.
Alexander Godley
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General Sir Alexander John Godley, GCB, KCMG was a senior British Army officer. He is best known for his role as commander of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, born in Chatham, Godley joined the British Army in 1886. He fought in the Boer War and afterwards served in a number of positions in England. In 1910 he went to New Zealand as Commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces, promoted to temporary major general, he reorganised the countrys military establishment. Following the outbreak of the First World War, the New Zealand government appointed him as commander of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, promoted to lieutenant general, he had a brief period in command of I Anzac Corps before being given command of the II Anzac Corps. He led the corps for most of its service on the Western Front and his corps suffered heavy losses in the ensuing battle. In 1918, II Anzac Corps was re-designated as British XXII Corps, after the war, Godley spent time in occupied Germany as commander of firstly the IV Corps and then, from 1922 to 1924, the British Army of the Rhine. In 1924 he was promoted to general and was made General Officer, Commanding and he was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in 1928 and was Governor of Gibraltar for five years until his retirement in 1933. During the Second World War he commanded a platoon of the Home Guard and he died in 1957 at the age of 90. Alexander Godley was born in Chatham, Kent, England, on 4 February 1867, the eldest son of William Godley and his fathers brother was John Robert Godley, the founder of Canterbury, New Zealand. When Godley was 13, his father died leaving the family in financial straits. Godley intended to enter the Royal Navy but changed his mind, with the aid of his familys connections, he was educated at Haileybury College and entered the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, in 1885. He was commissioned into the Royal Dublin Fusiliers the following year as a lieutenant, an enthusiastic horseman, Godley engaged in hunting and polo, becoming extremely proficient in the latter sport. He later played in the first international match between England and Argentina at the Hurlingham Club in Buenos Aires. To supplement his pay, he trained polo ponies, Godley remained with the Fusiliers until 1896, at which time he was promoted to captain and appointed adjutant of the Mounted Infantry at Aldershot. Later that year he volunteered for service in Mashonaland, where he assisted in the suppression of a rebellion in the province, after serving with the Special Service Battalion of the Mounted Infantry, he returned to England the following year and was promoted brevet major. In 1898 Godley attended Staff College at Camberley but, following the outbreak of the Boer War in 1899, along with other officers of the Special Service Battalion, he helped to raise irregular mounted regiments. Godley was later adjutant to Colonel Robert Baden-Powell and was present during the Siege of Mafeking and he was also chief staff officer to Lieutenant Colonel Herbert Plumer and later commanded the Rhodesian Brigade
37.
Moudros
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Moudros is a town and a former municipality on the island of Lemnos, North Aegean, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Lemnos and it covers the entire eastern peninsula of the island, with a land area of 185.127 km², covering 38. 8% of the islands territory. The municipal seat was the town of Moúdros and its next largest town is Kontopoúli. The municipal units total population was 3,925 in the 2011 census, during the Dardanelles Campaign of the First World War, the town and its harbour were used as an Allied base, commanded by Admiral Rosslyn Wemyss. The British Empire troops used the form, Mudros, on 30 October 1918, it was the site of the signing of the Armistice of Mudros, which saw the end of hostilities between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies
38.
ANZAC Cove
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Anzac Cove is a small cove on the Gallipoli peninsula in Turkey. It became famous as the site of World War I landing of the ANZACs on 25 April 1915, the cove is 600 metres long, bounded by the headlands of Arıburnu to the north and Little Arıburnu, known as Hell Spit, to the south. Following the landing at Anzac Cove, the became the main base for the Australian. General William Birdwood, commander of Anzac, made his headquarters in a gully overlooking the cove, as did the commanders of the New Zealand and Australian Division, the beach itself became an enormous supply dump and two field hospitals were established, one at either end. Four floating jetties were constructed for the landing of stores. The volume of stores quickly overflowed onto the adjacent beaches, firstly onto Brighton Beach to the south of the cove, three wireless radio stations were established on the beach to maintain contact with the fleet. Nibrunesi Point was under the guns of the Royal Navy so was never used to fire on Anzac, however the well-concealed Turkish battery at Gaba Tepe, despite the shelling and Turkish snipers, Anzac Cove was a popular swimming beach for the soldiers. At ANZAC it was a struggle to supply sufficient water for drinking, most soldiers disregarded all but the fiercest shelling rather than interrupt the one luxury available to them. On Anzac Day in 1985, the name Anzac Cove was officially recognised by the Turkish government, the Anzac Day dawn service was held at Ari Burnu Cemetery within the cove until 1999 when the number of people attending outgrew the site. A purpose built Anzac Commemorative Site was constructed nearby on North Beach in time for the 2000 service, the only way onto the beach was via the CWGC cemeteries at each headland, Arıburnu Cemetery, and Beach Cemetery. In 2003 the Australian government announced that it was negotiating with Turkey to place Anzac Cove on the National Heritage List, however this request was dismissed by the Turkish government as the Gallipoli peninsula is Turkish territory and already a national park in the Turkish National Park System. In 2004 the Australian Minister for Veterans Affairs, Danna Vale, made a request to the Turkish authorities that roadworks be carried out in the area
39.
