1.
1734 in Sweden
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Events from the year 1734 in Sweden Monarch – Frederick I - The Civil Code of 1734 is passed. This regulates all society, introducing new laws. Among them the ban of torture, restrictions of a right to abuse his wife, bans any other form of marriage except that conducted by the church. - Defense treaty between Sweden and Denmark, - Carolus Linnaeus conduct his trip to Dalarna. - Brigitta Scherzenfeldt return to Sweden from her enslavement in Central Asia, - The Kings mistress, Hedvig Taube, is officially acknowledged as his lover after she is granted a title and her own residence after the birth of their child, which attracts a national scandal
2.
1735 in Sweden
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Events from the year 1735 in Sweden Monarch – Frederick I17 March - The Freemasonry is introduced to Sweden by Axel Wrede Sparre. 10 May - Kongliga Ritarakademien is created, it is re-founded as the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts in 1773, august - Arvid Horn renews the treaty between Sweden and Russia. - Systema naturae by Carolus Linnaeus, - Sweden establish a permanent embassy at Constantinople in the Ottoman Empire. The Speigelberg Company tour Sweden and is confirmed to have performed in Norrköping this year
3.
17th century
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The 17th century was the century that lasted from January 1,1601, to December 31,1700, in the Gregorian calendar. The greatest military conflicts were the Thirty Years War, the Great Turkish War, in the Islamic world, the Ottoman, Safavid Persian and Mughal empires grew in strength. In Japan, Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Edo period at the beginning of the century, European politics were dominated by the Kingdom of France of Louis XIV, where royal power was solidified domestically in the civil war of the Fronde. With domestic peace assured, Louis XIV caused the borders of France to be expanded and it was during this century that English monarch became a symbolic figurehead and Parliament was the dominant force in government – a contrast to most of Europe, in particular France. It was also a period of development of culture in general,1600, On February 17 Giordano Bruno is burned at the stake by the Inquisition. 1600, Michael the Brave unifies the three Romanian countries, Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania after the Battle of Șelimbăr from 1599. 1601, Battle of Kinsale, England defeats Irish and Spanish forces at the town of Kinsale, driving the Gaelic aristocracy out of Ireland and destroying the Gaelic clan system. 1601, Michael the Brave, voivode of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania, is assassinated by the order of the Habsburg general Giorgio Basta at Câmpia Turzii, 1601–1603, The Russian famine of 1601–1603 kills perhaps one-third of Russia. 1601, Panembahan Senopati, first king of Mataram, dies and passes rule to his son Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak 1601,1602, Matteo Ricci produces the Map of the Myriad Countries of the World, a world map that will be used throughout East Asia for centuries. 1602, The Portuguese send an expeditionary force from Malacca which succeeded in reimposing a degree of Portuguese control. 1602, The Dutch East India Company is established by merging competing Dutch trading companies and its success contributes to the Dutch Golden Age. 1602, Two emissaries from the Aceh Sultanate visit the Dutch Republic,1603, Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England. 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu takes the title of Shogun, establishing the Tokugawa Shogunate and this begins the Edo period, which will last until 1869. 1603–1623, After modernizing his army, Abbas I expands the Persian Empire by capturing territory from the Ottomans,1603, First permanent Dutch trading post is established in Banten, West Java. First successful VOC privateering raid on a Portuguese ship,1604, A second English East India Company voyage commanded by Sir Henry Middleton reaches Ternate, Tidore, Ambon and Banda. 1605, Gunpowder Plot failed in England,1605, The fortresses of Veszprém and Visegrad are retaken by the Ottomans. 1605, February, The VOC in alliance with Hitu prepare to attack a Portuguese fort in Ambon,1605, Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak of Mataram establishes control over Demak, former center of the Demak Sultanate. 1606, Treaty of Vienna ends anti-Habsburg uprising in Royal Hungary,1606, Assassination of Stephen Bocskay of Transylvania
4.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
5.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
6.
