1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
Air Service, United States Army
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The Air Service, United States Army was the military aviation service of the United States between 1918 and 1926 and a forerunner of the United States Air Force. It was established as an independent but temporary branch of the U. S and its life was extended for another year in July 1919, during which time Congress passed the legislation necessary to make it a permanent establishment. The National Defense Act of 1920 assigned the Air Service the status of combatant arm of the line of the United States Army with a general in command. By the end of the war, the Air Service used 45 squadrons to cover 137 kilometers of front from Pont-à-Mousson to Sedan,71 pursuit pilots were credited with shooting down five or more German aircraft while in American service. Overall the Air Service destroyed 756 enemy aircraft and 76 balloons in combat,17 balloon companies also operated at the front, making 1,642 combat ascensions. 289 airplanes and 48 balloons were lost in battle, the Air Service was the first form of the air force to have an independent organizational structure and identity. Although officers concurrently held rank in various branches, after May 1918 their branch designation in official correspondence while on aviation assignment changed from ASSC to AS, after July 1,1920, its personnel became members of the Air Service branch, receiving new commissions. Airmen such as Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell supported the concept, the Armys senior leadership from World War I, the United States Navy, and the majority of the nations political leadership favored integration of all military aviation into the Army and Navy. Aided by a wave of pacifism following the war that drastically cut military budgets, opponents of an independent air force prevailed, the Air Service was renamed the Army Air Corps in 1926 as a compromise in the continuing struggle. The declaration of war against Germany on April 6,1917, putting the United States in World War I, came too quickly to solve emerging engineering and production problems. The reorganization of the Aviation Section had been inadequate in resolving problems in training, leaving the United States totally unprepared to fight an air war in Europe, the Aviation Section consisted of 131 officers,1087 enlisted men, and approximately 280 airplanes. The Board dispatched Major Raynal C, by the time the bill passed, the term Air Service was in widespread if unofficial usage to collectively describe all aspects of Army aviation. Even so, the Aircraft Board in practice had little control over procurement contracts, nor did the Equipment Division of the Signal Corps exercise such control. Though individual areas within the industry responded well, the industry as a whole failed. Efforts to mass produce European aircraft under license largely failed because the aircraft, at the same time the Aeronautical Division of the OCSO was renamed the Air Division with continued responsibility for training and operations but with no influence on acquisition or doctrine. In the end the process in aircraft procurement was badly fragmented. Borglum had exchanged letters with President Wilson, a friend, from which he assumed an appointment to investigate had been authorized. Both the U. S. Senate and the Department of Justice began investigations into possible fraudulent dealings, Kenly brought back from France to be its head, to separate supervision of aviation from the duties of the Chief Signal Officer
3.
American Expeditionary Forces
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The American Expeditionary Forces was the expeditionary force of the United States Army during World War I. It was established on July 5,1917, in France under the command of Gen. John J. Pershing, during the United States campaigns in World War I it fought, alongside French and British troops, against the German Empire. Some of the troops fought alongside Italian forces in that same year and it helped the French Army on the Western Front during the Aisne Offensive in June 1918, and fought its major actions in the Saint-Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne Offensives in late 1918. Pershing insisted that American soldiers be well-trained before going to Europe, as a result, few troops arrived before 1918. This attitude was not always received by the Allied leaders who distrusted the potential of an army lacking experience in large-scale warfare. In addition the British tried to bargain their spare shipping to make the US put its soldiers into British ranks. The French harbors of Bordeaux, La Pallice, Saint Nazaire and Brest became the points into the French railway system which brought the US forces. American engineers in France built 82 new ship berths, nearly 1,000 miles of additional tracks and 100,000 miles of telephone. The first American troops, who were often called Doughboys, landed in Europe in June 1917, a formation of regular soldiers and the first division to arrive in France, entered the trenches near Nancy. The AEF used French and British equipment, particularly appreciated were the French canon de 75 modèle 1897, the canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider and the canon de 155mm GPF. American aviation units received the SPAD XIII and Nieuport 28 fighters, Pershing established facilities in France to train new arrivals with their new weapons. A fifth division, the 41st Division, had converted into a depot division near Tours. After the first offensive action and American-led AEF victory on 28 May 1918 at the Battle of Cantigny, the rest followed at an accelerating pace during the spring and summer of 1918. The training took a minimum of six due to the inexperience of the servicemen. The first offensive action by AEF units serving under command was 1,000 men. This battle took place under the command of the Australian Corps commander. The Allied force in this battle combined artillery, armor, infantry, and air support, U. S. Army and Marine Corps troops played a key role in helping stop the German thrust towards Paris, during the Second Battle of the Marne in June 1918. The first major and distinctly American offensive was the reduction of the Saint Mihiel salient in September 1918, during the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, beginning September 12,1918, Pershing commanded the U. S
4.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
5.
Allied occupation of the Rhineland
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The Allied occupation of the Rhineland took place following the armistice that brought the fighting of World War I to a close on 11 November 1918. The occupying armies consisted of American, Belgian, British and French forces, the terms of the armistice provided for the immediate evacuation of German troops from Belgium, France, and Luxembourg as well as Alsace-Lorraine within 15 days. French forces continued to occupy German territory in the Rhineland until the end of 1930, the British Army entered German territory on 3 December 1918. The British Army of the Rhine was established as the force in March 1919. Based at Cologne, they published The Cologne Post, the French Eighth Army and Tenth Army originally constituted the French forces involved in the occupation. On 21 October 1919, they were combined to form the French Army of the Rhine, in 1919 France stationed between 25,000 and 40,000 French colonial soldiers in the Rhineland. The events resulted in a campaign by the German right-wing press. Furthermore, some German women married African soldiers from the occupying forces, many Germans were killed during civil disobedience protests. E. g. against dismissal of German officials, the American forces originally provided around 240,000 men in nine veteran divisions, nearly a third of the total occupying force. General John Pershing, commander of the American Expeditionary Force on the Western Front, established the Third Army for the purpose, Third Army was assigned to occupy the northern sector of the Coblenz bridgehead. By July 1919, Third Army was disbanded, having been reduced to about 8,400 men, on 24 January 1923, the US Army withdrew from the occupation of the Rhine, vacating the Ehrenbreitstein Fortress, which was promptly occupied by the French. Occupation of the Ruhr Free State Bottleneck Rhenish Republic Edmonds, J. E, the Occupation of the Rhineland 1918–29. The Watch on the Rhine, The Military Occupation of the Rhineland, Black Shame – the campaign against racial degeneration and female degradation in interwar Europe. The French Occupation of the Rhineland, 1918–1930 Map of Europe during the Occupation of the Rhineland at omniatlas. com
6.
Surveillance aircraft
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A surveillance aircraft is an aircraft used for surveillance—collecting information over time. This article concentrates on aircraft used in roles, rather than for traffic monitoring, law enforcement. Surveillance aircraft usually carry no armament, or only limited defensive armament, a surveillance aircraft does not necessarily require high-performance capability or stealth characteristics. It may be a civilian aircraft. Surveillance aircraft have also included moored balloons and unmanned aerial vehicles, surveillance is sometimes grouped with Intelligence, Target acquisition and Reconnaissance under the title ISTAR. Observation was the used for surveillance when the main sensor was the human eye. In 1794, during the Battle of Fleurus, the French Aerostatic Corps balloon LEntreprenant remained afloat for nine hours. French officers used the balloon to observe the movements of the Austrian Army, dropping notes to the ground for collection by the French Army, and also signalled messages using semaphore. One of the first aircraft used for surveillance was the Rumpler Taube during World War I, the translucent wings of the plane made it very difficult for ground based observers to detect a Taube at an altitude above 400 m. The French also called this plane the Invisible Aircraft, and it is also referred to as the worlds very first stealth plane. German Taube aircraft were able to detect the advancing Russian army during the Battle of Tannenberg, during World War II, light aircraft such as the Auster were used as air observation posts. Officers from the British Royal Artillery were trained as pilots to fly AOP aircraft for artillery spotting, the air observation role was generally taken over by light observation helicopters, such as the Hughes OH-6 Cayuse, from the mid-1960s. Pre war, the British identified a need for an aircraft that could follow, to this end the slow-flying Airspeed Fleet Shadower and General Aircraft Fleet Shadower designs were built and flown in 1940 but they were made obsolete by the introduction of airborne radar. Spy flights were a source of contention between the US and Russia during most of the 1960s. Maritime patrol aircraft are typically large, slow machines capable of flying continuously for many hours, such aircraft include the Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod, the Breguet Atlantique, the Tupolev Tu-95, the Lockheed P-2 Neptune and the Lockheed P-3 Orion/CP-140 Aurora. Predator UAVs have been used by the US for border patrol, unmanned surveillance aircraft have been deployed or are under development in many countries, including Israel, the UK, the United States, Canada, China, India, South Africa and Pakistan. Unmanned surveillance UAVs include both airships—such as Sky Sentinel and HiSentinel 80—and airplanes, most air forces around the world lack dedicated surveillance planes. Several countries adapt aircraft for intelligence gathering
7.
Airco DH.4
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The Airco DH.4 was a British two-seat biplane day bomber of World War I. It was designed by Geoffrey de Havilland for Airco, and was the first British two-seat light day-bomber to have a defensive armament. It first flew in August 1916 and entered service with the Royal Flying Corps in March 1917, the majority of DH. 4s were actually built as general purpose two-seaters in the United States, for service with the American forces in France. The DH.4 was tried with several engines, of which the best was the 375 hp Rolls-Royce Eagle engine. Armament and ordnance for the aircraft consisted of one 0.303 in Vickers machine gun for the pilot, two 230 lb bombs or four 112 lb bombs could be carried. The DH.4 entered service on 6 March 1917 with No.55 Squadron in France, the DH.4 was designed by Geoffrey de Havilland as a light two-seat day bomber powered by the new Beardmore Halford Pullinger engine. The prototype first flew in August 1916, powered by a prototype BHP engine rated at 230 hp, while the DH.4 trials were promising, the BHP engine required major redesign before entering production, and the Rolls-Royce Eagle engine was selected as the DH. 4s powerplant. The first order for 50 DH. 4s, powered by 250 hp Eagle III engines was placed at the end of 1916, the aircraft was a conventional tractor two bay biplane of all-wooden construction. The crew of two were accommodated in widely spaced cockpits, separated by the fuel tank and it was armed with a single forward-firing synchronised Vickers machine gun and one or two.303 in Lewis guns fitted on a Scarff ring fired by the observer. A bomb load of 460 lb could be fitted to external racks, as production continued, DH. 4s were fitted with Eagle engines of increasing power, settling on the 375 hp Eagle VIII, which powered the majority of frontline DH. 4s by the end of 1917. None of these engines could match the Rolls-Royce Eagle, however, in American production, the new Liberty engine proved suitable as a DH.4 powerplant. The Liberty was also to power the British DH. 9A. Production was by Airco, F. W. Berwick and Co, Glendower Aircraft Company, Palladium Autocars, Vulcan Motor and Engineering, a total of 1,449 aircraft were made in the UK for the RFC and RNAS. SABCA of Belgium made a further 15 in 1926, a total of 9,500 DH-4s were ordered from American manufacturers, of which 1,885 actually reached France during the war. After the war, a number of firms, most significantly Boeing, were contracted by the U. S. Army to remanufacture surplus DH-4s to DH-4B standard. Known by Boeing as the Model 16, deliveries of 111 aircraft from this manufacturer took place between March and July 1920, with 50 of them returned for further three years later. In 1923, the Army ordered a new DH-4 variant from Boeing and these three prototypes were designated DH-4M-1 and were ordered into production alongside the generally similar DH-4M-2 developed by Atlantic Aircraft. A total of 22 of the 163 DH-4M-1s were converted by the Army into dual-control trainers, the DH.4 entered service with the RFC in January 1917, first being used by No.55 Squadron
8.
