1.
Caravaggio
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Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio was an Italian painter active in Rome, Naples, Malta, and Sicily between 1592 and 1610. His paintings, which combine a realistic observation of the human state, in scarcely a year or so’s sojourn in Naples, he rapidly established himself once more as the most prominent painter, exploiting high-ranking connections. It was not long before these connections gave him an opening to travel on in 1607 to Malta, governed by the Order of Knights Hospitallers, Caravaggio probably hoped that the Knights would provide a channel whereby he could obtain a pardon from the Papacy. Once more his talents made an instant impression, along with the support of noble patrons and his hopes dashed, he contrived to escape and flee once, which before the end of 1608 led to his cancellation from the rolls of the Order. He made for Syracuse in Sicily, where he was received as a guest by a friend from his Roman days, the painter’s face was disfigured and rumours started to circulate of his death. Various commentators have formulated opinions about his state from works supposedly executed at this period. In fact, Caravaggio’s end is shrouded in mystery, mystery that is rendered only denser by conflicting hypotheses, some speak of a natural death from a persistent fever, others of an assassination by emissaries of the Knights of Malta. The loss of the paintings put the deal and his future in doubt, there is evidence that dogged by a serious fever, he was tended by a local religious confraternity near Porto Ercole, then in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, but succumbed. His death was certified by them as taking place on 18 July 1610, if the story to this point is exact, it is likely he was buried in a paupers’ common grave. As to the place, though this continues to be contested. Famous while he lived, Caravaggio was forgotten almost immediately after his death, despite this, his influence on the new Baroque style that eventually emerged from the ruins of Mannerism was profound. The 20th-century art historian André Berne-Joffroy claimed, What begins in the work of Caravaggio is, quite simply, modern painting. Caravaggio was born in Milan where his father, Fermo, was an administrator and architect-decorator to the Marchese of Caravaggio. His mother, Lucia Aratori, came from a family of the same district. In 1576 the family moved to Caravaggio to escape a plague which ravaged Milan, Caravaggios mother died in 1584, the same year he began his four-year apprenticeship to the Milanese painter Simone Peterzano, described in the contract of apprenticeship as a pupil of Titian. Following his initial training under Simone Peterzano, in 1592 Caravaggio left Milan for Rome, in flight after certain quarrels, in Rome, where there was a demand for paintings to fill the many huge new churches and palazzos being built at the time. It was also a period when the Church was searching for an alternative to Mannerism in religious art that was tasked to counter the threat of Protestantism. Caravaggios innovation was a radical naturalism that combined close observation with a dramatic, even theatrical
2.
Hendrick Avercamp
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Hendrick Avercamp was a Dutch painter. Avercamp was born in Amsterdam, where he studied with the Danish-born portrait painter Pieter Isaacks, in 1608 he moved from Amsterdam to Kampen in the province of Overijssel. Avercamp was mute and was known as de Stomme van Kampen, as one of the first landscape painters of the 17th-century Dutch school, he specialized in painting the Netherlands in winter. Avercamps paintings are colorful and lively, with carefully crafted images of the people in the landscape, many of Avercamps paintings feature people ice skating on frozen lakes. Avercamps work enjoyed popularity and he sold his drawings, many of which were tinted with water-color. The Royal Collection has a collection of his works. Avercamp died in Kampen and was interred there in the Sint Nicolaaskerk, Avercamp probably painted in his studio on the basis of sketches he had made in the winter. Avercamp is famous even abroad for his winter landscapes, the passion for painting skating characters probably came from his childhood, he was practicing this hobby with his parents. The last quarter of the 16th century, during which Avercamp was born, was one of the coldest periods of the Little Ice Age, the Flemish painting tradition is mainly expressed in Avercamps early work. This is consistent with the landscapes of Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Avercamp painted landscapes with a high horizon and many figures who are working on something. The paintings are narrative, with many anecdotes, for instance, naughty details are included in the painting Winter landscape with skaters, a couple making love, buttocks and a peeing male. Later in his drawing the atmosphere was also important in his work. The horizon also gradually dropped down under more and more air, Avercamp used the painting technique of aerial perspective. The depth is suggested by change of color in the distance, to the front objects are painted, such as trees or a boat. This technique strengthens the impression of depth in the painting, Avercamp has also painted cattle and seascapes. Sometimes Avercamp used paper frames, which were an alternative to oil paintings. He first drew with pen and ink and this work was then covered with finishing paint. The contours of the drawing remained, even with this technique Avercamp could show the pale wintry colors and nuances of the ice
3.