1700s (decade)
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January 26 – At approximately 9 p. m. the Cascadia earthquake occurred with an estimated moment magnitude of 8. 7–9.2. This megathrust earthquake ruptured about 1,000 kilometers of the Cascadia Subduction Zone, February 3 – The Lesser Great Fire destroys a substantial part of central Edinburgh, Scotland. February 12 – The Great Northern War begins with a joint invasion of Swedish territory in Germany and Latvia by Denmark, Sweden has control of the Baltic Sea and holds territory that includes Finland, Estonia, Latvia and parts of northern Germany. To challenge its power, an alliance is formed between Tsar Peter I of Russia, King Frederick IV of Denmark and Augustus II the Strong, King of Poland, Swedens ruler is the militaristic Charles XII, known as the Swedish Meteor. February 27 – Island of New Britain discovered by William Dampier in the western Pacific, March 1 – Protestant Germany and Denmark–Norway adopt the Gregorian calendar. March 1, March 11, February 29 – Swedish calendar adopted, early March – William Congreves comedy The Way of the World is first performed in London. March 25 – Treaty of London signed between France, England and Holland, april – Fire destroys many buildings in Gondar, the capital of Ethiopia, including two in the palace complex. May 5 Within a few days of John Drydens death, his last written work is performed as part of Vanbrughs version of The Pilgrim, William Penn begins monthly meetings for blacks advocating emancipation. July 11 – The Prussian Academy of Sciences is founded with Gottfried Leibniz as president, summer – Charles XII of Sweden counter-attacks his enemies by invading Zealand, assisted by an Anglo-Dutch naval squadron under Sir George Rooke, rapidly compelling the Danes to submit to peace. August 18 – Peace of Travendal concluded between the Swedish Empire, Denmark–Norway and Holstein-Gottorp in Traventhal, on the same day, Augustus II, King of Poland, and Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, enter the war against Sweden. Late summer – A Russian army invades Swedish Estonia and besieges the town of Narva, November 1 – Charles II, last Spanish king of the House of Habsburg, dies insane at the Royal Alcazar of Madrid leaving no children. November 15 – Louis XIV accepts the Spanish crown on behalf of his grandson Philip of Anjou, November 18 – Battle of Olkieniki, Lithuanian Civil War, victory for the anti-Sapieha coalition. November 23 – Pope Clement XI succeeds Pope Innocent XII as the 243rd pope, November 30 – Battle of Narva in Estonia. Having led his army of 8,000 on a march from Denmark to Estonia. December 28 – Laurence Hyde, 1st Earl of Rochester, is appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, mission San Xavier del Bac is founded in New Spain near Tucson, as a Spanish Roman Catholic mission. An inventory made for the Medici family of Florence is the first documentary evidence for a piano, an English translation of the novel Don Quixote, translated from the original by many hands and published by Peter Motteux, begins publication in London. While popular among readers, it eventually come to be known as one of the worst translations of the novel. The value of sales of English manufactured products to the Atlantic economy is £3.9 million, date – Lions become extinct in Libya
7.
1710s
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February 28 – Battle of Helsingborg, Fourteen thousand Danish invaders under Jørgen Rantzau are decisively defeated by an equally large Swedish army under Magnus Stenbock. April 10 – The worlds first copyright legislation, Britains Statute of Anne, april 19 – Anne, Queen of Great Britain, meets the Four Mohawk Kings. June – Protestant Swiss and German Palatines under the leadership of Christoph von Graffenried travel to Bath County in the Province of Carolina, the settlers displace the native town of Chattoka and found New Bern, named for von Graffenrieds hometown of Bern, Switzerland. June 8 – The Tuscarora nation sends a petition to the Province of Pennsylvania, protesting the seizure of their lands, October 13 – Queen Annes War, The French surrender ending the Siege of Port Royal gives the British permanent possession of Nova Scotia. In Sweden, the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala is founded as the Collegium curiosorum, John Smithwick begins brewing Smithwicks ale at Kilkenny, Ireland. Beijing becomes the largest city of the world, taking the lead from Istanbul, january – Carys Rebellion, The Lords Proprietor appoint Edward Hyde to replace Thomas Cary as the governor of the North Carolina portion of the Province of Carolina. Hydes policies are deemed hostile to Quaker interests, leading former governor Cary, February – French settlers at Fort Louis de la Mobile celebrate Mardi Gras in Mobile by parading a large papier-mache ox head on a cart. The attack fails and Carys forces retreat, London première of Rinaldo by George Frideric Handel, the first Italian opera written for the London stage. July 21 – The Treaty of the Pruth is signed between the Ottoman Empire and Russia, july – Carys Rebellion, Lieutenant Governor Alexander Spotswood of Virginia dispatches a company of Royal marines to assist Governor Hyde. After hearing of this, Carys troops abandon all of their fortifications along the Pamlico River, Cary and many of his supporters are soon caught and sent to England as prisoners, ending Carys Rebellion. August 22 – The Quebec Expedition, a British attempt to attack Quebec as part of Queen Annes War, september 8 – The South Sea Company receives a Royal Charter in Britain. September 10 – John Lawson, Christoph von Graffenried,2 African American slaves and 2 Native Americans leave on an expedition from New Bern. September 14 – Tuscarora natives capture John Lawson, Christoph von Graffenried and their expeditionary party, september 16 – Tuscarora natives kill John Lawson. Christoph von Graffenried and one African American slave are known to have set free. October 14 – Yostos kills Tewoflos, becoming Emperor of Ethiopia, November 7 – Dutch East India Company ship Liefde runs aground and sinks on Shetland with the loss of all but one of her 300 crew. Alexander Pope publishes the poem An Essay on Criticism in London, John Shore invents the tuning fork. February 10 – A Huilliche rebellion begins in Chiloé Archipelago, February 30 – Sweden temporarily adopts February 30 as a day to adjust the Swedish Calendar back to the Julian calendar. May 19 – Peter the Great moves the capital of Russia from Moscow to Saint Petersburg, may 22 – Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor crowned king of Hungary
8.