IV Corps Observation Group
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The IV Corps Observation Group was an Air Service, United States Army unit that fought on the Western Front during World War I. It was demobilized on 12 May 1919, there is no modern United States Air Force unit that shares its lineage and history. The IV Corps Observation Group was formally organized on 1 July 1918 by the First Army Air Service at Ourches Aerodrome, France and it was formed for the purpose of operations in the forthcoming American offensives of First Army. Its units consisted of a Headquarters Squadron, the 135th Aero Squadron, a second squadron, the 8th Aero Squadron was assigned to the group on 31 August. Both squadrons were assigned to the Group from the 1st Observation Group School at Amanty Airdrome, the first efforts of the Group were directed towards organization and preparation for combat operations in the coming St. Mihiel Offensive. On 11 September, the day before the attack, Group headquarters moved to Ménil-la-Tour along with First Army AS Headquarters, throughout the attack, direct telephone communications were maintained constantly with the flying squadrons at Ourches. The group flew day observation flights over the St and it Flew observation missions over the enemy lines, taking photographic strip photos over the entire front. One of the missions was to photograph the entire corps line front to a depth of 10 km inside enemy territory. Headquarters remained at Ménil-la-Tour until 10 October when it moved along with IV Corps HQ to Bocq along the Belgian-French border, on 12 October, the 168th Aero Squadron, located at Gengault Aerodrome, Toul, was assigned to the group. It was an organized unit and had just arrived at the front. On 14 October 1918, the Group was relieved from First Army and this was to give Second Army some experienced units in preparation for the upcoming Meuse-Argonne offensive. By this time, the front of the IV Army Corps had moved from Lake Lachaunssee to Éply, the 135th Aero Squadron was assigned to support the 28th Division and the left group of the Corps Artillery. The 8th Squadron was assigned to the group of Corps Artillery. The 168th was assigned to training missions in the rear to familiarize its pilots and it carried out artillery adjustments and destruction, special reconnaissance and photographic missions. Each of the three also had an infantry liaison officer, who arranged for all artillery adjustments and submitted a daily report for all planned patrols by his division. He also coordinated all technical matters between and Squadron and assigned Division, from time to time, pilots and observers would be sent to infantry units on the line and spend two days in the trenches. The men were taught how to signal aircraft, use of flares and fireworks, upon the formation of the VI Corps Observation Group, the 8th Aero was transferred along with the 92d Division on 23 October. On 4 November, the 85th Aero Squadron was assigned to the Group and it was initially assigned to the Manonville Airdrome, but was moved back to Toul on 10 November
9.
Western Front (World War I)
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The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. This line remained unchanged for most of the war. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front, the attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire, as a result, no significant advances were made. In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of new technology, including poison gas, aircraft. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored, the German Armys Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front. In spite of the stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, belgiums neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London, this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914, Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August, Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August, for their part, the French had five armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities, on 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine, in keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back
10.
United States Second Army
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Second Army was most recently located at Fort Belvoir, Virginia as a Direct Reporting Unit to Headquarters U. S. Army, Chief Information Officer /G-6. This mission ended after a 2017 reorganization, and Second Army was inactivated, Second Army, American Expeditionary Forces, was established in October 1918 during World War I and demobilized in April 1919. A new Second Army operated from 1933 to 1966, and 1983 to 1995, as a training army in the continental United States. On 1 October 2010, U. S. Army Cyber Command was formed as the Army service component command supporting U. S. Cyber Command, commanded by Lt. Gen. Rhett A. Hernandez. On 6 March 2014, Army headquarters activated Second Army as a reporting unit of Army CIO/G-6 with Commander, ARCYBER. The history of the Second Army began as an army on the battlefields of France in the waning days of World War I. Bullard, a Spanish–American War veteran, earned Pershings confidence and reputation as a commander, after leading the 1st Infantry Division during the battle of Cantigny. At Cantigny, Bullard delivered the first American victory of the war, bullard’s orders for Second Army were to hold the line on a portion of the St. Mihiel sector along the Lorraine front. In November, General Pershing ordered Second Army to advance toward Metz, Bullard subsequently launched rigorous attacks against the Germans on 10 November. The 7th, 28th, 33rd, and 92nd divisions, then on the Second Army front, during its first month of combat operations,102 soldiers serving under Second Army earned the Distinguished Service Cross. After the armistice, Second Army occupied an area in Belgium and Luxembourg, remaining there until the end of March 1919, Second Army earned distinction as a training army during World War II, preparing nearly one million men to fight. The U. S. Army activated a new Second Army in October 1933, with headquarters at Chicago, Illinois, in December 1940, the Army moved Second Army’s headquarters to Memphis, Tennessee, and designated it as a training army, which conducted training in 24 states. In June 1944, the Army reconstituted the World War I Second Army, AEF, and consolidated it with the existing Second Army in order to perpetuate the lineage and honors of the World War I unit. During World War II, Second Army trained 11 corps,55 divisions, Second Army continued its training role after the war. In June 1946, Second Army moved its headquarters to Baltimore, Maryland, Second Army encompassed the seven states of Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia, and the District of Columbia. In June 1947, Second Army Headquarters moved to Fort George G. Meade, on 1 January 1957, the Army redesignated Second Army as Second United States Army, as one of the six Zone of Interior Armies of the United States. At the height of the Cold War, Second U. S. Army helped mobilize forces for potential conflict. During the September 1961 Berlin Crisis, Second U. S. Army mobilized 39 National Guard and Army Reserve units in the seven state area and eight Army Reserve units from other Army areas
11.
Metz
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Metz is a city in northeast France located at the confluence of the Moselle and the Seille rivers. Metz is the prefecture of the Moselle department and the seat of the parliament of the Great East region, located near the tripoint along the junction of France, Germany, and Luxembourg, the city forms a central place of the European Greater Region and the SaarLorLux euroregion. The city has been steeped in Romance culture, but has strongly influenced by Germanic culture due to its location. Because of its historical, cultural, and architectural background, Metz has been submitted on Frances UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List, Metz is home to some world-class venues including the Arsenal Concert Hall and the Centre Pompidou-Metz museum. A basin of urban ecology, Metz gained its nickname of The Green City, as it has extensive open grounds, the historic city centre is one of the largest commercial pedestrian areas in France. A historic garrison town, Metz is the heart of the Lorraine region, specialising in information technology. In ancient times, the town was known as city of Mediomatrici, after its integration into the Roman Empire, the city was called Divodurum Mediomatricum, meaning Holy Village or Holy Fortress of the Mediomatrici, then it was known as Mediomatrix. During the 5th century AD, the name evolved to Mettis, Metz has a recorded history dating back over 3,000 years. Before the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar in 52 BC, between the 6th and 8th centuries, the city was the residence of the Merovingian kings of Austrasia. After the Treaty of Verdun in 843, Metz became the capital of the Kingdom of Lotharingia and was integrated into the Holy Roman Empire. During the 12th century, Metz rose to the status of Republic, with the signature of the Treaty of Chambord in 1552, Metz passed to the hands of the Kings of France. Under French rule, Metz was selected as capital of the Three Bishoprics, with creation of the departments by the Estates-General of 1789, Metz was chosen as capital of the Department of Moselle. Metz remained German until the end of World War I, when it reverted to France, however, after the Battle of France during the Second World War, the city was annexed once more by the German Third Reich. In 1944, the attack on the city by the U. S, Third Army freed the city from German rule and Metz reverted one more time to France after World War II. During the 1950s, Metz was chosen to be the capital of the newly created Lorraine region, with the creation of the European Community and the later European Union, the city has become central to the Greater Region and the SaarLorLux Euroregion. Metz is located on the banks of the Moselle and the Seille rivers,43 km from the Schengen tripoint where the borders of France, Germany, and Luxembourg meet. The city was built in a place where branches of the Moselle river creates several islands. The terrain of Metz forms part of the Paris Basin and presents a plateau relief cut by river valleys presenting cuestas in the north-south direction
12.
Armistice of 11 November 1918
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It went into effect at 11 a. m. Paris time on 11 November 1918, and marked a victory for the Allies, the Germans were responding to the policies proposed by U. S. President Woodrow Wilson in his Fourteen Points of January 1918. Although the armistice ended the fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. In addition, he recommended the acceptance of the demands of US president Woodrow Wilson including putting the Imperial Government on a democratic footing, hoping for more favorable peace terms. As he said to officers of his staff on 1 October, on 3 October, the liberal Prince Maximilian of Baden was appointed Chancellor of Germany, replacing Georg von Hertling in order to negotiate an armistice. In the subsequent two exchanges, Wilsons allusions failed to convey the idea that the Kaisers abdication was a condition for peace. The leading statesmen of the Reich were not yet ready to contemplate such a monstrous possibility, in late October, Ludendorff, in a sudden change of mind, declared the conditions of the Allies unacceptable. He now demanded to resume the war which he himself had declared lost only one month earlier, however the German soldiers were pressing to get home. It was scarcely possible to arouse their readiness for battle anew, the Imperial Government stayed on course and Ludendorff was replaced by Wilhelm Groener. On 5 November, the Allies agreed to take up negotiations for a truce, the latest note from Wilson was received in Berlin on 6 November. That same day, the led by Matthias Erzberger departed for France. For example, they assumed that the de-militarization suggested by Wilson would be limited to the Central Powers, there were also contradictions with their post-War plans that did not include a consistent implementation of the ideal of national self-determination. Also on 9 November, Max von Baden handed over the office of Chancellor to Friedrich Ebert, eberts SPD and Erzbergers Catholic Centre Party had enjoyed an uneasy relationship with the Imperial government since Bismarcks era in the 1870s and 1880s. They were well represented in the Imperial Reichstag, which had power over the government. Their prominence in the negotiations would cause the new Weimar Republic to lack legitimacy in right-wing. The Armistice was the result of a hurried and desperate process and they were then entrained and taken to the secret destination, aboard Ferdinand Fochs private train parked in a railway siding in the forest of Compiègne. Foch appeared only twice in the three days of negotiations, on the first day, to ask the German delegation what they wanted, the Germans were handed the list of Allied demands and given 72 hours to agree. The German delegation discussed the Allied terms not with Foch, but with other French, the Armistice amounted to complete German demilitarization, with few promises made by the Allies in return
13.
United States Army Central
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The United States Army Central is a military formation of the United States Army, which saw service in World War I and World War II, in the 1991 Gulf War, and in the coalition occupation of Iraq. It is best known for its campaigns in World War II under the command of General George S. Patton, Third Army is currently denoted USARCENT, headquartered at Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina with a forward element at Camp Arifjan, Kuwait. On the 15th, Major General Joseph T. Dickman assumed command, the third Army consisted of three corps and seven divisions. On 15 November 1918, Major General Dickman was given the mission to move quickly and he was to disarm and disband German forces as ordered by General John J. Pershing, commander of the American Expeditionary Forces. The march into Germany for occupation duty was begun on 17 November 1918, by 15 December the Third Army Headquarters at Mayen opened at Coblenz. Two days later, on 17 December 1918, the Coblenz bridgehead, consisting of a pontoon bridge, Third Army troops had encountered no hostile act of any sort. In the occupied area, both food and coal supplies were sufficient, the crossing of the Rhine by the front line divisions was effected in good time and without confusion. Troops, upon crossing the Rhine and reaching their assigned areas, were billeted preparatory to occupying selected positions for defense. The strength of the Third Army as of 19 December, the date the bridgehead occupation was completed, was 9,638 officers and 221,070 enlisted men, the southern boundary was as has been previously mentioned. Before the advance, the 1st Division passed to the command of the III Corps, the four bridges available for crossing the river within the Coblenz bridgehead were the pontoon bridge and railroad bridge at Coblenz, the railroad bridges at Engers and Remagen. On 13 December the advance began with the American khaki crossing the Rhine into advanced positions. On the same day the 42d Division passes to the command of the IV Corps, which, in support of the III Corps, continued its march to occupy the Kreise of Mayen, Ahrweiler, Adenau, and Cochem. The VII Corps occupied under the order that portion of the Regierungsbezirk of Trier within army limits. On 15 December, Third Army Headquarters at Mayen opened at Coblenz, III Corps Headquarters at Polch opened at Neuwied and IV Corps Headquarters remained at Cochem, with the VII Corps at Grevenmacher. In crossing the Rhine on the shortened front—from Rolandseck to Rhens on the west bank—the Third Army encountered no hostile act of any sort, in the occupied area both food and coal supplies were sufficient. By the night of 14 December, Third Army troops had occupied their positions on the perimeter of the Coblenz bridgehead, during January 1919, the Third Army was engaged in training and preparing the troops under its command for any contingency. A letter of instruction was circulated to lower commanders prescribing a plan of action in case hostilities were resumed, installations were set up throughout the Army area to facilitate command. On 4 February, the control of the Stadtkreis of Trier was transferred from GHQ to the Third Army
14.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
15.