Amsterdam
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Amsterdam is the capital and most populous municipality of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its status as the capital is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands, although it is not the seat of the government, which is The Hague. Amsterdam has a population of 851,373 within the city proper,1,351,587 in the urban area, the city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The metropolitan area comprises much of the part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe. Amsterdams name derives from Amstelredamme, indicative of the citys origin around a dam in the river Amstel, during that time, the city was the leading centre for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries the city expanded, and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were planned, the 17th-century canals of Amsterdam and the 19–20th century Defence Line of Amsterdam are on the UNESCO World Heritage List. As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered a world city by the Globalization. The city is also the capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and seven of the worlds 500 largest companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city. In 2012, Amsterdam was ranked the second best city to live in by the Economist Intelligence Unit and 12th globally on quality of living for environment, the city was ranked 3rd in innovation by Australian innovation agency 2thinknow in their Innovation Cities Index 2009. The Amsterdam seaport to this day remains the second in the country, famous Amsterdam residents include the diarist Anne Frank, artists Rembrandt van Rijn and Vincent van Gogh, and philosopher Baruch Spinoza. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world, is located in the city center. After the floods of 1170 and 1173, locals near the river Amstel built a bridge over the river, the earliest recorded use of that name is in a document dated October 27,1275, which exempted inhabitants of the village from paying bridge tolls to Count Floris V. This allowed the inhabitants of the village of Aemstelredamme to travel freely through the County of Holland, paying no tolls at bridges, locks, the certificate describes the inhabitants as homines manentes apud Amestelledamme. By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam, Amsterdam is much younger than Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean there was already a settlement then, since reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat. Amsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306, from the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely from trade with the Hanseatic League
4.
Mesrop of Khizan
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Mesrop of Khizan was a prominent Armenian manuscript illuminator in Persia. Mesrop was born in the Ottoman Empire but eventually lived in Isfahan, Persia and he was also a scribe, clerk, teacher, doctor of theology, restorer and binder. His manuscripts have been displayed in museums throughout the world and are found in many prestigious libraries, Mesrop of Khizan was born to Armenian parents in circa 1560 and is believed to be from the region of Khizan near Lake Van located in the Ottoman Empire. The Armenians of Khizan were noted for illuminated manuscript making and would later be regarded as the Khizan School of art, after Abbas I of Persia defeated the Ottoman Empire around Lake Van, he forcibly relocated many Armenians of the region to his new capital of Isfahan in 1604. After the family had moved, Mesrops father Martiros, who was a painter himself, Mesrop of Khizans career spans four decades, with his last known artwork dated in 1651. Among the first works of Mesrop is the Gospel of 1608, the first manuscript was done for a priest named Khatchatur and received many sponsors from various wealthy Armenians. This was soon followed by the Gospel of 1609, which is part of the Bodleian Library, art historian Alice Taylor describes Mesrops work as less lively than other contemporaneous Khizan painters, but his settings are charged with life and energy. In one such painting, The Baptism of Christ, Jesus Christ is featured stepping on the head of a dragon that is swimming in a river. The scene around the baptized Christ is beneath a sky that appears to be melting, and a dove, symbolizing the Holy Spirit, entering the soul of Christ from above of his head. Saint John the Evangelist, a painting done in 1615 that is now part of the J. Paul Getty Museum, John is surrounded by yellow light and elongated figures. About thirty manuscripts done by Mesrob of Khizan survive today, Mesrop of Xizan, an Armenian master of the seventeenth century
5.
The Beheading of St John the Baptist (Caravaggio)
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The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist is an oil painting by the Italian artist Caravaggio. According to Andrea Pomella in Caravaggio, An Artist through Images, the oil on canvas painting is 12 ft by 17 ft and prominent are the vivid red and warm yellow colours, common to the Baroque period with the use of chiaroscuro. The image depicts the execution of John the Baptist while nearby Salome stands with a platter to receive his head. The scene, popular with Italian artists in general and with Caravaggio himself, is not directly inspired by the Bible and it is the only work by Caravaggio to bear the artists signature, which he has placed in red blood spilling from the Baptists cut throat. There is considerable empty space in the image, but because the canvas is large the figures are approximately life-sized. Caravaggio drew the background for his work from his memories of a prison in the Knights of Maltas penal code, characteristically of his later paintings, the number of props and the detail in the props used is minimal. Completed in 1608 in Malta, the painting had been commissioned by the Knights of Malta as an altarpiece and it still hangs in St. Johns Co-Cathedral, for which it was commissioned and where Caravaggio himself was inducted and briefly served as a knight. Caravaggios service to the Order was brief and troubled, however, as he was soon a fugitive from justice, having escaped while imprisoned for an unrecorded crime. When Caravaggio was defrocked in absentia as a putrid and fetid limb by the Order about six months after his induction, Caravaggio did several pieces depicting the moments after the event depicted here. One of these is on display in Londons National Gallery, the other and it was during the restoration that Caravaggios signature in the blood became visible to modern viewers. The signature is a matter of some dispute
6.