1720s
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February 11 – Sweden and Prussia sign the Treaty of Stockholm. February 17 – Treaty of The Hague signed between Spain, Britain, France, Austria and the Dutch Republic, ending the War of the Quadruple Alliance, february 29 – Queen Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden resigns to let her husband Frederick I take over as king of Sweden. She had desired a joint rule, in a manner to William and Mary in Britain. March 24 – The Riksdag of the Estates elects Frederick I new King of Sweden, April – South Sea Bubble in England, A scheme for the South Sea Company to take over most of the unconsolidated national debt of Britain massively inflated share prices. July 12 – The Lords Justice in Great Britain attempt to curb some of the excesses of the markets during the South Sea Bubble. September – South Sea Bubble, The English stock market crashes with dropping prices for stock in the South Sea Company, november 16 – Pirate Calico Jack Rackham is brought to trial at Spanish Town in Jamaica, he is hanged at Port Royal two days later. Tuscarora people leave North Carolina as a result of European colonization, the Town on Queen Annes Creek, North Carolina is renamed Edenton in honor of North Carolina Governor Charles Eden, it is incorporated in 1722. Introduction of the Guild Regulation of 1720 in Sweden, the Kangxi Emperor announces that all western businessmen in China can trade only in Guangzhou. Edmond Halley is appointed as Astronomer Royal for England, the Academia Real da Historia is founded in Lisbon, Portugal. Il teatro alla moda, a pamphlet by Benedetto Marcello, is published anonymously in Venice. The first yacht club in the world, the Royal Cork Yacht Club, is founded in Ireland, january 6 – The Committee of Inquiry on the South Sea Bubble in England publishes its findings. March 24 – Johann Sebastian Bachs Brandenburg concertos completed and dedicated to Christian Ludwig of Brandenburg-Schwedt, April – Pirates John Taylor and Olivier Levasseur capture the 700-ton Portuguese galleon Nossa Senhora do Cabo at Réunion. The total value of treasure on board is estimated as between £100,000 and £875,000, one of the largest pirate hauls ever, April 4 – Robert Walpole becomes the first Prime Minister of Great Britain. May 8 – Pope Innocent XIII succeeds Pope Clement XI as the 244th pope, september 10 – The Treaty of Nystad is signed, ending the Great Northern War. November 2 – The Romanov and architect of the Great Northern War Peter I, is proclaimed the first Emperor of All the Russias and this replaces the 176-year-long Tsardom of Russia with the Russian Empire. December 22 – Philip V of Spain signs in Lerma a Royal Decree transforming the Seminary of Saint Rose of Lima in Caracas into the Universidad Real y Pontificia de Caracas, regular mail service between London and New England is established. A suggestion box is developed under the shogun of Japan. March 8 – Battle of Gulnabad in Persia, Pashtun people of Afghanistan led by Mahmud Hotak decisively defeat forces of the Persian Safavid dynasty, April 5 – Dutch admiral Jacob Roggeveen lands on what is now Easter Island
9.
1730s
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January 29 – Anna Ivanovna becomes empress, following the death of her cousin, Emperor Peter II. March 12 – John Glas deposed from the Church of Scotland, april 8 – Shearith Israel, the first synagogue in New York City, is dedicated. May 15 – Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend, retires from his role in the government of Great Britain, leaving Robert Walpole as sole and undisputed leader of the Cabinet. In the new Walpole Ministry, Sir William Strickland, 4th Baronet, becomes Secretary at War, spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington briefly becomes Lord Privy Seal. July 8 – Earthquake affects Valparaiso in the Viceroyalty of Peru, july 12 – Pope Clement XII succeeds Pope Benedict XIII as the 246th pope. September 17 – Mahmud I succeeds Ahmed III as Ottoman Emperor, October 22 – Construction of the Ladoga Canal linking the Neva and Svir Rivers, one of the first major navigable canals constructed in Russia, is completed. March 16 – The Treaty of Vienna is signed between the Holy Roman Empire, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic and Spain. April 2 – The town of Raynham, Massachusetts in Bristol County is entered as a new town by the governor and court of Massachusetts, New England, America. April – British trader Robert Jenkins has his ear cut off by Spanish coast guards in Cuba, july 1 – Benjamin Franklin and fellow-subscribers start the Library Company of Philadelphia. The town is out in 1733 and incorporated as Wilmington in 1740. English Captain Charles Gough rediscovers Gough Island in the South Atlantic, laura Bassi becomes the first official female university teacher on being appointed professor of anatomy at the University of Bologna at the age of 21. John Bevis observes the Crab Nebula for the first time in the modern era, the Royal Theatre of Mantua is built by Ferdinando Galli Bibiena. January 21st - Russia and Persia sign the Treaty of Riascha at Resht, based on the terms of the agreement, Russia would no longer establish claims over Persian territories. June 9 – James Oglethorpe is granted a charter for the colony of Georgia. August – Mikhail Gvozdev in the Sviatoi Gavriil makes the first known crossing of the Bering Strait, september 16 – The magnitude 5.8 Montreal earthquake occurs in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. December 7 – The original Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, London is opened, december –139 members of the Parlement of Paris exiled by order of King Louis XV secure their recall. The Republic of Genoa regains Corsica, the worlds first lightship is moored at the Nore in the Thames Estuary of England. This years General Assembly of the Church of Scotland gives rise to the First Secession of 1733, Benjamin Franklin, writing under the name Richard Saunders, begins publication of Poor Richards Almanack
10.