No man's land
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No mans land is land that is unoccupied or is under dispute between parties who leave it unoccupied due to fear or uncertainty. The term was used to define a contested territory or a dumping ground for refuse between fiefdoms. The same term was used as the name for the piece of land outside the north wall of London that was assigned as the place of execution. The term was applied to an area on ships called the forecastle, a place where various ropes, tackle, block. The British Army did not widely employ the term when the Regular Army arrived in France in August 1914, the terms used most frequently at the start of the war to describe the area between the trench lines included between the trenches or between the lines. The term no mans land was first used in a military context by soldier, Swinton used the term in war correspondence on the Western Front, with specific mention of the terms with respect to the Race to the Sea in late 1914. In World War I, no land often ranged from several hundred yards to in some cases less than 10 yards. The area was devastated by the warfare. It was open to fire from the trenches and hard going generally slowed down any attempted advance. No mans land remained a feature of the battlefield until near the end of World War I. During the Cold War, one example of no land was the territory close to the Iron Curtain. The US Naval Base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba is separated from Cuba proper by a called the Cactus Curtain. This was dubbed the Cactus Curtain, an allusion to Europes Iron Curtain, US and Cuban troops placed some 55,000 land mines across the no mans land, creating the second-largest minefield in the world, and the largest in the Americas. On 16 May 1996, Bill Clinton, the President of the United States, the US land mines have since been replaced with motion and sound sensors to detect intruders. The Cuban government has not removed the corresponding minefield on its side of the border, the 1949 Armistice Agreements between Israel and Jordan were signed in Rhodes with the help of UN mediation on 3 April 1949. Armistice lines were determined in November 1948, between the lines territory was left that was defined as no mans land. Such areas existed in Jerusalem, in the area between the western and southern parts of the Walls of Jerusalem and Musrara, a strip of land north and south of Latrun was also known as no mans land because it was not controlled by either Israel or Jordan in 1948–1967. In 1885, the United States Interior Department ruled that what was called The Neutral Strip was public land, the Strip began to be called No Mans Land around 1886 after one official stated no man can own the land
40.
Battle of Sari Bair
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The Gallipoli Campaign had raged on two fronts, Anzac and Helles, for three months since the invasion of 25 April 1915. With the Anzac landing a tense stalemate, the Allies had attempted to carry the offensive on the Helles battlefield at enormous cost for little gain, at Helles, the British and French were now to remain largely on the defensive. The battle should properly be known as the Battle of Kocaçimentepe which was the correct Turkish name for the ridge, the peak was known to the British as Hill 971 and they mistakenly applied the name for a lesser ridge to the main range. He was later reinforced with two Territorial Army divisions, the 53rd Division and the 54th Division and one division of dismounted yeomanry, the 2nd Mounted Division. The Suvla landing was to be made by the British IX Corps and his appointment was made based solely on seniority but his hesitancy during the preparations for the landing should have warned Hamilton that he was not a fit choice for the command. The Ottomans were well aware that a renewal of the offensive was imminent, consequently, the Fifth Army underwent a reorganisation resulting in an expansion to 16 divisions. Ten of these defended the existing battlefields, three divisions defended the Asian shore of the Dardanelles and three divisions of the Ottoman XVI Corps defended the Gulf of Saros north of Bulair at the neck of the peninsula. The Ottomans anticipated that the offensive would involve a breakout from Anzac but were unsure whether it would be north or south. A new British landing was considered likely but Suvla was not rated highly as a candidate. The Ottoman commanders also dismissed the possibility of an assault against the Sari Bair range due to the rugged terrain, the attack from the Anzac perimeter was directed against two peaks of the Sari Bair range, Chunuk Bair and Hill 971. Under the overall command of Major-General Alexander Godley, the force included the New Zealand and Australian Division. The plan was for two assaulting columns to march out of Anzac on the night of 6 August, the right-hand column, comprising the New Zealand Infantry Brigade under Brigadier-General Francis Johnston, would head for Chunuk Bair. Both objectives were expected to be captured by dawn, to distract the Ottomans from the impending offensive, on 6 August, at 5.30 p. m. an attack was made at Lone Pine by the infantry brigades of the Australian 1st Division. While the attack was successful in capturing the Ottoman trenches. Another costly diversion was carried out at Helles which resulted in a struggle over a patch of ground known as Krithia Vineyard. As was the case at Lone Pine, the British action at Helles did not restrain the Ottomans from sending reinforcements north to the Sari Bair range. The right column heading for Chunuk Bair had a simpler navigation task as their route was to some degree visible from the old Anzac perimeter. In what became known as the Battle of Chunuk Bair, the New Zealanders failed to capture the peak by the morning of 7 August, on the morning following the breakout, a number of other attacks were planned within the old Anzac perimeter
41.