Air National Guard
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When Air National Guard units are used under the jurisdiction of the state governor they are fulfilling their militia role. However, if federalized by order of the President of the United States and they are jointly administered by the states and the National Guard Bureau, a joint bureau of the Army and Air Force that oversees the National Guard of the United States. The ANG of the territories of Guam and the Virgin Islands have no aircraft assigned, ANG units typically operate under Title 32 USC. However, when operating under Title 10 USC all ANG units are operationally-gained by an active duty USAF major command. ANG units of the Combat Air Forces based in the Continental United States, conversely, CONUS-based ANG units in the Mobility Air Forces, plus the Puerto Rico ANGs airlift wing and the Virgin Islands ANGs civil engineering squadron are gained by the Air Mobility Command. The vast majority of ANG units fall under either ACC or AMC, established under Title 10 and Title 32 of the U. S. S. When not in a status, the Air National Guard operates under their respective state. The exception to rule is the District of Columbia Air National Guard. Because both state Air National Guard and the Air National Guard of the United States relatively go hand-in-hand, Air National Guard of the United States units or members may be called up for federal active duty in times of Congressionally sanctioned war or national emergency. The United States Air National Guard has about 110,000 men and women in service, even traditional part-time air guardsmen, especially pilots, navigators/combat systems officers, air battle managers and enlisted aircrew, often serve 100 or more man-days annually. As such, the concept of Air National Guard service as representing only one weekend a month, the Georgia Air National Guard and the Kansas Air National Guard previously flew the B-1B Lancer prior to converting to the E-8 Joint STARS and KC-135R Stratotanker, respectively. In addition, the 131st Fighter Wing of the Missouri Air National Guard transitioned from flying the F-15C/D Eagle at St and these proposals were eventually overruled and cancelled by the U. S. Congress. As state militia units, the units in the Air National Guard are not in the normal United States Air Force chain of command and they are under the jurisdiction of the United States National Guard Bureau unless they are federalized by order of the President of the United States. Air National Guard units are trained and equipped by the United States Air Force, the state ANG units, depending on their mission, are operationally gained by a major command of the USAF if federalized. Air National Guard personnel are expected to adhere to the moral and physical standards as their full-time active duty Air Force. The same ranks and insignia of the U. S. Air Force are used by the Air National Guard, the Air National Guard also bestows a number of state awards for local services rendered in a service members home state or equivalent. The creation of the regiments was caused by the perceived need to defend the Bay Colony against American Indians. This organization formed the basis of subsequent colonial and, post-independence, state and this distinction accounts for why there are no National Guard components in the U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps or U. S. Coast Guard
16.
Kelly Field Annex
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Kelly Field Annex is a United States Air Force facility located in San Antonio, Texas. The base is under the jurisdiction of the 802d Mission Support Group, Air Education, Kelly Field was one of thirty-two Air Service training camps established after the United States entry into World War I, being established on 27 March 1917. It was used as a field, primary flying school, school for adjutants, supply officers, engineers, mechanics school. As of 2006, there are some isolated USAF activities on Port San Antonio subordinate to Lackland. Several large warehouses on the grounds of Port San Antonio were cleared, cleaned and equipped with large air conditioning units to house evacuees from Hurricane Katrina. The first evacuees began to arrive on September 2,2005, Kelly Field Annex is named in honor of 2d Lieutenant George Edward Maurice Kelly. Lt. Kelly, who after a course of training at the Curtiss Aviation School, Rockwell Field, California, was ordered to Fort Sam Houston, near San Antonio. While attempting to land on 10 May 1911 in order to avoid running into a tent and thereby possibly injuring several others, died in a crash, the center was to be built for the Aviation Section of the U. S. Army Signal Corps. General Scriven described San Antonio as “the most important strategic position of the South, ” in response to the unrest resulting from the Mexican Revolution. S. ”In November 1915, when the newly created 1st Aero Squadron arrived at Fort Sam Houston after a cross-country flight from Fort Sill, Oklahoma. Problems experienced by the 1st Aero Squadron on that expedition and the war in Europe persuaded Congress to improve. It was quickly apparent that Fort Sam Houston had inadequate space for flying operations, especially with newer. Major Benjamin Foulois, with the support of the San Antonio Chamber of Commerce, bordered by the Frio City Road on the northwest, the site was also adjacent to the Southern Pacific Railroad, providing easy access by road and rail. In addition, the new site was relatively flat, and thus suitable for flying operations, initially, the site was called the South San Antonio Aviation Camp. On 5 April 1917, four took off from Fort Sam Houston, flew across San Antonio and landed on the new airfield. Tents had been erected as hangars, however a permanent presence at the airfield was not established until 7 May when 700 men arrived, a week later, the population had grown to 4,000. Construction of the facility was rapid, with the United States now at war, the ground was cleared and scores of buildings - hangars, barracks, mess halls, a street system, electrical and plumbing systems, warehouses, machine shops were all constructed during the summer. By the end of June, it was clear that Foulois original site, a committee of the San Antonio Chamber of Commerce provided the necessary land and presented the proposition to the Aviation Production Board in Washington, D. C. in June 1917. A contract was signed in July 1917, comprising all of what was Kelly Field #2, Kelly soldiers organized approximately 250,000 men into Aero Squadrons during the hectic months of 1917 and 1918
17.
Roosevelt Field (airport)
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Roosevelt Field is a former airport, located 2.3 miles east-southeast of Mineola, Long Island, New York. Originally called the Hempstead Plains Aerodrome, or sometimes Hempstead Plains field or the Garden City Aerodrome, it was a field for the Air Service. In 1919, it was renamed in honor of President Theodore Roosevelts son, Quentin, Roosevelt Field was the takeoff point for many historic flights in the early history of aviation, including Charles Lindberghs 1927 solo transatlantic flight. It was also used by other pioneering aviators, including Amelia Earhart, the Hempstead Plains Aerodrome originally encompassed 900 to 1,000 acres east of and abutting Clinton Road, south of and adjacent to Old Country Road, and west of Merrick Avenue. A bluff 15 feet in elevation divided the plain into two large fields and he reported for aeronautical duty at the Signal Corps Aviation School, Augusta, Georgia, on 2 March 1912. On September 24,1918, the Army dedicated the portion of Hazelhurst Field No.1 as Roosevelt Field. Once in civilian hands, the owners sold portions along the edge of the field. Curtiss Field, a 300-acre airport on the site of Hazelhurst Field. Roosevelt Field occupied the remainder, consisting of seven hangars and a parking ramp adjacent to Curtiss Field. Unable to gain speed, the plane cartwheeled off the end of the bluff and burst into flames. The following May, operating from a hangar at Curtiss Field, both fields were bought in 1929 by Roosevelt Field, Inc. The western field, called Unit 2, and the runway atop the bluff, called Unit 1, were connected by a broad earthen taxi ramp and the consolidated property was named Roosevelt Field. Unit 1 was sold in 1936 and became the Roosevelt Raceway, at its peak in the 1930s, it was Americas busiest civilian airfield. Roosevelt Field was used by the Navy and Army during World War II, after the war, Roosevelt Field reverted to operation as a commercial airport until it was acquired by real estate developers in 1950. The field closed on May 31,1951, currently its site is occupied by Roosevelt Field Mall and Garden City Plaza. afhra. af. mil/. UNH,1918 USGS map of Hazelhurst/Roosevelt Field and environs Abandoned & Little-Known Airfields, New York, Central Long Island
18.
Hoboken, New Jersey
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Hoboken is a city in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States. Hoboken is part of the New York metropolitan area and is the site of Hoboken Terminal, Hoboken was first settled as part of the Pavonia, New Netherland colony in the 17th century. During the early 19th century the city was developed by Colonel John Stevens, first as a resort and it became a township in 1849 and was incorporated as a city in 1855. Hoboken is the location of the first recorded game of baseball and of the Stevens Institute of Technology, located on the Hudson Waterfront, the city was an integral part of the Port of New York and New Jersey and home to major industries for most of the 20th century. The character of the city has changed from a blue collar town to one of upscale shops, the name Hoboken was chosen by Colonel John Stevens when he bought land, on a part of which the city still sits. Like Weehawken, its neighbor to the north, Communipaw and Harsimus to the south, Hoebuck, old Dutch for high bluff and likely referring to Castle Point, was used during the colonial era and later spelled as Hobuck, Hobock, Hobuk and Hoboocken. The origin of Hobokens name was not related to the Hoboken district of Antwerp, however, in the nineteenth century, a folk etymology had emerged linking the town of to the similarly-named Flemish town. Hoboken was originally an island, surrounded by the Hudson River on the east and it was a seasonal campsite in the territory of the Hackensack, a phratry of the Lenni Lenape, who used the serpentine rock found there to carve pipes. Soon after it part of the province of New Netherland. Three Lenape sold the land that was to become Hoboken for 80 fathoms of wampum,20 fathoms of cloth,12 kettles, six guns and these transactions, variously dated as July 12,1630 and November 22,1630, represent the earliest known conveyance for the area. Pauw failed to settle the land, and he was obliged to sell his holdings back to the Company in 1633 and it was later acquired by Hendrick Van Vorst, who leased part of the land to Aert Van Putten, a farmer. In 1643, north of what would be known as Castle Point, Van Putten built a house. In series of Indian and Dutch raids and reprisals, Van Putten was killed and his buildings destroyed, deteriorating relations with the Lenape, its isolation as an island, or relatively long distance from New Amsterdam may have discouraged more settlement. In 1664, the English took possession of New Amsterdam with little or no resistance, english-speaking settlers interspersed with the Dutch, but it remained scarcely populated and agrarian. At the end of the Revolutionary War, Bayards property was confiscated by the Revolutionary Government of New Jersey, in 1784, the land described as William Bayards farm at Hoebuck was bought at auction by Colonel John Stevens for £18,360. In the early 19th century, Colonel John Stevens developed the waterfront as a resort for Manhattanites, on October 11,1811, Stevens ship the Juliana, began to operate as a ferry between Manhattan and Hoboken, making it the worlds first commercial steam ferry. In 1825, he designed and built a locomotive capable of hauling several passenger cars at his estate. Sybils Cave, a cave with a spring, was opened in 1832
19.
Liverpool
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Liverpool is a major city and metropolitan borough in North West England.24 million people in 2011. Liverpool historically lay within the ancient hundred of West Derby in the south west of the county of Lancashire and it became a borough from 1207 and a city from 1880. In 1889 it became a county borough independent of Lancashire, Liverpool sits on the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary and its growth as a major port is paralleled by the expansion of the city throughout the Industrial Revolution. Along with general cargo, freight, raw materials such as coal and cotton, the city was also directly involved in the Atlantic slave trade. Liverpool was home to both the Cunard and White Star Line, and was the port of registry of the ocean liner RMS Titanic and others such as the RMS Lusitania, Queen Mary, and Olympic. The city celebrated its 800th anniversary in 2007, and it held the European Capital of Culture title together with Stavanger, Norway, several areas of Liverpool city centre were granted World Heritage Site status by UNESCO in 2004. The Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City includes the Pier Head, Albert Dock, tourism forms a significant part of the citys economy. Liverpool is also the home of two Premier League football clubs, Liverpool and Everton, matches between the two being known as the Merseyside derby, the world-famous Grand National horse race takes place annually at Aintree Racecourse on the outskirts of the city. The city is home to the oldest Black African community in the country. Natives of Liverpool are referred to as Liverpudlians and colloquially as Scousers, a reference to scouse, the word Scouse has also become synonymous with the Liverpool accent and dialect. Pool is a place name element in England from the Brythonic word for a pond, inlet, or pit, cognate with the modern Welsh. The derivation of the first element remains uncertain, with the Welsh word Llif as the most plausible relative and this etymology is supported by its similarity to that of the archaic Welsh name for Liverpool Llynlleifiad. Other origins of the name have suggested, including elverpool. The name appeared in 1190 as Liuerpul, and it may be that the place appearing as Leyrpole, in a record of 1418. King Johns letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, the original street plan of Liverpool is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter, making it a borough. The original seven streets were laid out in an H shape, Bank Street, Castle Street, Chapel Street, Dale Street, Juggler Street, Moor Street, in the 17th century there was slow progress in trade and population growth. Battles for the town were waged during the English Civil War, in 1699 Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament, that same year its first slave ship, Liverpool Merchant, set sail for Africa. Since Roman times, the city of Chester on the River Dee had been the regions principal port on the Irish Sea
20.