1740s
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April 8 – War of the Austrian Succession, The Royal Navy captures the Spanish ship of the line Princesa off Cape Finisterre and takes her into British service. May 31 – Frederick II comes to power in Prussia upon the death of his father, July 11 – Pogrom, Jews are expelled from Little Russia. August 1 – The song Rule, Britannia. is first performed at Cliveden, august 17 – Pope Benedict XIV succeeds Pope Clement XII as the 247th pope. October 9–22 – Batavia massacre, Troops of the Dutch East India Company massacre 5, october 20 – Maria Theresa inherits the hereditary dominions of the Habsburg Monarchy under the terms of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713. However, her succession to the Holy Roman Empire is contested widely because she is a woman, november – Hertford College, Oxford, is founded for the first time. November 6 – Samuel Richardsons popular and influential epistolary novel Pamela, or, december 16 – Frederick II of Prussia invades the Habsburg possession of Silesia, starting the War of the Austrian Succession. By an act of the Parliament of Great Britain, alien immigrants in the colonies receive British nationality, adam Smith enters Balliol College, Oxford. George Whitefield founds the Bethesda Orphanage near Savannah, Georgia, Spain begins construction on Fort Matanzas in the Matanzas Inlet, approximately 15 miles south of St. Augustine, Florida. Annual British iron production reaches 17,000 tons, the University of Pennsylvania is officially established. April – The New York Slave Insurrection, a plot to set fire to New York City, is discovered, april 10 – An Austrian army is defeated by Prussian troops of Frederick the Great at Mollwitz. May – Vitus Bering sets out from Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky to map the coasts of Siberia, may – Spanish victory in Battle of Cartagena de Indias over Great Britain. June 25 – Maria Theresa of Austria is crowned Queen Regnant of Hungary in Bratislava, July 8 – Jonathan Edwards repeats his Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God sermon at Enfield, Connecticut. July 15 – Alexei Chirikov sights land in Southeast Alaska and sends some men aboard his ship ashore in a longboat, august 10 – Battle of Colachel, The Raja of Travancore defeats a Dutch East India Company naval expedition. November 25–26 – Franco-Bavarian troops commanded by Maurice of Saxony storm Prague, december 6 – Elizabeth of Russia becomes czarina after a palace coup. December 19 – Vitus Bering dies in his expedition east of Siberia, december 25 – Anders Celsius develops his own thermometer scale, Centigrade, the predecessor of the Celsius scale. Stemmatographia by Hristofor Zhefarovich, regarded as the first Serbian and Bulgarian secular printed book, is printed in Vienna, the population of China reaches c.143 million. Royal Order of Scotland is founded, January – The House of Commons of Great Britain votes on the alleged rigging of the Chippenham by-election. It becomes a motion of no confidence which leads to the resignation of Robert Walpole, January 9 – Robert Walpole made Earl of Orford and resigns as First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer, effectively ending his period as Prime Minister of Great Britain
11.
1750s
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January – A fire in Istanbul destroys 10,000 homes. April – A second fire devastates Istanbul, a third fire later in the year destroys a further 10,000 homes. April 4 – A small earthquake hits Warrington, England, March 20 – First number of Samuel Johnsons The Rambler appears. May – Riots break out in Paris, France fueled by rumors of police abducting children, July 9 – Traveller Jonas Hanway leaves St. Petersburg to return home via Germany and the Netherlands. Later the same year, Hanway reputedly becomes the first Englishman to use an umbrella, July 11 – Halifax, Nova Scotia is almost completely destroyed by fire. August 23 – A small earthquake hits Spalding, Lincolnshire, England, September 30 – A small earthquake hits Northampton, England. November 11 – A riot breaks out in Lhasa, Tibet, november 18 – Westminster Bridge is officially opened in London. Hannah Snell reveals her sex to her Royal Marines compatriots, the King of Dahomey has income of 250,000 pounds from the overseas export of slaves. Maruyama Okyo paints The Ghost of Oyuki, Britain produces c. 2% of the entire worlds output of industrial goods and the Industrial Revolution begins. Galley slavery is abolished in Europe, upon his death, Frederick I of Sweden is succeeded as king by Adolf Frederick. March 31 – Frederick, Prince of Wales dies in London and is succeeded by his son and his mother Augusta of Saxe-Gotha becomes Dowager Princess of Wales. May 11 – The Pennsylvania legislature grants a charter to Benjamin Franklin, July 28 – Kingdom of Kartli defeats a large army of Tabriz Khanate under Erekle II in the Battle of Kirkhbulakh July 31 – Fire destroys 1,000 houses in Stockholm. August 13 – The Academy and College of Philadelphia, predecessor to the private University of Pennsylvania, opens its doors, September 13 – Kalvária Banská Štiavnica in the Kingdom of Hungary is completed. October 27 – The Hōreki period begins in Japan, december 3 – Battle of Arnee in India, A British East India Company-led force under Robert Clive defeats and routs a much larger Franco-Indian army under the command of Raza Sahib at Arni. Ferdinando Galiani published the first modern analysis, Della Moneta In the University of Glasgow Adam Smith is appointed professor of logic. Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus publishes his Philosophia Botanica, the first textbook of descriptive systematic botanical taxonomy, maria Theresa thaler minted, it becomes an international currency. 1751–1775 – 13% of appointees to audiencias in the Spanish Empire are Creoles, January 30 – The British Empire adopts the Gregorian calendar. February 11 – Pennsylvania Hospital, the first hospital in the United States, is opened, February 27 – The Virginia Assembly passes a law making maiming a felony, in response to the practice of gouging
12.