47th Battalion (Australia)
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The 47th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army. In 1921, it was re-raised as a unit of the Citizens Force. During this time it was based in south-east Queensland and in 1927 it became known as the Wide Bay Regiment, during the Second World War the 47th Battalion took part in fighting in New Guinea and Bougainville, before being disbanded again in January 1946. Later, the battalion was re-raised before eventually being subsumed into the Royal Queensland Regiment in 1960, at this time it was decided that the AIF would be expanded from two divisions to four. In order to achieve this, new battalions were formed by splitting existing units, taking its experienced men from the 15th Battalion and its new recruits from Queensland and Tasmania, the 47th Battalion formed part of the 12th Brigade, which was attached to the 4th Division. Following this, the battalion was transferred to France and Belgium where it fought in the trenches of the Western Front for the two and half years. During this time, the fought in a number of significant battles, including the Battle of Pozières in 1916. Later, in early 1918, the battalion was involved in turning back the German advance during the Spring Offensive. During its service in the war, the battalion lost 661 men killed and 1,564 men wounded. Members of the received the following decorations, one VC, four DSOs with one bar, one MBE,13 MCs,13 DCMs with one bar,86 MMs with four bars. A total of 11 battle honours were awarded to the 47th Battalion for their involvement in the war and it was also renamed the Militia at this time. During the inter-war years, the established alliances with the Loyal Regiment. As such while the Militia would provide a cadre for this force, during this time, the Militia were called up in cohorts for periods of continuous training lasting between 30 and 90 days and the 47th Battalion undertook a number of these camps early in the war. On 17 March 1941, however, as tensions were building in the Pacific, at the end of 1941 it was brigaded together with the 15th and 42nd Battalions to form the 29th Brigade. Initially, the 29th Brigade was attached to the 5th Division and they later took part in the landings at Tambu Bay before participating in the Salamaua–Lae campaign, helping to capture Lae from the Japanese. Finally, in 1944, after 18 months of service overseas the 47th Battalion returned to Australia with the rest of the brigade for training and reorganisation around Strathpine. It was around this time that the Australian Army began converting a number of its divisions over to the Jungle divisional establishment, including the units of the Militia 3rd and 5th Divisions. The battalions final involvement in the war came when the 29th Brigade was transferred to the 3rd Division, on Bougainville the Australians had launched an aggressive campaign against the 40,000 Japanese on the island
42.
Marseille
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Marseille, also known as Marseilles in English, is a city in France. Known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Massalia, Marseille was the most important trading centre in the region, Marseille is now Frances largest city on the Mediterranean coast and the largest port for commerce, freight and cruise ships. The city was European Capital of Culture, together with Košice, Slovakia and it hosted the European Football Championship in 2016, and will be the European Capital of Sport in 2017. The city is home to campuses of Aix-Marseille University and part of one of the largest metropolitan conurbations in France. Marseille is the second largest city in France after Paris and the centre of the third largest metropolitan area in France after Paris, further east still are the Sainte-Baume, the city of Toulon and the French Riviera. To the north of Marseille, beyond the low Garlaban and Etoile mountain ranges, is the 1,011 m Mont Sainte Victoire. To the west of Marseille is the artists colony of lEstaque, further west are the Côte Bleue, the Gulf of Lion. The airport lies to the north west of the city at Marignane on the Étang de Berre, the citys main thoroughfare stretches eastward from the Old Port to the Réformés quarter. Two large forts flank the entrance to the Old Port—Fort Saint-Nicolas on the south side and Fort Saint-Jean on the north. Further out in the Bay of Marseille is the Frioul archipelago which comprises four islands, one of which, If, is the location of Château dIf, the main commercial centre of the city intersects with the Canebière at rue St Ferréol and the Centre Bourse. To the south east of central Marseille in the 6th arrondissement are the Prefecture and the fountain of Place Castellane. To the south west are the hills of the 7th arrondissement, the railway station—Gare de Marseille Saint-Charles—is north of the Centre Bourse in the 1st arrondissement, it is linked by the Boulevard dAthènes to the Canebière. Marseille has a Mediterranean climate with mild, humid winters and warm to hot, december, January, and February are the coldest months, averaging temperatures of around 12 °C during the day and 4 °C at night. Marseille is officially the sunniest major city in France with over 2,900 hours of sunshine while the average sunshine in France is around 1,950 hours, less frequent is the Sirocco, a hot, sand-bearing wind, coming from the Sahara Desert. Snowfalls are infrequent, over 50% of years do not experience a single snowfall, Massalia, whose name was probably adapted from an existing language related to Ligurian, was the first Greek settlement in France. It was established within modern Marseille around 600 BC by colonists coming from Phocaea on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor. The connection between Massalia and the Phoceans is mentioned in Thucydidess Peloponnesian War, he notes that the Phocaean project was opposed by the Carthaginians, the founding of Massalia has also been recorded as a legend. Protis was invited inland to a banquet held by the chief of the local Ligurian tribe for suitors seeking the hand of his daughter Gyptis in marriage, at the end of the banquet, Gyptis presented the ceremonial cup of wine to Protis, indicating her unequivocal choice
43.