Portrait of Alof de Wignacourt and his Page
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Portrait of Alof de Wignacourt with his Page is a painting by the Italian master Caravaggio, in the Louvre of Paris. He was elected Grand Master in 1601, determined to enhance the prestige of the Order and its new post-siege capital, Valletta. It was not surprising, therefore, that he would welcome the opportunity to have at his court the most famous painter in Rome and Naples, Michelangelo da Caravaggio. This famous portrait shows the Grand Master in formal armour, holding his baton of command, at the time Wignacourt was about sixty years old. He had strengthened the fortifications of the island, built an aqueduct to guarantee water to the city and he had turned the Knights into a sovereign power, making himself in effect a prince answerable to no-one except the Pope, with his own increasingly wealthy court. One of his innovations had been to surround to himself with young pages, the pages were taken from the most noble Catholic families of Europe. According to John Gash and others the page in the portrait is probably Nicholas de Paris Boissy, the fact can be explained by Caravaggios practice of painting separately from live models - de Wignacourt and the page were apparently not together in the studio at the same time. The boys lively expression and alert gaze make him a subject in his own right. The double-portrait with the pageboy was a combination for the time. Caravaggio, Master of light and dark - his life in paintings
7.
John the Baptist (Caravaggio)
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John the Baptist was the subject of at least eight paintings by the Italian Baroque artist Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio. The story of John the Baptist is told in the Gospels, John was the cousin of Jesus, and his calling was to prepare the way for the coming of the Messiah. He lived in the wilderness of Judea between Jerusalem and the Dead Sea, his raiment of camels hair, and a girdle about his loins. He baptised Jesus in the Jordan, and was killed by Herod Antipas when he called upon the king to reform his evil ways. John was frequently shown in Christian art, identifiable by his bowl, reed cross, camels skin, John alone in the desert was less popular, but not unknown. For the young Caravaggio, John was invariably a boy or youth alone in the wilderness. This image was based on the statement in the Gospel of Luke that the child grew and was strengthened in spirit and these works allowed a religious treatment of the partly clothed youths he liked to paint at this period. The ascription of this painting to Caravaggio is disputed - the alternative candidate is Bartolomeo Cavarozzi, according to Mancini the prior afterwards took them with him to his homeland, unfortunately, one version of Mancinis manuscript says the priors homeland was Seville, while another says Sicily. There was a Spanish prior of the hospital in 1593, Gash cites scholar A. E. is much more characteristic of Caravaggio. If this and other paintings by Caravaggio were indeed in Seville at a date they may have influenced Velázquez in his early works. However, the arguments in favour of Cavarozzi are strong, Peter Robb, taking the painting to be by Caravaggio, dates it to about 1598, when the artist was a member of the household of his first patron, Cardinal Francesco Maria Del Monte. Robb points out that the Baptist is evidently the same boy who modelled for Isaac in the Sacrifice of Isaac, unfortunately this Sacrifice of Isaac is also disputed, and so the problem of authorship is not solved. John is shown against a background of green grape vines and thorny vine stems, seated on a red cloak, holding a reed cross. The red cloak would become a staple of Caravaggios works, one with many precedents in previous art, John the Baptist carries over many of the concerns which animated Caravaggios other work from this period. The grape leaves stand for the grapes from which the wine of the Last Supper was pressed, while the call to mind the Crown of Thorns. Nevertheless, it was not totally without precedent, the model for Amor Vincit was a boy named Cecco, Caravaggios servant and possibly his pupil as well. He has been identified with an artist active in Rome about 1610-1625. The most striking feature of Amor was the young models evident glee in posing for the painting, the same sense of the real-life model overwhelming the supposed subject was transferred to Matteis John the Baptist
8.