Winchester
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Winchester is a city and the county town of Hampshire, England. The city lies at the heart of the wider City of Winchester, a government district. It is situated 61 miles south-west of London and 13.6 miles from Southampton, at the time of the 2011 Census, Winchester had a population of 45,184. The wider City of Winchester district which includes such as Alresford. Winchester developed from the Roman town of Venta Belgarum, which in turn developed from an Iron Age oppidum. Winchesters major landmark is Winchester Cathedral, one of the largest cathedrals in Europe, with the distinction of having the longest nave and overall length of all Gothic cathedrals in Europe. The city is home to the University of Winchester and Winchester College, the area around Winchester has been inhabited since prehistoric times, with three Iron Age hillforts, Orams Arbour, St. Catherines Hill, and Worthy Down all in the nearby vicinity. In the Late Iron Age, an urban settlement type developed, known as an oppidum. It was overrun by the confederation of Gaulish tribes known as the Belgae sometime during the first century BCE and it seems to have been known as Wentā or Venta, from the Brittonic for town or meeting place. After the Roman conquest of Britain, the settlement served as the capital of the Belgae and was distinguished as Venta Belgarum, Venta of the Belgae. Although in the years of the Roman province it was of subsidiary importance to Silchester and Chichester. At the beginning of the century, Winchester was given protective stone walls. At around this time the city covered an area of 144 acres, there was a limited suburban area outside the walls. Like many other Roman towns however, Winchester began to decline in the fourth century. Ford identifies the community as the Cair Guinntguic listed by Nennius among the 28 cities of Britain in his History of the Britains, amid the Saxon invasions of Britain, cemeteries dating to the 6th and 7th centuries suggest a revival of settlement. The city became known as Wintan-ceastre in Old English, in 648, King Cenwalh of Wessex erected the Church of SS Peter and Paul, later known as the Old Minster. This became a cathedral in the 660s when the West Saxon bishopric was transferred from Dorchester-on-Thames, the citys first mint appears to date from this period. In the early tenth century there were two new establishments, the convent of Nunnaminster, founded by Alfreds widow Ealhswith
21.
Royal Flying Corps
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The Royal Flying Corps was the air arm of the British Army before and during the First World War, until it merged with the Royal Naval Air Service on 1 April 1918 to form the Royal Air Force. During the early part of the war, the RFC supported the British Army by artillery co-operation, at the start of World War I the RFC, commanded by Brigadier-General Sir David Henderson, consisted of five squadrons – one observation balloon squadron and four aeroplane squadrons. These were first used for spotting on 13 September 1914. Aerial photography was attempted during 1914, but again only became effective the next year, by 1918, photographic images could be taken from 15,000 feet and were interpreted by over 3,000 personnel. By this time parachutes had been used by balloonists for three years, on 17 August 1917, South African General Jan Smuts presented a report to the War Council on the future of air power. On 1 April 1918, the RFC and the RNAS were amalgamated to form a new service, after starting in 1914 with some 2,073 personnel, by the start of 1919 the RAF had 4,000 combat aircraft and 114,000 personnel in some 150 squadrons. The recommendations of the committee were accepted and on 13 April 1912 King George V signed a royal warrant establishing the Royal Flying Corps, the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers became the Military Wing of the Royal Flying Corps a month later on 13 May. The Flying Corps initial allowed strength was 133 officers, and by the end of year it had 12 manned balloons and 36 aeroplanes. The RFC originally came under the responsibility of Brigadier-General Henderson, the Director of Military Training, and had branches for the Army. Major Sykes commanded the Military Wing and Commander C R Samson commanded the Naval Wing, the RFCs motto was Per ardua ad astra. This remains the motto of the Royal Air Force and other Commonwealth air forces, the RFCs first fatal crash was on 5 July 1912 near Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain. Loraine and his observer, Staff Sergeant R. H. V, an order was issued after the crash stating Flying will continue this evening as usual, thus beginning a tradition. Four months later on 11 December 1912 Parke was killed when the Handley Page monoplane in which he was flying from Hendon to Oxford crashed. The Naval Wing, with pilots and aircraft than the Military Wing. In November 1914 the Royal Flying Corps, even taking the loss of the Naval Wing into account, had expanded sufficiently to warrant the creation of wings consisting of two or more squadrons and these wings were commanded by lieutenant-colonels. In October 1915 the Royal Flying Corps had undergone further expansion which justified the creation of brigades, further expansion led to the creation of divisions, with the Training Division being established in August 1917 and RFC Middle East, being raised to divisional status in December 1917. Finally, the air raids on London and the south-east of England led to the creation of the London Air Defence Area in August 1917 under the command of Ashmore who was promoted to major-general. Two of the first three RFC squadrons were formed from the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers, No.1 Company becoming No.1 Squadron, RFC, a second heavier-than-air squadron, No.2 Squadron, RFC, was also formed on the same day
22.
St. Maixent Replacement Barracks
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The Air Service Replacement Concentration Barracks is a former military facility in the vicinity of Saint-Maixent-lÉcole, Poitou-Charentes, France. It was used by the Air Service, United States Army as the Air Service Replacement Concentration Barracks during World War I, from the facility, Air Service personnel were sent into combat on the Western Front. In December 1917, the French Government suggested Saint-Maixent-lÉcole in the Poitou-Charentes region, a survey was made of the facilities and arrangements were finalized for Air Service Barracks #3, Base Section #2, which was later changed to the St. Maixent Replacement Barracks. Another building, named the Presbytere Barracks had been used for the ten years on a part-time basis for casual quartering. A new group of buildings, Coiffee Barracks 46°24′52″N 000°12′38″W was under construction, the Americans were the first to occupy them. These, along with the Presbytere Barracks 46°24′47″N 000°12′13″W and Canclaux 46°24′38″N 000°12′13″W were accepted for use by the Air Service, the first cadre of Air Service personnel to arrive and begin setting up the facilities for use arrived on 4 December 1917. Construction of kitchens and mess facilities, improvements to the barracks, additional station personnel arrived on 16 December. On 1 January 1918, the first fourteen Aero Squadrons arrived, four were quartered in the Coiffee Barracks, four in Presbytere and the balance at Canclaux Barracks. Initially the station was used principally as a location for newly arrived personnel in France. On 1 June 1918, its mission radically changed and it became a staging depot for classification of enlisted personnel and re-organization of existing squadrons. It also became the site of four important schools for commissioned officers and it became the policy of the Air Service in France for all units to proceed directly to St. Maixent upon their arrival in France. Enlisted personnel were given a trade test on arrival. Upon completion and qualifications verified, Aero Squadrons were re-organized in accordance with the tables of organization developed by the Air Service in France and they were then equipped and given instructions on the use of Gas Masks and qualified in their use before being deployed to the Zone of Advance. Each squadron then proceed to the 1st Air Depot at Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome, their date of departure being determined by the availability of its equipment and flying personnel. The squadron supply officer with a detachment was sent to a warehouse to collect the squadron equipment. Pilots and observers were collected at the 1st Air Depot, upon its arrival in the Zone of Advance, the squadron reported to general headquarters, G-3 for assignment to an Army. Squadrons assigned to Instructional Centers went directly from St. Maxient to their assigned Center, list of United States Air Service aerodromes in France This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http, //www. afhra. af. mil/
23.
Southampton
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Southampton, on the south coast of England, is the largest city in the ceremonial county of Hampshire. It is 75 miles south-west of London and 19 miles north-west of Portsmouth, Southampton is a major port and the closest city to the New Forest. It lies at the northernmost point of Southampton Water at the confluence of the Rivers Test and Itchen, the city, which is a unitary authority, has an estimated population of 253,651. The citys name is abbreviated in writing to Soton or Soton. Significant employers in the city include the University of Southampton, Southampton Solent University, Southampton Airport, Ordnance Survey, BBC South, Southampton has a large shopping centre and retail park, Westquay. In 2014, the city approved a follow-up from the Westquay park, WestQuay Watermark. This built-up area is part of the area known as South Hampshire. With a population of over 1.5 million this makes the one of the United Kingdoms most populous metropolitan areas. Archaeological finds suggest that the area has been inhabited since the stone age, following the Roman invasion of Britain in AD43 and the conquering of the local Britons in 70 AD the fortress settlement of Clausentum was established. It was an important trading port and defensive outpost of Winchester, Clausentum was defended by a wall and two ditches and is thought to have contained a bath house. Clausentum was not abandoned until around 410, the Anglo-Saxons formed a new, larger, settlement across the Itchen centred on what is now the St Marys area of the city. The settlement was known as Hamwic, which evolved into Hamtun, archaeological excavations of this site have uncovered one of the best collections of Saxon artefacts in Europe. It is from this town that the county of Hampshire gets its name, viking raids from 840 onwards contributed to the decline of Hamwic in the 9th century, and by the 10th century a fortified settlement, which became medieval Southampton, had been established. Following the Norman Conquest in 1066, Southampton became the port of transit between the then capital of England, Winchester, and Normandy. By the 13th century Southampton had become a port, particularly involved in the import of French wine in exchange for English cloth. The Franciscan friary in Southampton was founded circa 1233, the friars constructed a water supply system in 1290, which carried water from Conduit Head some 1.7 kilometres to the site of the friary inside the town walls. Further remains can be observed at Conduit House on Commercial Road, the friars granted use of the water to the town in 1310. The town was sacked in 1338 by French, Genoese and Monegasque ships, on visiting Southampton in 1339, Edward III ordered that walls be built to close the town
24.
Le Havre
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Le Havre is an urban French commune and city in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandy region of northwestern France. It is situated on the bank of the estuary of the river Seine on the Channel southwest of the Pays de Caux. Modern Le Havre remains deeply influenced by its employment and maritime traditions and its port is the second largest in France, after that of Marseille, for total traffic, and the largest French container port. The name Le Havre means the harbour or the port and its inhabitants are known as Havrais or Havraises. Administratively the commune is located in the Normandy region and, with Dieppe, is one of the two sub-prefectures of the Seine-Maritime department, Le Havre is the capital of the canton and since 1974 has been the see of the diocese of Le Havre. Le Havre is the most populous commune of Upper Normandy, although the population of the greater Le Havre conurbation is smaller than that of Rouen. It is also the second largest subprefecture in France, the city and port were founded by the King Francis I of France in 1517. Economic development in the Early modern period was hampered by wars, conflicts with the English, epidemics. It was from the end of the 18th century that Le Havre started growing, after the 1944 bombings the firm of Auguste Perret began to rebuild the city in concrete. Changes in years 1990–2000 were numerous, the right won the municipal elections and committed the city to the path of reconversion, seeking to develop the service sector and new industries. The Port 2000 project increased the capacity to compete with ports of northern Europe, transformed the southern districts of the city. In 2005 UNESCO inscribed the city of Le Havre as a World Heritage Site. The André Malraux Modern Art Museum is the second of France for the number of impressionist paintings, the city has been awarded two flowers by the National Council of Towns and Villages in Bloom in the Competition of cities and villages in Bloom. Le Havre is a major French city located some 50 kilometres west of Rouen on the shore of the English Channel, numerous roads link to Le Havre with the main access roads being the A29 autoroute from Amiens and the A13 autoroute from Paris linking to the A131 autoroute. Administratively, Le Havre is a commune in the Haute-Normandie region in the west of the department of Seine-Maritime, the urban area of Le Havre corresponds roughly to the territory of the Agglomeration community of Le Havre which includes 17 communes and 250,000 people. It occupies the tip of the natural region of Pays de Caux where it is the largest city. Le Havre is sandwiched between the coast of the Channel from south-west to north-west and the estuary of the Seine to the south, Le Havre belongs to the MLG community Paris Basin which was formed in the Mesozoic period. The Paris Basin consists of sedimentary rocks, the commune of Le Havre consists of two areas separated by a natural cliff edge, one part in the lower part of the town to the south including the harbour, the city centre and the suburbs
25.