1760s
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January 9 – Afghans defeat Marathas in Battle of Barari Ghat. January 22 – Seven Years War – At the Battle of Wandiwash in India, january 28 – Benning Wentworth creates the New Hampshire Grant of Pownal, Vermont. February 15 – The British Royal Navy ship HMS Royal Katherine runs aground off Bolt Head in England with the loss of 699 lives. February 27 – Seven Years War – French and Indian War & Anglo-Cherokee War, the attack is repelled by the militia under the command of General Hugh Waddell. March 20 – The Great Fire of Boston, Massachusetts, destroys 349 buildings, may–July – Tackys War, a slave rebellion, occurs in Jamaica. June 4 – Expulsion of the Acadians, New England planters arrive to land in Nova Scotia taken from the Acadians. July 3 – A lightning strike causes a fire at Portsmouth Royal Dockyard in England. July 8 – Seven Years War – French and Indian War, Battle of Restigouche, july 19 – A formal request is made to the Spanish government as to allow the founding of the later city of Mayagüez, Puerto Rico. July 31 – Seven Years War – Battle of Warburg, The Anglo-Hanoverian army of Ferdinand of Brunswick storms Warburg, August 21 – The church of Our Lady of Candlemas of Mayagüez is founded, establishing the basis for the founding of the city. September 8 – Seven Years War, Jeffery Amherst captures Montreal, september 18 – The town of Mayagüez, Puerto Rico, is founded. October 5 The wedding of Princess Isabella of Parma and Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, october 9 – Seven Years War, Russian troops enter Berlin. October 16 – Seven Years War – Battle of Kloster-Kamp, Ferdinand of Brunswick is beaten back from the Rhine by a French army, october 25 – George II of Great Britain dies, his grandson George III ascends to the throne. November 3 – Seven Years War – Battle of Torgau, In another extremely hard battle, Frederick defeats Dauns Austrians, Dr. James Fordyces two-volume compendium, Sermons for Young Women, is published. Western countries pay 3,000,000 ounces of silver for Chinese goods, approximate date – Abu Dhabi is founded. January 14 – Third Battle of Panipat, Ahmad Shah Durrani and his coalition decisively defeat the Maratha Confederacy, january 16 – The British capture Pondichéry, India from the French. February 8 – An earthquake in London breaks chimneys in Limehouse, march 8 – A second earthquake occurs in North London, Hampstead and Highgate. March 31 – Earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal, June 6 – A transit of Venus occurs, and is observed from 120 locations around the Earth. Mikhail Lomonosov discovers atmosphere of Venus, july 17 - The first section of the Bridgewater Canal is opened, for the transportation of coal from local mines to Manchester
13.
1735
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As of the start of 1735, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 2 – Alexander Popes poem Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot published in London, january 8 – George Frideric Handels opera Ariodante is premièred at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden, London. February 14 – The Order of St. Anna is established in Russia, april 13 – Emperor Sakuramachi accedes to the throne of Japan. April 16 – Alcina, George Frideric Handels Italian opera, premieres at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden, may 22 – George Hadley publishes the first explanation of the trade winds. June 24 – effective date of Great Britain Witchcraft Act of 1735 which criminalized claimants accusing persons of practising witchcraft or of possessing magical powers, july 11 – Pluto enters a fourteen-year period inside the orbit of Neptune, which will not recur until 1979. October – War of the Polish Succession, A preliminary peace, october 18 – The Qianlong Emperor succeeds his father, the Yongzheng Emperor, and begins a 60-year-long reign of the Qing dynasty. Russo-Turkish War, 1735-1739, Russian forces fail to occupy the Crimea due to rasputitsa, a shipbuilding industry begins in Mumbai. Leonhard Euler solves the Basel problem, first posed by Pietro Mengoli in 1644, Quebec, Construction begins on the Chemin du roy between Quebec and Montreal. Cobalt is discovered and isolated by Georg Brandt. S
14.