Annunciation (Caravaggio)
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The Annunciation is an oil painting by the Italian master Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, finished around 1608. It housed in the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Nancy, the painting has been considerably damaged and retouched, and what remains of Caravaggios brushwork is the angel, who bears a resemblance to the figure in John the Baptist at the Fountain. The loose brushwork is typical of Caravaggios later period, the painting is composed of two figures. The angel above the Virgin is attributed to being Gabriel who was the angel of the annunciation, the lilies that Gabriel holds are also a symbol of the Virgin. The Virgin is in a position as she is being told by Gabriel of God’s plan for her. The painting exhibits Caravaggio’s signature sfumato and tenebrism, with almost the entire painting being dark except for the two main figures
9.
Burial of St. Lucy (Caravaggio)
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Burial of Saint Lucy is a painting by the Italian artist Caravaggio. It is located in the church of Santa Lucia alla Badia located on the Piazza Duomo in Syracuse, according to The Golden Legend, Saint Lucy had bestowed her wealth on the poor, in gratitude for the miraculous healing of her mother. Denounced as a Christian, she refused to recant, offered her chastity to Christ, miraculously, nothing could move her from the spot where she stood. She was pierced by a knife in the throat and, where she fell, Caravaggio had escaped from prison on Malta in 1608, fleeing to Syracuse. There his Roman companion Mario Minniti helped him get a commission for the present altarpiece, Caravaggio painted it in 1608, for the Franciscan church of Santa Lucia al Sepolcro. The choice of subject was driven by the fact that St. Lucy was the saint of Syracuse and had been interred below the church
10.
Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger
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He became a fashionable portraitist in the last decade of the reign of Elizabeth I under the patronage of her champion and pageant-master Sir Henry Lee. He introduced a new aesthetic in English court painting that captured the essence of a sitter through close observation and he became a favorite portraitist of James Is queen Anne of Denmark, but fell out of fashion in the late 1610s. Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger was born in Bruges, the son of the artist Marcus Gheeraerts the Elder, hardly anything is known of the paintings of the elder Gheeraerts, although his work as a printmaker was renowned in Europe. Like other Protestant artists from the Low Countries, Gheeraerts the Elder fled to England with his son to escape persecution in the Low Countries under the Duke of Alva and his wife was a Catholic and remained behind and is believed to have died a few years later. Father and son are recorded living with a Dutch servant in the London parish of St Mary Abchurch in 1568, on 9 September 1571, the elder Gheeraerts remarried. His new wife was Susanna de Critz, a member of a family from Antwerp. It is not known by whom young Marcus was trained, although it is likely to have been his father and he was possibly also a pupil of Lucas de Heere. Records suggest that Marcus was active as a painter by 1586, in 1590 he married Magdalena, the sister of his stepmother Susanna and of the painter John de Critz. The couple had six children, only two of whom seem to have survived—a son, Marcus III, also a painter, and his half-sister Sara married the painter Isaac Oliver in 1602. The earliest signed paintings by Gheeraerts the Younger date from c,1592, but Roy Strong identified a set of portraits of William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley dated to around 1586 as likely based on an original by Gheeraerts. The implications suggest that Oliver and Gheeraerts singly or together visited Antwerp in the eighties and were influenced by the portrait style of Frans Pourbus. From around 1590, Gheeraerts led a revolution in English portraiture, for the first time in English art sitters were rendered in three dimensions, achieving a lifelike impression through tonality and shadow. New too were capturing the character of individual sitters through close observation, Gheeraerts was one of the first English artists to paint on canvas rather than wood panel, allowing much larger pictures to be produced. He also introduced the figure set out-out-of-doors in a naturalistic landscape for full-scale portraiture. Sir Henry Lee of Ditchley, who retired as Queens Champion in the autumn of 1590, was the architect of much of the pageantry at the court of Elizabeth I. The queen likely sat to him for the Ditchley Portrait of 1592, the royal accounts for 1596–98 also include payments for decorative work by Marcus Gerarde. Another Gheeraerts portrait of Elizabeth is in the collection of Trinity College, Cambridge, the Ditchley Portrait seems to have always been at Lees home in Oxfordshire, and was likely painted for her two-day visit to Ditchley in 1592. In this image, the stands on a map of England
11.