Romorantin Aerodrome
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Romorantin - Pruniers Air Detachment is a French Air Force military facility, located 6 km southwest of Romorantin-Lanthenay, in the Loir-et-Cher department of central France. It is one of the oldest facilities of the French Air Force and it was used by the Air Service, United States Army during World War I as an aircraft engineering facility, and during World War II it was occupied by the German Luftwaffe. It was used as an airfield by the Germans during the Battle of Britain. It returned to French control in September 1944, DA273 is primarily a logistics base for repairing aircraft by maintaining warehouses of spare parts. It is also a center for printing and issuing the technical documentation for the French Air Force and it also operates a small grass airfield as center for glider pilot training. It has a reputation as the gliding training site for the air Air Force for national and international competitions. The base employs approximately 650, half of the workforce are civilian personnel, the first aviation use of Romorantin was in 1911, when a professor at the Collège Maurice Genevoix in Romorantin set up a Society for the Development of Aviation. On 3 June 1911, a Blériot Aéronautique monoplane was flown for eight, after the flight, the crowd went wild and the Mayor offered champagne. After a second flight, this event remained deeply marked in local annals. According to the officials at the time, there were more than 10,000 people in attendance at the demonstration. On 31 March 1912, the received a letter from the French National Aviation directorate requesting that the Mayor of the city provide some land for the creation of an airfield. On 15 April 1912 plans were approved for an airfield between Orleans and Châteauroux which included a runway, a hangar and oil shops and gasoline. The City Council agreed and this facility was constructed on the site of the current DA273 base, two or three civil aircraft were located there, with a driver and some mechanics. The hangar from this still exists on the military base today. In 1913, during maneuvers, the first French Air Force planes landed at the airfield, beginning in 1915, Romorantin was used as a training base by the French Air Force. The first construction was that of a line and barracks for themselves at the field. Within two weeks, the barracks were ready and construction of the base was begun. The 116th Squadron was transferred out and the 75th and 109th were re-designated as the 487th Aero, construction then began in earnest on the base facilities and also two landing field
26.
Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome
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It consisted of 1,120 personnel, of which 65 were officers. The Army was not ready for the deployment of forces to Europe. Camp Hancock, near Augusta, Georgia, was used for training service squadrons of mechanics as well as flight training. When ordered to deploy, units departed though Garden City, New York, units there were loaded onto transport ships for the trans-Atlantic crossing. Upon arrival in Europe, Liverpool, England, and Brest, France, were the ports of disembarkation. Others received further training and were sent to Winchester, Hampshire, after deployment to France, St. Maixent Aerodrome was the primary reception center for new aero squadrons assigned to the American Expeditionary Force. There, units were classified as pursuit, bombardment or as observation units, once processed, units were sent to the 1st Air Depot at Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome where equipment was issued to the units. If necessary, units were assigned to one of several Air Instructional Centers where they received additional combat, once prepared for combat, Gengault Aerodrome was used as the assignment center for new squadrons, from which they were transferred to their initial combat station. After assignment, the Air Services deployed units operated primarily from French Air Force (French, the exact location of many of these aerodromes is no longer certain as the facilities were only temporary and after the war much of the land on which they sat was returned to agricultural purposes. Today, many are fields that have been in production continuously since the end of the war, as a result, the locations of many Air Service stations have only been approximated, using a variety of means including aerial photography, maps and the interpretation of other ancillary information. After the Armistice came into effect in November 1918, the wartime Air Service was demobilized and this process was completed within a year and the National Defense Act of 1920 then established the United States Army Air Service on a permanent basis, with several new units being formed. Later, some of the wartime units were consolidated to retain the lineage. Below is a list of the used by the American Expeditionary Force that were sent to France during World War I. The first Americans were sent to the school in mid-September,1917, the school was overcrowded and was lacking in proper quarters and mess facilities for the Americans. Also a lack of English-speaking instructors led to the decision to withdraw the Americans from the school, students were sent to the 3d AIC at Issodun, with the last departing on 4 December 1917. ** The I Corps Aeronautical School was a school, located at the French Air Service machine-gun training school at Gondrecourt-le-Château. About 225 men were sent to the school during March and April,1918 and this article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http, //www. afhra. af. mil/
27.
Autreville Airdrome
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Autreville Airdrome was a temporary World War I airfield in France. It was located 1.9 miles SSW of Autreville-sur-la-Renne, in the Haute-Marne department in the Champagne-Ardenne region in northeastern France, Autreville Airdrome was one of the first airfields selected in the Toul sector for the Air Service. The Airdrome was obtained by the Air Service on 7 March 1918 and it consisted of 268 acres of land, with a capacity of four aero squadrons and one-half a Park squadron. Buildings were constructed in an area next to the airfield for camouflage from enemy aircraft. There were a total of eight buildings, and a small medical clinic. The airfield was completed by the summer of 1918 with the exception of hangars. In the first week of August, Royal Air Force Handley-Page bombers arrived at the airfield from Ochey, the British erected five hangars on the field. From Autreville, the RAF carried out a bombing raid on Cologne before returning to Ochey by the end of September. In mid September, the first United States units began to arrive, two more squadrons arrived in late September, along with Salmson 2A2 and Dayton-Wright DH-4 aircraft being flown in from the 1st Air Depot, the squadrons taking part in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. In preparation for a joint drive by the American Second Army, on 11 November some French squadrons moved in, however the Armistice prevented any combat flights over the front lines. It was turned over to the 1st Air Depot for de-construction, all hangars and other structures were dismantled and all useful supplies and equipment were removed and sent back to the Depot for storage. Upon completion, the land turned over to the French government, eventually the land was returned to agricultural use by the local farmers. The site today is a series of cultivated fields located on the side of the Départmental 674, about 2 miles north-east of Martigny-les-Gerbonvaux. The wooded area to the west of the Airfield remains a forested area, list of Air Service American Expeditionary Force aerodromes in France This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http, //www. afhra. af. mil/
28.
Toul
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Toul is a commune in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department, Toul is located between Commercy and Nancy, and situated between the Moselle River and the Canal de la Marne au Rhin. Toul was known to the Romans as Tullum Leucorum, and was the capital of the Gaulish tribe of the Leuci, in 612, King Theudebert II of Austrasia was defeated by King Theuderic II of Burgundy near Toul. By the Treaty of Meerssen of 870, Toul became part of East Francia, during the High Middle Ages, it became a Free Imperial City. Toul was annexed to France by King Henry II in 1552 and it then was a part of the French province of the Three Bishoprics. Toul was the seat of the bishops of Toul, the diocese was founded around 365, the city was also the primary base of the Air Service, United States Army, a predecessor organization of the United States Air Force during World War I. As such, it was a base for many of the 45 wartime squadrons of the First Army Air Service, including the squadrons of the 1st Pursuit Group, First Army Observation Group, the Americans referred to the area around Toul as the Toul Sector. Two large operations were launched from this area, the St. Mihiel Offensive, the most striking features are the impressive stone ramparts. Those that exist today are the work of Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, in 1698 he designed a new enclosure and work began in 1699-1700. Several of Vaubans fortifications in France are listed as a combined UNESCO World Heritage Site, although the fortifications at Toul are not in that list they do follow the general defiladed fortification pattern for which Vauban is known. There appears to have been a town at this location since the earliest recorded history. Today, the ramparts encircle and define the old town and they are built of dressed white stone, and topped with grass, and in places are over five metres high. There is a deal of Roman archæology in the area. The Roman fortified town of Grand is some 30 km away, with its great amphitheatre, the old towns architecture is dominated by past glories in various states of decay, including a major Gothic cathedral, which is in a poor condition and is being slowly restored. Many of the houses were built as residences in the Late Middle Ages. There is no trace of the monastery, however its wine-cellars still exist, Toul is at the intersection of the Moselle River with the Canal de la Marne au Rhin, and was once, consequently, an important port. The barges known as péniches still navigate these watercourses commercially, typically carrying steel, there is a main-line railway station at Toul, the last major station before the marshalling yards at Nancy. However, the Paris-Strasbourg TGV line, now under construction, will pass about 20 km north of Toul and its completion will likely reduce Touls importance as a station
29.
8th Aero Squadron
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The 8th Aero Squadron was a Air Service, United States Army unit that fought on the Western Front during World War I. IV Corps was transferred to the United States Second Army in October 1918 for an offensive drive on Metz which was cancelled due to the 1918 Armistice with Germany on 11 November. The squadron returned to the United States in June 1919 and became part of the permanent United States Army Air Service in 1921, being re-designated as the 8th Squadron. The current United States Air Force unit which holds its lineage and history is the 8th Special Operations Squadron, assigned to the 1st Special Operations Wing, Hurlburt Field, Florida. The 8th Aero Squadron was drawn from enlisted personnel of the 2d Company I Provisional aviation camp, Kelly Field, after a short period of training at Kelly Field, the squadron boarded a train and was moved to Selfridge Field, Michigan, on 5 July 1917. Together with the 9th Aero Squadron, the 8th helped to construct the new flying field, for three and one-half months, the 8th Aero Squadron was engaged in training. Flight Cadets, Aviation Mechanics, fitters and riggers learned their basic skills, at Selfridge, the flight cadets completed primary aviation flight training, including soloing on Curtiss JN-4 Jenny trainers. The squadron arrived late the day, and spent the next month being trained in the fundamentals of soldiering. On 22 November, the squadron was ordered on board the RMS Carpathia, from Liverpool, the squadron was moved by train to the American Rest Camp Winnaldon, near Winchester. There, the squadron was divided into four Flights, which were sent to several Royal Flying Corps Airdromes for additional training, the squadron was re-assembled at RFC Thetford on 1 May 1918 for final training. On 16 July, the 8th was ordered to France, the squadron crossed the English Channel on the night of the 17th, arriving at Le Havre and proceeded to the Air Service Replacement Concentration Center at St. Maixent Replacement Barracks. After a short stay, it was classified as a Corps Observation squadron and ordered to the 1st Observation Group School at Amanty Airdrome, arriving on 31 July. At Amanty, the squadron was equipped with American made Dayton-Wright DH-4 aircraft, in addition, due to the short distance from the front, two weeks of intensive training was given to the pilots and observers, flying over enemy territory. On 31 August the squadron was moved by train to Ourches Aerodrome from which it would fly combat missions, there the squadron became part of the IV Corps Observation Group and was attached as a Divisional Observation Squadron to the First Division. The squadron was engaged at once into combat duty, flying photographic, on 29 September, the entire IV Corps Group moved up to Gengault Aerodrome, which is situated about two kilometers northeast of Toul, Mourth, Et Moselle, France. The Squadron remained here less than a month. During this time work was accomplished. At the suggestion of Col. Kahn, two planes were sent out on single missions with protection, instead of one aircraft
30.