Bailleul, Nord
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Bailleul is a commune in the Nord department in northern France. It is located in French Flanders,3 km from the Belgian border and 26 km northwest of Lille, Bailleul is the birthplace of French filmmaker Bruno Dumont and served as the setting for his first two feature films. This area is also a setting in the Timothy Findley book The Wars, the inhabitants of Bailleul celebrate carnival with five days of processions and other festivities. The carnival has taken place since 1853, when the Philanthropic Company of Bailleul was founded, during the event, a search takes place for the needy ones of the city. The Gargantua Giant chairs the festivities, seated on his float, jardin des Plantes Sauvages du Conservatoire botanique national de Bailleul Bailleul has a railway station on the line from Lille to Calais and Dunkirk
44.
Battle of the Somme
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The Battle of the Somme, also known as the Somme Offensive, was a battle of the First World War fought by the armies of the British and French empires against the German Empire. It took place between 1 July and 18 November 1916 on both sides of the reaches of the River Somme in France. The battle was intended to hasten a victory for the Allies and was the largest battle of the First World War on the Western Front, more than one million men were wounded or killed, making it one of the bloodiest battles in human history. The French and British had committed themselves to an offensive on the Somme during Allied discussions at Chantilly, Oise, in December 1915. Initial plans called for the French army to undertake the main part of the Somme offensive, the first day on the Somme was, in terms of casualties, also the worst day in the history of the British army, which suffered 57,470 casualties. These occurred mainly on the front between the Albert–Bapaume road and Gommecourt, where the attack was defeated and few British troops reached the German front line, the battle is notable for the importance of air power and the first use of the tank. At the end of the battle, British and French forces had penetrated 10 km into German-occupied territory, the Anglo-French armies failed to capture Péronne and halted 5 km from Bapaume, where the German armies maintained their positions over the winter. Debate continues over the necessity, significance and effect of the battle, David Frum opined that a century later, the Somme remains the most harrowing place-name in the history of the British Empire. Allied war strategy for 1916 was decided at the Chantilly Conference from 6–8 December 1915, in December 1915, General Sir Douglas Haig replaced Field Marshal Sir John French as Commander-in-Chief of the BEF. Haig favoured a British offensive in Flanders close to BEF supply routes, to drive the Germans from the Belgian coast, Haig was not formally subordinate to Marshal Joseph Joffre but the British played a lesser role on the Western Front and complied with French strategy. A week later the Germans began an offensive against the French at Verdun, by 31 May, the ambitious Franco-British plan for a decisive victory, had been reduced to a limited offensive to relieve pressure on the French at Verdun with a battle of attrition on the Somme. The Chief of the German General Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, intended to end the war by splitting the Anglo-French Entente in 1916, Falkenhayn chose to attack towards Verdun to take the Meuse heights and make Verdun untenable. The British would then have to begin a hasty relief offensive, Falkenhayn expected the relief offensive to fall south of Arras against the Sixth Army and be destroyed. If such Franco-British defeats were not enough, Germany would attack the remnants of armies and end the western alliance for good. Eloi, south of Ypres and reduced the German counter-offensive strategy north of the Somme, to one of passive, the Battle of Verdun began a week after Joffre and Haig agreed to mount an offensive on the Somme. The battle changed the nature of the offensive on the Somme, as French divisions were diverted to Verdun, German overestimation of the cost of Verdun to the French contributed to the concentration of German infantry and guns on the north bank of the Somme. The German offensive at Verdun was suspended in July, and troops, guns, the Brusilov Offensive, absorbed the extra forces that had been requested on 2 June by Fritz von Below, commanding the German Second Army, for a spoiling attack on the Somme. During the offensive the Russians inflicted c. 1,500,000 losses including c. 407,000 prisoners, three divisions were ordered from France to the Eastern Front on 9 June and the spoiling attack on the Somme was abandoned