Frans Pourbus the Younger
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Frans Pourbus the younger was a Flemish painter, son of Frans Pourbus the Elder and grandson of Pieter Pourbus. He was born in Antwerp and died in Paris and he is also referred to as Frans II. Pourbus worked for many of the influential people of his day, including the Brussels-based Spanish Regents of the Netherlands. Pourbus was best known for portraits, but created some history paintings and he produced portraits that were pleasing to his patrons, but rarely providing his works with dramatic situations, or even landscape backgrounds. He is noted for his depiction of costume, jewellry and draperies, Pourbus completed his apprenticeship in Antwerp in 1591. At the end of the 16th century, he worked for Archduke Albert, on 27 June 1600, he was paid for a portrait of the Infanta. This was subsequently presented to Anne of Denmark by the Ambassador of the Spanish Netherlands, in 1600, he was recruited as court painter in Mantua by Vincenzo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua who met him when Gonzaga was on a visit to the Netherlands buying works of art. Within months of his appointment, Peter Paul Rubens arrived at the Mantuan court, in 1609, Pourbus moved to Paris at the instigation of Marie de Médici. It was here that he perfected his style and he worked as Marie de Médicis court painter until his death. He died in Paris and was buried on 19 February 1621/2, the exact date of his death is unknown. Among his works is a portrait of an Italian lady in the Pinacoteca Malaspina, Pavia that has been identified as Anne Boleyn. This identification is a result of a later inscription, the portrait was in any case painted some years after Anne Boleyns death in 1536. 20 Painting by or after Frans Pourbus the Younger at the Art UK site
12.
Carlo Saraceni
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Carlo Saraceni was an Italian early-Baroque painter, whose reputation as a first-class painter of the second rank was improved with the publication of a modern monograph in 1968. Though he was born and died in Venice, his paintings are distinctly Roman in style, he moved to Rome in 1598 and he never visited France, though he spoke fluent French and had French followers and a French wardrobe. He was influenced by Caravaggios dramatic lighting, monumental figures, naturalistic detail, examples of this style can be seen in the candlelit Judith with the Head of Holofernes. Saracenis style matured rapidly between 1606 and 1610, and the next decade gave way to his mature works, synthesizing Caravaggio. In 1616–17 he collaborated on the frescoes for the Sala Regia of the Palazzo del Quirinale, in 1618 he received payment for two paintings in the church of Santa Maria dellAnima. Mars and Venus oil on copper, Rest on the Flight into Egypt,1606 The fall of Icarus, (Museums and Art Galleries Naples, madonna and Child with Saint Anne painted for the Church of San Simeone Profeta,1610 Papal Authority Chalk preparatory sketch for an allegorical fresco. Nativity Work by Saraceni can also be seen in the Roman church of San Lorenzo in Lucina, charles Dempsey, Keith Christiansen, Richard E. Spear, and Erich Scheier. Web Gallery of Art, Carlo Saraceni Jusepe de Ribera, 1591-1652, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which includes material on Carlo Saraceni
13.
Pieter Post
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Pieter Jansz Post was a Dutch Golden Age architect, painter and printmaker. Post was baptised in Haarlem, the son of a stained-glass painter and he is credited with the creation of the Dutch baroque style of architecture, along with his longtime collaborator Jacob van Campen. Together they designed the Mauritshuis in the Hague, according to Houbraken he was a famous architect who introduced his brother Frans to Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange while he was working on plans for the Mauritshuis. According to the RKD he became a member of the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke in 1623 and he was the overseer from 1640 for the new additions to Paleis Noordeinde in The Hague. From 1645 he was the architect for Frederik Hendrik for Huis ten Bosch and he died in The Hague, aged 61. His son Maurits became an architect, and his son Johan Post became a painter and his granddaughter Rachel Ruysch became a famous flower painter
14.