135th Aero Squadron
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The 135th Aero Squadron was a Air Service, United States Army unit that fought on the Western Front during World War I. In combat, the 135th was the first Air Service unit equipped with the all American made Dayton-Wright DH-4 aircraft. IV Corps was transferred to the United States Second Army in October 1918 for an offensive drive on Metz which was cancelled due to the 1918 Armistice with Germany on 11 November. The squadron returned to the United States in June 1919 and became part of the permanent United States Army Air Service in 1921, the 135th Aero Squadron was organized at Rockwell Field, near San Diego, California on 1 August 1917. It was formed from personnel transferred from the 14th and 18th Aero Squadrons, being originality designated as Company A, 1st Aviation School, the men of the squadron began their training as aircraft mechanics on the first planes used by the United States Army. Fourteen Wright-Martin Model V and Curtiss Model J Tractors were used to train the first men as pilots in the Army, in fact, the first eighty-seven officers to be trained for flying were trained at Rockwell Field. Towards the end of their training at Rockwell Field, the 135th was alerted for overseas service, after a short period, orders were received on 25 November and the squadron boarded a train bound for the Aviation Concentration Center, Long Island, New York. The squadron arrived on 1 December and was sent to Hazelhurtst Field, the men, almost all being from southern California, were not used to the cold, damp weather and several became sick. On 16 December, the boarded the RMS Orduna and after a delay. The overseas voyage was uneventful with the exception that the ship was diverted to arrive in Glasgow, Scotland, upon arrival, the squadron was sent by train south to Winchester, England, arriving on 1 December 1918. At the Rest Camp at Winchester, the squadron was attached to the Royal Flying Corps for additional training, Flights were sent to RFC stations at Waddington, Scampton and South Carlton, the last arriving on 8 January. Training with the RFC continued until the end of June, movement was made to France, arriving at Le Havre on 28 June. From the staging area at Le Havre, the squadron boarded French railway cars, on 30 July, orders were again received to move to Ourches Aerodrome where the 135th was designated as a Corps Observation squadron, assigned to the IV Corps Observation Group. At Ourches, the squadron was equipped with American-made de Havilland DH-4s, built by Dayton-Wright, the aircraft were flown in by the pilots assigned to the squadron from the 1st Air Depot at Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome. By the end of the first week of August, the received its full compliment of 24 aircraft, along with the observers. On 7 August, the 135th Aero Squadron flew its first mission of the war, the first sortie was quite an affair with Brigadier General Benjamin Foulois, then Chief of the Air Service, Zone of Advance, leading the formation of squadron aircraft. A motion picture operator was present to record the event, motion pictures were taken of the 18 American planes lined up in front of the hangars. The sortie, however did not cross the line into enemy territory, after about an hour, all planes returned to Amanty without any problems
31.
John F. Curry
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Major General John Francis Curry was the first national commander of the Civil Air Patrol, the United States Air Force Auxiliary. He was also a general in the United States Army Air Corps. Curry had learned to fly in time to accompany General John J. Pershings expedition to Mexico, later, during World War I, he served as Chief of Staff of the Air Service of the Second Army in France, under Col. Frank P. Lahm. On October 26,1918 while serving as an observer in a 135th Aero Squadron airplane, on November 3,1918 while still serving as an observer, his plane-along with an aircraft of the 168th Aero Squadron-destroyed a German observation balloon. In late 1941, there was significant interest by civilian pilots to assist the U. S. military, however, in Washington, D. C. those in authority scoffed at the idea that a group of non-military aviators could provide any such assistance. Despite these misgivings, the Civil Air Patrol was formed as a part of the United States home defense needs, Curry, an Army Air Corps officer, was selected as its first national commander. As such, he was the only acting general in command of a civilian army. He served in capacity from December 1941 to March 1942. Founded as an organization, the Civil Air Patrol conducted patrols over coastal waters in search of enemy submarines. As it was not a plan to provide free flight training. Part of the reason for the founding of the Civil Air Patrol was to keep aviation from being put aside entirely during the war. As Gen. Curry stated, Without such a plan, there might be no private aviation for the duration of the war, with such a plan, there is a chance that private flying may continue, under Currys guidance, wings were formed in every state. He helped mobilize 100,000 private pilots for non-combatant service, There was no discrimination because of ones gender. Individual ability, experience and past records were the criteria for selection. In Currys words, There must be no doubt in the minds of out gallant women fliers that they are needed and, in my opinion, indispensable to the full success of the Civil Air Patrol organization. A great part of the made in organizing civilian aviation under Civil Air Patrol has been due to the volunteer help given by women flyers. Although he only served a few months as commander, Gen. Currys organizational skills were influential in determining the future growth of the Civil Air Patrol. Originally, the Civil Air Patrol was given the opportunity to prove itself for a 90-day test period, success in deterring German U-boat attacks on merchant vessels encouraged the USAAF and USN to support the Civil Air Patrols coastal patrol mission, among others
32.
Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
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The Distinguished Service Cross is equivalent to the Navy Cross, the Air Force Cross, and the Coast Guard Cross. The Distinguished Service Cross was first awarded during World War I, in addition, a number of awards were made for actions before World War I. Others were belated recognition of actions in the Philippines, on the Mexican Border, the Distinguished Service Cross is only awarded for actions in combat, while the Distinguished Service Medal has no such restriction. A cross of bronze,2 inches in height and 1 13⁄16 inches in width with an eagle on the center, on the reverse side, the center of the cross is circled by a wreath with a space for engraving the name of the recipient. The act or acts of heroism must have been so notable and have involved risk of life so extraordinary as to set the individual apart from his or her comrades, the following are authorized components of the Distinguished Service Cross, Decoration, MIL-D-3943/4. NSN 8455-00-246-3827 for individual replacement medal, additional awards of the Armys Distinguished Service Cross are denoted with oak leaf clusters. The Distinguished Service Cross was established by President Woodrow Wilson on January 2,1918, the request for establishment of the medal was forwarded from the Secretary of War to the President in a letter dated December 28,1917. The Act of Congress establishing this award, dated July 9,1918, is contained in 10 U. S. C, the establishment of the Distinguished Service Cross was promulgated in War Department General Order No. The Distinguished Service Cross was originally designed by J. Andre Smith, the Distinguished Service Cross was first cast and manufactured by the United States Mint at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The die was cast from the design prepared by Captain Aymar E. Embury II. Upon examination of the first medals struck at the Mint, it was considered advisable to make minor changes to add to the beauty. Due to the importance of the element involved in furnishing the decorations to General Pershing. These medals were furnished with the provision that these crosses be replaced when the supply of the design was accomplished. 10 U. S. C. §3991 provides for a 10% increase in retired pay for enlisted personnel who have retired more than 20 years of service if they have been awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. Order of precedence and wear of decorations is contained in Army Regulation 670-1, Policy for awards, approving authority, supply, and issue of decorations is contained in AR 600-8-22. During World War I,6,309 awards of the Distinguished Service Cross were made to 6,185 recipients, several dozen Army soldiers, as well as eight Marines and two French Army officers, received two Distinguished Service Crosses. A handful, mostly aviators, were decorated three or more times, fellow aviators Douglas Campbell, also of the 94th, and Frank ODriscoll Monk Hunter of the 103rd Aero Squadron each received five. Another 94th aviator, Reed McKinley Chambers, was awarded four Distinguished Service Crosses, Edward Peck Curtis, also of the 95th Aero Squadron received the Distinguished Service Cross as a First Lieutenant
33.
Tours Aerodrome
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Tours Aerodrome was a complex of military airfields in the French department of Indre-et-Loire,6 km north-northeast of the city of Tours. They were used during World War I as part of the Second Air Instructional Center, today Tours Airdrome #1 airfield is Tours Val de Loire Airport. The airfield complex is located three miles northwest of the city of Tours, Department of Indre-et-Loire, on the main road to Vendome. Tours initially was established by the French Air Force (French, Armée de lAir as a school for pilots prior to the United States entry into World War I. On 23 July 1917, a group of 47 enlisted Air Service men arrived in France on the SS Orduna, ten members were ordered to Paris to receive ground commissions while the balance were sent to Tours for flying training. However, owing to a number of personnel available, the French retained overall control of the school until the end of the war in November 1917. In addition to the training, the 2d AIC eventually developed specialist schools in Aerial Observation, Radio, Photography. The training complexes at Issoudun Aerodrome and Tours were the two largest training schools in France for Air Service pilots. The first Air Service training class arrived at Tours on 15 August, like the Naval aviators, the Army fliers were allotted in groups to classes under French instructors. The rivalry between cadets was intense, for the honor at stake was that of being the first pilot of the Air Service to be breveted in France. It was finally shared between two, Oscar G. Gude and J. W. Watts, later 1st Lieutenants and they were, in turn, followed by classes of cadets which arrived from the United States. On 1 November 1918, a ceremony was held which turned over control of the school to the AEF, however. On 1 February 1918, additional flight instructors arrived from the United States, with the additional number of personnel,30 additional training aircraft and facilities, the scope of training was greatly increased. From Tours, the graduates were sent to the 3d AIC at Issoudun Aerodrome for advanced training, the receipt of dual control trainers reduced the amount of accidents and improved the number of solo flying when that stage of training was reached. During February 1918,45 pilots graduated, in March 104, an average of about 80 pilots graduated each month afterwards. The Observers School was opened in January 1918, in addition to the Caudrons, British Sopwith Pups, along with Breguet 14s were utilized. The course given to observers was intended to cover all necessary to qualify the observer for front-line duty. Additional buildings were constructed during the summer of 1918 included 23 barracks,3 maintenance shops,10 warehouses and 3 hangars and these additional resources made possible the establishment of Radio and other smaller schools, along with the aerial gunnery school, with a gunnery range being established
34.
Hindenburg Line
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The Hindenburg Line was a German defensive position of World War I, built during the winter of 1916–1917 on the Western Front, from Arras to Laffaux, near Soissons on the Aisne. In 1916, the German offensive at the Battle of Verdun had been a costly failure, the Anglo-French offensive at the Battle of the Somme had forced a defensive battle on the Germans, leaving the western armies exhausted. On the Eastern Front, the Brusilov Offensive had inflicted huge losses on the Austro-Hungarian armies in Russia, the declaration of war by Romania had placed additional strain on the German army and war economy. The shorter defensive position behind the Noyon Salient was built to economise on manpower, contain an Allied breakthrough, the British and French armies would need about eight weeks to rebuild roads, bridges and railways in the abandoned area before they could attack. By the beginning of 1917, the outlook for the Germans made a retirement inevitable. German divisions on the Western Front numbered 133 on 25 January 1917, reducing the German manpower shortage, greater output of explosives, ammunition and weapons by German industry to provide the means to counter the Allied Materialschlacht was attempted in the Hindenburg Programme of August 1916. Production did not sufficiently increase over the winter, with only 60 percent of the expected to be fulfilled by the summer of 1917. News of the demolitions and the state of French civilians left behind, were serious blows to German prestige in neutral countries. Divisions released by Operation Alberich and other reinforcements, increased the number of divisions on the Aisne front to 38 by early April. The Hindenburg Line was attacked several times in 1917, notably at St. Quentin, Bullecourt, in August 1916 the German armies on the Somme had been subjected to great strain, the IX Reserve Corps had been shattered in the defence of Pozières. Ten fresh divisions had been brought into the Somme front and a division had been put into the line opposite the British. Destruction, capture, damage, wear and defective ammunition had caused 1,068 of 1,208 field guns and 371 of 820 heavy guns to be out of action by the end of August. The 2nd Army had been starved of reinforcements in mid-August, to replace exhausted divisions in the 1st Army, the emergency in Russia caused by the Brusilov Offensive, the entry of Romania into the war and the French counter offensive at Verdun had already overstretched the German army. The new supreme command ordered an end to attacks at Verdun and the dispatch of troops there to Romania. The western front commanders were told that no reserves were available for offensive operations, on 21 September, after the battle of Flers–Courcelette, Hindenburg ordered that the Somme front was to have priority in the west for troops and supplies. By the end of the Battle of Morval Rupprecht had no reserves left on the Somme front, during September, the Germans sent another thirteen fresh divisions to the British sector and scraped up troops wherever they could be found. Defeats inflicted by the French Tenth Army led to the sacking of the 2nd Army Chief of Staff, Hindenburg and Ludendorff demanded domestic changes to complement their strategy changes. German workers were to be subjected to an Auxiliary Service Law that subjected all Germans from 16–50 years old to compulsory service, the new programme was intended to create a trebling of artillery and machine-gun output and a doubling of munitions and trench mortar production
35.