1736
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As of the start of 1736, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 23 – The Civil Code of 1734 is passed in Sweden, january 26 – Stanislaus I of Poland abdicates his throne. February 12 – Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor marries Maria Theresa of Austria, april – The Genbun era begins in Japan. The era of Kyōhō Reforms ends, march 8 – Nader Shah, founder of the Afsharid dynasty, is crowned Shah of Iran. April 14 – The Porteous Riots erupt in Edinburgh after the execution of smuggler Andrew Wilson, may 8 – Frederick, Prince of Wales, marries Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. May 26 – Battle of Ackia, British and Chickasaw Native Americans defeat French troops, june 8 – Leonhard Euler writes to James Stirling describing the Euler–Maclaurin formula, providing a connection between integrals and calculus. June 19 – French Academy of Sciences expedition led by Pierre Louis Maupertuis, with Anders Celsius, july – Russo-Turkish War, Russian forces under Peter Lacy storm the Ottoman fortress of Azov. September 7 – An Edinburgh crowd drags John Porteous out of his cell in Tolbooth Prison, december 7 – Benjamin Franklin builds the first volunteer fire company in Philadelphia. December 26 - Andrew Michael Ramsay gave an oration in which he related the heritage, neustrelitz becomes the capital of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney, becomes the first Field Marshal of Great Britain, a fire in the Russian city of Saint Petersburg burns 2000 houses. Fifty-three houses in the English town of Stony Stratford are consumed by fire, one of the earliest records of use of a bathing machine is made at Scarborough in England. Charles Marie de La Condamine, with François Fresneau Gataudière, makes the first scientific observations of rubber, Leonhard Euler produces the first published proof of Fermats little theorem. Sir Isaac Newtons Method of Fluxions, describing his method of differential calculus, is first published, muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab writes the Kitab at-tawhidt, marking the beginning of Wahhabism. The Haidamakas raid the shtetl of Pavoloch, killing 35
15.
1739
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As of the start of 1739, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Bouvet Island is discovered by French explorer Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier in the South Atlantic Ocean, february 24 – Battle of Karnal, The army of Iranian ruler Nader Shah defeats the forces of the Mughal emperor of India, Muhammad Shah. March 20 – Nader Shah occupies Delhi in India and sacks the city, stealing the jewels of the Peacock Throne, may 12 – John Wesley lays the foundation stone of the New Room, Bristol in England, the worlds first Methodist meeting house. June 2 – The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences is founded in Stockholm, september 9 – The Stono Rebellion, a slave rebellion, erupts near Charleston, South Carolina. September 18 – The Treaty of Belgrade brings the Austro-Russian–Turkish War to an end, october 3 – The Treaty of Niš is signed. October 17 – The Foundling Hospital is created in London by royal charter, october 23 – War of Jenkins Ear, Great Britain declares war on Spain. November 20–22 – War of Jenkins Ear, Battle of Porto Bello, ecuador becomes a part of New Granada. 84,000 farmers revolt in the province of Iwaki in Japan, plinian eruption of Mount Tarumae volcano in Japan. The first Bible in Estonian is published
16.
Charlotta Cedercreutz
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Maria Charlotta Cedercreutz, married surname Wrangel, was a Swedish artist, lady-in-waiting and baroness. She was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts and her parents were the courtier Baron Lars Cedercreutz and Catharina Siljeström. Despite the fact that her beauty and fortune made her a match, she is said to have dislike the thought of marriage. She was married in 1770 to General Major Baron Georg Gustaf Wrangel af Adinal, from 1774, she was one of the six head ladies in waiting of the court of the Queen, Sophia Magdalena of Denmark. A talented Dilettante artist, she was inducted into the Royal Academy of Arts, svenskt konstnärslexikon Allhems Förlag, Malmö Carl Carlson Bonde. Hedvig Elisabeth Charlottas dagbok I 1775-1782, personhistorisk tidskrift / Första årgången 1898-99 / Cecilia af Klercker. Hedvig Elisabeth Charlottas dagbok V 1795-1796, media related to Charlotta Cedercreutz at Wikimedia Commons
17.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
18.
Frederick I of Sweden
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Frederick I, Swedish, Fredrik I, was prince consort of Sweden from 1718 to 1720, and King of Sweden from 1720 until his death and also Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel from 1730. He was the son of Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, in 1692 the young prince made his Grand Tour to the Dutch Republic, in 1695 to the Italian Peninsula and later he studied in Geneva. After this he had a career, leading the Hessian troops as Lieutenant General in the War of Spanish Succession on the side of the Dutch. He was defeated in 1703 in the Battle of Speyerbach, in 1706 he was again defeated by the French in the Battle of Castiglione. Both in 1716 and 1718 he joined the campaign of Charles XII of Sweden against Norway and he married his second wife, Princess Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden, in 1715. Frederick then succeeded her on the throne, elected by the Swedish Estates and he was the only Swedish prince consort there had been to date. Frederick I had much influence during the reign of his spouse, but after the aristocracy had regained power during the wars with Russia, he became not so much powerless as uninterested in affairs of state. In 1723, he tried to strengthen royal authority, but after he failed and he did not even sign official documents, instead a stamp of his signature was used. He devoted most of his time to hunting and love affairs and his marriage to Queen Ulrika Eleonora was childless, but he had several children by his mistress, Hedvig Taube. Some historians have suggested that the bullet which killed his brother-in-law Charles XII of Sweden in 1718 was actually fired by Fredericks aide. Charles had been an authoritarian and demanding ruler, one reason the Swedish Estates elected Frederick was because he was taken to be fairly weak, the defeats suffered by Charles XII in the Great Northern War ended Swedens position as a first-rank European power. Under Frederick, this had to be accepted, Sweden also had to cede Estonia, Ingria and Livonia to Russia in the Treaty of Nystad, in 1721. In 1723 Frederick rewarded the military inventor Sven Åderman with the estate of Halltorps on the island of Öland, as a king, he was not very respected. When he was crowned, it was said, King Charles we recently buried and it is said about him, that although a lot of great achievements in the countrys development happened during his reign, he never had anything to do with them himself. When he died, Carl Gustaf Tessin said about him, Under the reign of King Frederick, the merchant business has flourished – he has never encouraged it with a single coin. The Stockholm Palace has been built – he has never been enough to look at it. Neither did he have anything to do with the founding of the first Swedish speaking theater at Bollhuset during his reign, one of his few important policies was the banning of duels. On 23 February 1748 Frederick I instituted the three Swedish royal orders of the Seraphim, of the Sword and of the North Star, Frederick became Landgrave of Hesse only in 1730, ten years after becoming King of Sweden
19.