Dutch people
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The Dutch, occasionally referred to as Netherlanders—a term that is cognate to the Dutch word for Dutch people, Nederlanders—are a Germanic ethnic group native to the Netherlands. They share a culture and speak the Dutch language. The high degree of urbanization characteristic of Dutch society was attained at an early date. During the Republic the first series of large scale Dutch migrations outside of Europe took place, despite the small size of the Netherlands, the Dutch left behind a legacy in excess of their mere numbers. The traditional art and culture of the Dutch encompasses various forms of music, dances, architectural styles and clothing. Internationally, Dutch painters such as Rembrandt, Vermeer and Van Gogh are held in high regard, the dominant religion of the Dutch is Christianity, although in modern times the majority is no longer religious. Significant percentages of the Dutch are adherents of humanism, agnosticism, atheism or individual spirituality, as with all ethnic groups the ethnogenesis of the Dutch has been a lengthy and complex process. The text below hence focuses on the history of the Dutch ethnic group, for Dutch national history, for Dutch colonial history, see the article on the Dutch Empire. Following the end of the period in the West around 500, with large federations settling the decaying Roman Empire. In the Low Countries, this began when the Franks, themselves a union of multiple smaller tribes. Eventually, in 358, the Salian Franks, one of the three main subdivisions among the Frankish alliance settled the areas Southern lands as foederati, Roman allies in charge of border defense. On a political level, the Frankish warlords abandoned tribalism and founded a number of kingdoms, however, the population make-up of the Frankish Empire, or even early Frankish kingdoms such as Neustria and Austrasia, was not dominated by Franks. Though the Frankish leaders controlled most of Western Europe, the Franks themselves were confined to the Northwestern part of the Empire, the current Dutch-French language border has remained virtually identical ever since, and could be seen as marking the furthest pale of gallicization among the Franks. The medieval cities of the Low Countries, which experienced major growth during the 11th and 12th century, were instrumental in breaking down the already relatively loose local form of feudalism, as they became increasingly powerful, they used their economical strength to influence the politics of their nobility. While the cities were of political importance, they also formed catalysts for medieval Dutch culture. The various city guilds as well as the necessity of water boards in the Dutch delta and it is also around this time, that ethnonyms such as Diets and Nederlands emerge. This process marked a new episode in the development of the Dutch ethnic group, as now political unity started to emerge, consolidating the strengthened cultural, despite their linguistic and cultural unity, and economic similarities, there was still little sense of political unity among the Dutch people. However, the centralist policies of Burgundy in the 14th and 15th centuries, at first violently opposed by the cities of the Low Countries, had a profound impact and changed this
15.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
16.
Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
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Printmaking
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Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper. Printmaking normally covers only the process of creating prints that have an element of originality, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print produced is not considered a copy but rather is considered an original, a print may be known as an impression. Printmaking is not chosen only for its ability to multiple impressions. Prints are created by transferring ink from a matrix or through a screen to a sheet of paper or other material. Screens made of silk or synthetic fabrics are used for the screenprinting process, other types of matrix substrates and related processes are discussed below. Multiple impressions printed from the matrix form an edition. Prints may also be printed in book form, such as illustrated books or artists books, Printmaking techniques are generally divided into the following basic categories, Relief, where ink is applied to the original surface of the matrix. Relief techniques include woodcut or woodblock as the Asian forms are known, wood engraving. Intaglio, where ink is applied beneath the surface of the matrix. Intaglio techniques include engraving, etching, mezzotint, aquatint, planographic, where the matrix retains its original surface, but is specially prepared and/or inked to allow for the transfer of the image. Planographic techniques include lithography, monotyping, and digital techniques, stencil, where ink or paint is pressed through a prepared screen, including screenprinting and pochoir. Other types of printmaking techniques outside these groups include collagraphy and viscosity printing, collagraphy is a printmaking technique in which textured material is adhered to the printing matrix. This texture is transferred to the paper during the printing process, Contemporary printmaking may include digital printing, photographic mediums, or a combination of digital, photographic, and traditional processes. Many of these techniques can also be combined, especially within the same family, for example, Rembrandts prints are usually referred to as etchings for convenience, but very often include work in engraving and drypoint as well, and sometimes have no etching at all. Woodcut, a type of print, is the earliest printmaking technique. It was probably first developed as a means of printing patterns on cloth, woodcuts of images on paper developed around 1400 in Japan, and slightly later in Europe. These are the two areas where woodcut has been most extensively used purely as a process for making images without text, the artist draws a design on a plank of wood, or on paper which is transferred to the wood
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Lazzaro Morelli
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Lazzaro Morelli was an Italian sculptor of the Baroque period. Born in Ascoli Piceno, the son of the Florentine sculptor Fulgenzio Morelli, who also trained Lazzaros cousin, Lazzaro initially came to Rome to work under Francesco Fiammingho, but left that studio to work under Bernini. He participated in Berninis Funereal Monument for Pope Alexander VII Chigi and he also was responsible for the Angel with the scourge, based on a sketch by Bernini, this is one of the angels on the Ponte SantAngelo in Rome. He is said to have sculpted the horse and the lion for Berninis Fountain of the Four Rivers in Piazza Navona, Lazzaro also sculpted the statue of Benignity for the tomb monument of Clement X in St. Peters. The tomb was designed by Mattia de Rossi and the sculptors who worked on this project were Ercole Ferrata. He also completed some of the saints in the roof-line of the colonnades of Piazza San Pietro. New Attributions in St. Peters, The Spandrel Figures in the Nave, the Art Bulletin, Vol.60, No. Cristiano Marchegiani, Morelli, Lazzaro, in Dizionario biografico degli Italiani, Roma, Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, Treccani, vol
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