Rhineland
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The Rhineland is the name used for a loosely defined area of Western Germany along the Rhine River, chiefly its middle section. In the High Middle Ages, numerous Imperial States along the river emerged from the stem duchy of Lotharingia. The term covered the whole occupied zone west of the Rhine including the bridge-heads on the eastern banks, after the collapse of the French dominated West Bank in the early 19th century, the regions of Lower Rhine and Jülich-Cleves-Berg were annexed to the Kingdom of Prussia. In 1822 the Prussian administration reorganized the territory as the Rhine Province, following the First World War, the western part of Rhineland was occupied by Entente forces, then demilitarized under the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. German forces remilitarized the territory in 1936, as part of a diplomatic test of will, stretching down to the North Palatine Uplands in the south, this area, except for the Saarland, more or less corresponds with the modern use of the term. The southern and eastern parts are mainly hill country, cut by valleys, principally the Middle Rhine up to Bingen and its Ahr, Moselle. The border of the North German plain is marked by the lower Ruhr, in the south, the river cuts the Rhenish Massif. The area encompasses the western part of the Ruhr industrial region, toponyms as well as local family names often trace back to the Frankish heritage. The lands on the shore of the Rhine are strongly characterised by Roman influence. In the core territories, large parts of the population are members of the Catholic Church. On the right bank of the Rhine, between the Main and the Lahn, were the settlements of the Mattiaci, a branch of the Germanic Chatti, while farther to the north were the Usipetes and Tencteri. Julius Caesar conquered the tribes on the left bank, and Augustus established numerous fortified posts on the Rhine. The Frankish conquerors of the Rhenish districts were singularly little affected by the culture of the Roman provincials they subdued, by the 8th century the Frankish dominion was firmly established in western Germania and northern Gaul. On the division of the Carolingian Empire at the Treaty of Verdun the part the province to the east of the fell to East Francia. As the central power of the Holy Roman Emperor weakened, the Rhineland split up into small independent principalities, each with its separate vicissitudes. After the Imperial Reform of 1500/12, the territory was part of the Lower Rhenish–Westphalian, Upper Rhenish, aachen was the place of coronation of the German emperors, and the ecclesiastical principalities of the Rhine played a large role in German history. At the Peace of Basel in 1795, the whole of the bank of the Rhine was taken by France. The population was about 1.6 million in small states
36.
III Corps Observation Group
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The III Corps Observation Group was an Air Service, United States Army unit that fought on the Western Front during World War I as part of the Air Service, First United States Army. It was demobilized on 12 May 1919, there is no modern United States Air Force unit that shares its lineage and history. The III Corps Observation Group was organized on 20 September 1918 by the First Army Air Service at Souilly Aerodrome and it was formed after the St. Mihiel Offensive and for the purpose of operations in the forthcoming Meuse-Argonne Offensive. The first efforts of the Group were directed towards organization and preparation for operations in the coming offensive. The 205th French Squadron did all Corps artillery adjustments requested, the divisions the Group for which work was done in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive were the 33d, 80th, 5th, 90th, 29th and 75th of First Army. The 88th was assigned to Corps Headquarters, the 90th for the Right and Left Divisions, with the French units being assigned to Corps Artillery, the 88th was required to keep an airplane constantly on reconnaissance patrol from dawn to dusk each day. Also, information of particular interest to divisions would be reported to them, the mission of the 90th was to principally keep the divisional commander informed of the location of his own troops. The aircraft were also, when deemed appropriate communicate directly with Brigade Commanders, the greatest attention by the Brigades were the manipulation of panels so the air service could render effective aid when called for. Also, the squadron was tasked to work with divisional artillery through squadron liaison officers, the progress of the attack was followed the line taken at intervals during each day of the attack. The Group was well equipped at the beginning of operations with excellent and capable Salmson 2A2 aircraft, many of the planes were damaged during the attack due to enemy fire and the engines were constantly overworked. Towards the end of the offensive, the activity and aggressiveness of enemy aviation increased, a squadron with the planes painted red came into the sector on 15 October. This squadron was most aggressive and was said to be Richtofens Old Circus, while engaged in combat operations, the Group also operated Infantry liaison schools without interference with work over the lines while at Souilly. Two infantry different detachments of 500 men, with about 50 non-commissioned officers and thirty-two commissioned officers came to the airfield, the 90th Aero Squadron shot down 7 enemy aircraft and the 88th three. Twenty-five successful artillery adjustments were made by the observations performed by the group, also Thousands of sheets of leaflets were dropped on enemy forces. During the weeks following the signing of the Armistice, the III Corps Observation Group would be the corps in the Third Armys march to the Rhine River. The Group was re-organized, being relieved from First Army and transferred to the Third Army Air Service on 21 November 1918, the 88th Squadron which had been active in combat during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive was relieved and transferred to the Third Army VII Corps Observation Group. The 90th was transferred to the I Corps Observation Group, and remained in France for demobilization, the 1st Aero Squadron, the senior squadron in the American Air Service, was assigned to the Group for its operations with Third Army on the Rhine. Corps Air Service Headquarters was moved along with III Corps to the Rhine beginning on 11 November and it crossed from France into Luxembourg on 21 November, and into the German Rhineland on 1 December
37.
Fokker D.VII
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The Fokker D. VII was a German World War I fighter aircraft designed by Reinhold Platz of the Fokker-Flugzeugwerke. Germany produced around 3,300 D. VII aircraft in the half of 1918. In service with the Luftstreitkräfte, the D. VII quickly proved itself to be a formidable aircraft, the Armistice ending the war specifically required Germany to surrender all D. VIIs to the Allies. Surviving aircraft saw continued service with many other countries in the years after World War I. Fokkers chief designer, Reinhold Platz, had working on a series of experimental planes. These aircraft were characterized by the use of cantilever wings, Junkers had originated the idea in 1915 with the first all-metal aircraft, the Junkers J1, nicknamed Blechesel. The resulting wings were thick, with a leading edge. This gave greater lift and more docile stalling behavior than the thin wings commonly used at the time, late in 1917, Fokker built the experimental V11 biplane, fitted with the standard Mercedes D. IIIa engine. In January 1918, Idflieg held a competition at Adlershof. For the first time, frontline pilots would participate in the evaluation and selection of new fighters. Fokker submitted the V11 along with other prototypes. Manfred von Richthofen flew the V11 and found it tricky, unpleasant, in response to these complaints, Reinhold Platz lengthened the rear fuselage by one structural bay, and added a triangular vertical fin in front of the rudder. Upon flying the modified V11, Richthofen praised it as the best aircraft of the competition and it offered excellent performance from the outdated Mercedes engine, yet was safe and easy to fly. Richthofens recommendation virtually decided the competition, but he was not alone in recommending it, Fokker immediately received a provisional order for 400 production aircraft, which were designated D. VII by Idflieg. Fokkers factory was not up to the task of meeting all D. VII production orders, Idflieg therefore directed Albatros and AEG to build the D. VII under license, though AEG did not ultimately produce any aircraft. Because the Fokker factory did not use detailed plans as part of its production process, Albatros paid Fokker a five percent royalty for every D. VII built under license. Albatros Flugzeugwerke and its subsidiary, Ostdeutsche Albatros Werke, built the D. VII at factories in Johannisthal and Schneidemühl, aircraft markings included the type designation and factory suffix, immediately before the individual serial number. Some parts were not interchangeable between aircraft produced at different factories, even between Albatros and OAW, additionally each manufacturer tended to differ in nose paint styles
38.
Pfalz D.XII
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The Pfalz D. XII was a German fighter aircraft built by Pfalz Flugzeugwerke. Designed by Rudolph Gehringer as a successor to the Pfalz D. III and it was the last Pfalz aircraft to see widespread service. Though the D. XII was a fighter aircraft, it was overshadowed by the highly successful Fokker D. VII. In early 1918, the Idflieg distributed to German aircraft manufacturers a detailed engineering report on the SPAD S. VII, Pfalz accordingly produced several Pfalz D. III-derived prototypes with SPAD-type wings. These developed into the Pfalz D. XII, the new aircraft was powered by the 180 hp Mercedes D. IIIaü engine and continued the use of LFG-Rolands patented Wickelrumpf plywood-skinned monocoque fuselage construction. Unlike the earlier aircraft, the D. XII used a two-bay wing cellule, furthermore, the flush wing radiator was replaced with a car-type radiator mounted in front of the engine. The prototype D. XII first flew in March 1918, subsequently, Idflieg issued a production order for 50 aircraft. Pfalz entered several D. XII prototypes in the fighter competition at Adlershof in May/June 1918. Only Ernst Udet and Hans Weiss favored the D. XII over the Fokker D. VII, the aircraft passed its Typenprüfung on 19 June 1918. Difficulties with the radiator, which used vertical tubes rather than the more common honeycomb structure, the first 200 production examples could be distinguished by their rectangular fin and rudder. Subsequent aircraft featured a larger, rounded rudder profile, the D. XII began reaching the Jagdstaffeln, primarily Bavarian units, in July 1918. Most units operated the D. XII in conjunction with other fighter types, but units in quieter sectors of the front were completely equipped with the D. XII. While the D. XII was an improvement over the obsolescent Albatros D. Va and Pfalz D. IIIa, it nevertheless found little favor with German pilots. Leutnant Rudolf Stark, commander of Jasta 35, wrote, Thanks to its wing and thin airfoil section. Like most contemporary fighters, however, the D. XII had an abrupt stall, furthermore, pilots consistently criticized the D. XII for its long takeoff run, heavy controls, and clumsy handling qualities in the air. Rate of roll, in particular, appears to have been deficient, landings were difficult because the D. XII tended to float above the ground and the landing gear was weak. Ground crews disliked the extensive wire bracing of the two-bay wings, evaluations of captured aircraft by Allied pilots were similarly unfavorable. Between 750 and 800 D. XII scouts were completed by the Armistice, a substantial number, perhaps as many as 175, were surrendered to the Allies
39.
Halberstadt
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Halberstadt is a town in the German state of Saxony-Anhalt, the capital of Harz district. Located north of the Harz mountain range, it is known for its old town centre that was damaged in World War II. Halberstadt is situated between the Harz in the south and the Huy hills in the north on the Holtemme and Goldbach rivers, the municipal area comprises the villages of Aspenstedt, Athenstedt, Langenstein, Sargstedt, and Ströbeck, all incorporated in 2010. Halberstadt is the base of the Department of Public Management of the Hochschule Harz University of Applied Studies, the town centre retains many important historic buildings and much of its ancient townscape. Notable places in Halberstadt include Halberstadt Cathedral, the Church of Our Lady and St Martins, Halberstadt is the site of the first documented large, permanent pipe organ installation in 1361. The cathedral is notable among those in northern European towns in having retained its medieval treasury in virtually complete condition, among its treasures are the oldest surviving tapestries in Europe, dating from the 12th century. The town is also a stop on the scenic German Timber-Frame Road The town can be reached via the Bundesstraße 6n,79,81, Halberstadt main station is an important railway hub on the Magdeburg–Thale and Halle–Vienenburg lines, mainly served by Transdev Sachsen-Anhalt. The Halberstadt tramway network currently operates two lines, germania Halberstadt is a football club which plays in Halberstadt. In 814 the Carolingian emperor Louis the Pious made the Christian mission in the German stem duchy of Saxony the episcopal see of the Diocese of Halberstadt and it was vested with market rights by King Otto III in 989. The town became the centre of the Saxon Harzgau and an important trading venue. The Halberstadt bishops had the Church of Our Lady erected from about 1005 onwards, in his fierce conflict with Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, the forces of the Saxon duke Henry the Lion devastated the town in 1179. Upon Henrys downfall, the Halberstadt diocese was elevated to a prince-bishopric about 1180 and its Cathedral was rebuilt from 1236 and consecrated in 1491. Halberstadt, Quedlinburg and Aschersleben joined a league of towns in 1326, from 1387, from 1479, the diocese was administrated by the Archbishops of Magdeburg. While the Halberstadt citizens turned Protestant around 1540, the chapter elected Prince Henry Julius of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel first Lutheran bishop in 1566. During the Thirty Years War, the town was occupied by the troops of Albrecht von Wallenstein in 1629, according to the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, the prince-bishopric was finally secularized to the Principality of Halberstadt held by Brandenburg-Prussia. The first secular governor was Joachim Friedrich von Blumenthal, Halberstadt became part of the newly established Kingdom of Prussia in 1701. From 1747 Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim worked here as a government official, upon the 1807 Treaty of Tilsit, the town became part of the Kingdom of Westphalia, a Napoleonic client-state and administrative seat of the Department of the Saale. On 29 July 1809, a Westphalian regiment was defeated by the Black Brunswickers under Prince Frederick William of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in the Battle of Halberstadt, after the defeat of Napoleon, the town was restored to Prussia and subsequently administered within the Province of Saxony
40.