Pierre Louis Maupertuis
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Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis was a French mathematician, philosopher and man of letters. He became the Director of the Académie des Sciences, and the first President of the Prussian Academy of Science, Maupertuis made an expedition to Lapland to determine the shape of the Earth. He is often credited with having invented the principle of least action and his work in natural history is interesting in relation to modern science, since he touched on aspects of heredity and the struggle for life. Maupertuis was born at Saint-Malo, France, to a wealthy family of merchant-corsairs. His father, Renė, had involved in a number of enterprises that were central to the monarchy so that he thrived socially and politically. The son was educated in mathematics by a tutor, Nicolas Guisnée. In 1723 he was admitted to the Académie des Sciences and his early mathematical work revolved around the vis viva controversy, for which Maupertuis developed and extended the work of Isaac Newton and argued against the waning Cartesian mechanics. In the 1730s, the shape of the Earth became a flashpoint in the battle among rival systems of mechanics, Maupertuis, based on his exposition of Newton predicted that the Earth should be oblate, while his rival Jacques Cassini measured it astronomically to be prolate. In 1736 Maupertuis acted as chief of the French Geodesic Mission sent by King Louis XV to Lapland to measure the length of a degree of arc of the meridian and his results, which he published in a book detailing his procedures, essentially settled the controversy in his favor. The book included a narrative of the expedition, and an account of the Käymäjärvi Inscriptions. On his return home he became a member of almost all the societies of Europe. He also expanded into the realm, anonymously publishing a book that was part popular science, part philosophy. In 1740 Maupertuis went to Berlin at the invitation of Frederick II of Prussia, and took part in the Battle of Mollwitz, where he was taken prisoner by the Austrians. On his release he returned to Berlin, and thence to Paris, where he was elected director of the Academy of Sciences in 1742, and in the following year was admitted into the Académie française. His position became extremely awkward with the outbreak of the Seven Years War between his country and his patrons, and his reputation suffered in both Paris and Berlin. Finding his health declining, he retired in 1757 to the south of France, but went in 1758 to Basel, Maupertuis difficult disposition involved him in constant quarrels, of which his controversies with Samuel König and Voltaire during the latter part of his life are examples. The brilliance of much of what he did was undermined by his tendency to leave work unfinished and it was the insight of genius that led him to least-action principle, but a lack of intellectual energy or rigour that prevented his giving it the mathematical foundation that Lagrange would provide. He reveals remarkable powers of perception in heredity, in understanding the mechanism by which developed, even in immunology
20.
Alexis Clairaut
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Alexis Claude Clairaut was a French mathematician, astronomer, and geophysicist. He was a prominent Newtonian whose work helped to establish the validity of the principles, Clairaut was one of the key figures in the expedition to Lapland that helped to confirm Newtons theory for the figure of the Earth. In that context, Clairaut worked out a mathematical result now known as Clairauts theorem and he also tackled the gravitational three-body problem, being the first to obtain a satisfactory result for the apsidal precession of the Moons orbit. In mathematics he is credited with Clairauts equation and Clairauts relation. Clairaut was born in Paris, France, to Jean-Babtiste and Catherine Petit Clairaut, the couple had 20 children, however only a few of them survived childbirth. Alexis was a prodigy — at the age of ten he began studying calculus, Clairaut was unmarried, and known for leading an active social life. Though he led a social life, he was very prominent in the advancement of learning in young mathematicians. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in November,1737, Clairaut died in Paris in 1765. In 1736, together with Pierre Louis Maupertuis, he took part in the expedition to Lapland, the goal of the excursion was to geometrically calculate the shape of the Earth, which Sir Issac Newton theorized in his book Principia was an ellipsoid shape. They sought to prove if Newtons theory and calculations were correct or not, before the expedition team returned to Paris, Clairaut sent his calculations to the Royal Society of London. The writing was published by the society in the 1736-37 volume of Philosophical Transactions. Initially, Clairaut disagrees with Newtons theory on the shape of the Earth, in the article, he outlines several key problems that effectively disprove Newtons calculations, and provides some solutions to the complications. The issues addressed include calculating gravitational attraction, the rotation of an ellipsoid on its axis, and this conclusion suggests not only that the Earth is of an oblate ellipsoid shape, but it is flattened more at the poles and is wider at the center. His article in Philosophical Transactions created much controversy, as he addressed the problems of Newtons theory, after his return, he published his treatise Théorie de la figure de la terre. This proved Sir Issac Newtons theory that the shape of the Earth was an oblate ellipsoid, in 1849 Stokes showed that Clairauts result was true whatever the interior constitution or density of the Earth, provided the surface was a spheroid of equilibrium of small ellipticity. In 1741, Alexis Clairaut wrote a book called Èléments de Géométrie, the book outlines the basic concepts of geometry. Geometry in the 1700s was complex to the average learner and it was considered to be a dry subject. Clairaut saw this trend, and wrote the book in an attempt to make the more interesting for the average learner
21.