Rumpler
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Rumpler Flugzeugwerke, usually known simply as Rumpler was a German aircraft manufacturer founded in Berlin by Austrian engineer Edmund Rumpler in 1909 as Rumpler Luftfahrtzeugbau. Rumpler failed to secure a place in the market, and was liquidated in 1920
41.
Aviation Concentration Center
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Camp Albert L. Mills was a military installation on Long Island, New York. It was located ten miles from the eastern boundary of New York City on the Hempstead Plains within what is now the village of Garden City. It was named in honor of Major General Albert L. Mills, Camp Mills was one of three camps under control of the New York Port of Embarkation with a capacity for 40,000 transient troops. The mission of Camp Mills was initially the preparation of Army units prior to their deployment to Europe in World War I and it was established as temporary tent camp in September 1917 as a place to mobilize the 42nd Division, made up of National Guard units from various states. After the 42d left for the Western Front in France, the 41st Division followed, Camp Mills was expanded to a containment with wooden buildings for the accommodation of thousands of troops, who arrived from training camps across the United States. Those ships transported troops primarily to the ports of Liverpool, England, or Brest, Facilities at Camp Mills included a hospital, warehouses, bakery, delousing plant and other facilities. It eventually consisted of about 1,200 buildings with a capacity of 46,000, including space for 40,000 transients, a 500 inmate detention camp and 5,500 members of a permanent garrison. A very large number of American soldiers shipped out to France from Camp Mills, at its peak in September 1918, notable individuals who were assigned during World War I were, Douglas MacArthur, Wild Bill Donovan, Joyce Kilmer and Father Duffy among them. F. Scott Fitzgerald was a soldier at Camp Mills, with the end of World War I in November 1918, Camp Mills then performed a mission to process the thousands of troops back into the United States as a demobilization center. Many returning units passed though it and were demobilized or sent to other camps across the United States where the men were processed out of the Army. In 1938 Camp Mills was incorporated into Mitchel Field as part of an Air Corps expansion, the Aviation General Supply Depot and Concentration Camp was a temporary wartime establishment located adjacent to Camp Mills, and shared many of its facilities. It was used for organizing, training, and equipping Air Service troops, the facility was later expanded with wooden buildings and turned into a containment. The Concentration Center was under the jurisdiction of the Operations Section and it was later re-designated as the Air Service Depot from October 1918 to April 1919 when it was consolidated with Hazelhurst Field and made part of Mitchel Field on 5 April 1919. Today, Camp Mills and the Aviation Concentration Center are a part of the community of the village of Garden City. A monument to the Rainbow Division at St James Street and Rainbow Place in Garden City near the site of Camp Mills was restored and then rededicated on November 11,2004. Swanson, Robert Domestic United States Military Facilities of the First World War, 1917–1919 Long Island Studies Institute UNH, Historic USGS Map Camp Mills Quadrangle, Surveyed 1897
42.
RMS Adriatic (1906)
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RMS Adriatic was an ocean liner of the White Star Line. She was the fourth of a quartet of ships measuring over 20,000 tons, the ship was the only one of the four which was never the worlds largest ship, however, she was the fastest of the Big Four. The Adriatic was the first ocean liner to have a swimming pool. She was built by Harland and Wolff and was launched on 20 September 1906 and she set off on her maiden voyage from Liverpool to New York City on 8 May 1907 under the command of Captain Edward Smith. She was changed to the Southampton run after her maiden voyage, however, she was the ship that inaugurated White Stars Southampton service and was the first White Star liner to use the newly constructed dock in Southampton, named the White Star Dock. She ran this route until 1911 when Olympic took it over with the Adriatic returning to the Liverpool run, the Adriatic sailed from Liverpool on 18 April 1912 and arrived in New York on 27 April 1912. During World War I, the Adriatic served as a troopship, after the war ended, she returned to passenger service. In 1928, she was converted to a cabin-class ship, in 1933, she was withdrawn from the North Atlantic route and was converted into cruising. P. She sailed from Liverpool on 29 March 1934, and called at Gibraltar, Villefranche, Malta, Algiers, the Adriatic left Liverpool for the last time on 19 December 1934, her longest voyage ever, to be scrapped at Onomichi, Japan, in 1935. Adriatic on thegreatoceanliners. com http, //www. greatships. net/adriatic2. html RMS Adriatic on Lost Liners The electric and Turkish baths on the SS Adriatic A video dedicated to RMS Adriatic
43.
Camp Mills
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Camp Albert L. Mills was a military installation on Long Island, New York. It was located ten miles from the eastern boundary of New York City on the Hempstead Plains within what is now the village of Garden City. It was named in honor of Major General Albert L. Mills, Camp Mills was one of three camps under control of the New York Port of Embarkation with a capacity for 40,000 transient troops. The mission of Camp Mills was initially the preparation of Army units prior to their deployment to Europe in World War I and it was established as temporary tent camp in September 1917 as a place to mobilize the 42nd Division, made up of National Guard units from various states. After the 42d left for the Western Front in France, the 41st Division followed, Camp Mills was expanded to a containment with wooden buildings for the accommodation of thousands of troops, who arrived from training camps across the United States. Those ships transported troops primarily to the ports of Liverpool, England, or Brest, Facilities at Camp Mills included a hospital, warehouses, bakery, delousing plant and other facilities. It eventually consisted of about 1,200 buildings with a capacity of 46,000, including space for 40,000 transients, a 500 inmate detention camp and 5,500 members of a permanent garrison. A very large number of American soldiers shipped out to France from Camp Mills, at its peak in September 1918, notable individuals who were assigned during World War I were, Douglas MacArthur, Wild Bill Donovan, Joyce Kilmer and Father Duffy among them. F. Scott Fitzgerald was a soldier at Camp Mills, with the end of World War I in November 1918, Camp Mills then performed a mission to process the thousands of troops back into the United States as a demobilization center. Many returning units passed though it and were demobilized or sent to other camps across the United States where the men were processed out of the Army. In 1938 Camp Mills was incorporated into Mitchel Field as part of an Air Corps expansion, the Aviation General Supply Depot and Concentration Camp was a temporary wartime establishment located adjacent to Camp Mills, and shared many of its facilities. It was used for organizing, training, and equipping Air Service troops, the facility was later expanded with wooden buildings and turned into a containment. The Concentration Center was under the jurisdiction of the Operations Section and it was later re-designated as the Air Service Depot from October 1918 to April 1919 when it was consolidated with Hazelhurst Field and made part of Mitchel Field on 5 April 1919. Today, Camp Mills and the Aviation Concentration Center are a part of the community of the village of Garden City. A monument to the Rainbow Division at St James Street and Rainbow Place in Garden City near the site of Camp Mills was restored and then rededicated on November 11,2004. Swanson, Robert Domestic United States Military Facilities of the First World War, 1917–1919 Long Island Studies Institute UNH, Historic USGS Map Camp Mills Quadrangle, Surveyed 1897
44.
Barney M. Giles
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Barney McKinney Giles was an American military officer who helped develop strategic bombing theory and practice. Giles stepped outside of established bomber doctrine during World War II to develop capabilities for fighter aircraft in use by the United States Army Air Forces. Giles served as commanding general of the Fourth Air Force then as commander of the Twentieth Air Force in the Pacific Ocean Areas, in 1945 Giles was appointed honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire by King George VI of the United Kingdom. Barney McKinney Giles was born on a farm near Mineola, Texas in 1892 to Richard Portlock Giles and he and his identical twin, Benjamin Franklin Giles, both attended East Texas Normal College and taught school for three years. Both twins studied law at the University of Texas at Austin until World War I began in Europe, Giles attained the rank of second lieutenant in April 1918 and flew with the 168th Observation Squadron in France for a year. Giles resigned his commission in September 1919, Benjamin in October, the twins returned to duty one year later, Benjamin in March 1920 and Barney in October 1920. Giles served as assistant engineering officer, first at the Aviation Repair Depot in Dallas, Texas, Giles became first lieutenant in April 1921, and remained at San Antonio until July 1924 when he transferred to Kelly Field as engineer and operations officer. He served as engineering officer at Rockwell Air Depot in San Diego from October 1930 until July 1934. Giles attended the Air Corps Tactical School at Maxwell Field in Alabama with his twin brother, other officers in the graduating class included strategic bombing advocates Haywood S. Hansell, Muir S. Fairchild, Laurence S. Kuter and Hoyt S. Vandenberg. Major Barney Giles commanded the 20th Bomb Squadron at Langley Field in Virginia for a year and he flew the first YB-17 Flying Fortress service test bomber to Langley on March 4,1937. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for leading the rescue of seven men stranded on an ice floe near Cape Cod Bay, Giles was promoted to lieutenant colonel in February 1941, to colonel in January 1942, and to brigadier general in March. In July, General Giles went to Hamilton Field just north of San Francisco where he organized and commanded the 4th Air Service Area Command, Giles received his second star in September 1942. He was named director of requirements and assistant chief of air staff for operations in March 1943. Giles was appointed lieutenant general in May 1943 and in July was named deputy commander of the Army Air Forces, in this role, he often served as acting head of Army Air Forces because of General Arnolds prolonged illness. Giles actively promoted the development of long-range capabilities for fighter aircraft such as P-38 Lightnings, P-47 Thunderbolts and he went to the China-Burma-India Theater in mid-July and held a conference with commanders to arrive at some agreement on the allocation of tonnage over The Hump. At the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Giles, in May, Giles went to Guam to join Major General Curtis LeMay in planning the strategy of bombing industrial and petroleum targets in Japan. Giles stated to the press that Japans 148,000 square miles would receive more bombs than Germanys 215,000 square miles, in June, Giles backed Admiral Charles A. Lockwoods plan to hold airman-submariner conferences with the goal of improving air-sea rescue operations. Giles was appointed deputy commander of United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific under General Carl Andrew Spaatz on July 5,1945, Giles witnessed Japans surrender aboard the battleship Missouri
45.
Air Staff (United States)
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The Air Staff is one of the Department of the Air Forces two statutorily designated headquarters staffs, the other staff is the Office of the Secretary of the Air Force, also known as the Secretariat. The Air Staff is headed by the Chief of Staff of the Air Force, the Air Staff is primarily composed of uniformed U. S. The Air Staff was reorganized in 2006 to be numbered in accordance with the Joint Staff system, for the most part, the Joint Staff numbering system applies to the air staff. For reference, the organization of the Joint Staff follows, Air Force Vice Chief of Staff of the U. S. S. Board members also include the Secretary of the Air Force, the Chief of Staff of the Air Force, the office responds to Combat Air Force and combatant command requirements. The RCO reports to a board of directors comprising the undersecretary of defense for acquisition, technology and logistics, the office is staffed with a variety of functional specialists who form a collaborative melting pot of expertise. The Secretary of the Air Force activated the office 28 April 2003, one of its first projects was to deploy significant upgrades to the Integrated Air Defense System, now operational around the National Capital Region. Currently, RCO is working on the X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle to demonstrate a reliable, reusable, additionally, RCO, in conjunction with MIT Lincoln Lab and other partners, is developing a sensitive airborne receiver system. The system is scheduled for evaluation during the summer of 2009. The RCO Red Team assesses current and future threats to U. S. combat operations by providing independent technical assessments, Joint Chiefs of Staff Organization of the U. S. Air force Countdown to A10 staff Air Force Staff Restructures to Improve Joint Ops, Communication
United States
Air Service, United States Army
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This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http://www.afhra.af.mil/.