Pierre Charles Le Monnier
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Pierre Charles Le Monnier was a French astronomer. His name is given as Lemonnier. Le Monnier was born in Paris, where his father Pierre, in 1738, shortly after his return, he explained, in a memoir read before the Academy, the advantages of John Flamsteeds mode of determining right ascensions. His persistent recommendation of British methods and instruments contributed effectively to the reform of French practical astronomy, and constituted the most eminent of his services to science. He corresponded with James Bradley, was the first to represent the effects of nutation in the tables, and introduced, in 1741. He visited England in 1748, and, in company with the Earl of Morton and James Shore the optician, continued his journey to Scotland, where he observed the annular eclipse of 25 July. The liberality of King Louis XV of France, in whose favour Le Monnier stood high, furnished him with the means of procuring the best instruments, many made in Britain. In his lectures at the Collège de France he first publicly expounded the theory of gravitation. Le Monniers temper and hasty speech resulted in arguments and grudges. He fell out with Lalande during a revolution of the moons nodes. His career was ended by late in 1791, and a repetition of the stroke terminated his life. He died at Héril near Bayeux, by his marriage with Mademoiselle de Cussy he left three daughters, one of whom became the wife of J. L. Lagrange. Le Monnier was admitted on 5 April 1739 to the Royal Society, on 29 January 1745 he also became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. The crater Le Monnier on the Moon is named after him
22.
Anders Celsius
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Anders Celsius was a Swedish astronomer, physicist and mathematician. He was professor of astronomy at Uppsala University from 1730 to 1744 and he founded the Uppsala Astronomical Observatory in 1741, and in 1742 proposed the Celsius temperature scale which bears his name. Anders Celsius was born in Uppsala, Sweden on 27 November 1701 and his family originated from Ovanåker in the province of Hälsingland. Their family estate was at Doma, also known as Höjen or Högen, the name Celsius is a latinization of the estates name. As the son of a professor, Nils Celsius, and the grandson of the mathematician Magnus Celsius. He was a mathematician from an early age. Anders Celsius studied at Uppsala University, where his father was a teacher, in 1730, Celsius published the Nova Methodus distantiam solis a terra determinandi. He observed the variations of a needle and found that larger deflections correlated with stronger auroral activity. At Nuremberg in 1733, he published a collection of 316 observations of the aurora borealis made by himself, Celsius traveled frequently in the early 1730s, including to Germany, Italy and France, when he visited most of the major European observatories. In Paris he advocated the measurement of an arc of the meridian in Lapland, in 1736, he participated in the expedition organized for that purpose by the French Academy of Sciences, led by the French mathematician Pierre Louis Maupertuis to measure a degree of latitude. The aim of the expedition was to measure the length of a degree along a meridian, close to the pole, the expeditions confirmed Isaac Newtons belief that the shape of the earth is an ellipsoid flattened at the poles. In 1738, he published the De observationibus pro figura telluris determinanda and he was successful in the request, and Celsius founded the Uppsala Astronomical Observatory in 1741. The observatory was equipped with instruments purchased during his long voyage abroad, in astronomy, Celsius began a series of observations using colored glass plates to record the magnitude of certain stars. This was the first attempt to measure the intensity of starlight with an other than the human eye. He made observations of eclipses and various objects and published catalogues of carefully determined magnitudes for some 300 stars using his own photometric system. Celsius was the first to perform and publish careful experiments aiming at the definition of a temperature scale on scientific grounds. In his Swedish paper Observations of two persistent degrees on a thermometer he reports on experiments to check that the point is independent of latitude. He determined the dependence of the boiling of water with atmospheric pressure which was even by modern-day standards
23.
Dunkirk
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Dunkirk is a commune in the Nord department in northern France. It lies 10 kilometres from the Belgian border, the population of the city at the 2012 census was 90,995 inhabitants. The name of Dunkirk derives from West Flemish dun and kerke, nowadays, Dunkirk is the worlds northernmost Francophone city. About 960AD Count Baldwin III had a wall erected, in order to protect the settlement against Viking raids. The surrounding wetlands were drained and cultivated by the monks of nearby Bergues Abbey, the name Dunkirk was first mentioned in a tithe privilege of 27 May 1067, issued by Count Baldwin V of Flanders. Count Philip I brought further large tracts of marshland under cultivation, laid out first plans to build a Canal from Dunkirk to Bergues and vested the Dunkirkers with market rights. However, in the course of the Western Schism from 1378, English supporters of Pope Urban VI disembarked at Dunkirk, captured the city and they were ejected by King Charles VI of France, but left great devastations in and around the town. Upon the extinction of the Counts of Flanders with the death of Louis II in 1384, Flanders was acquired by the Burgundian, the fortifications were again enlarged, including the construction of a belfry daymark. As Maximilian was the son of Emperor Frederick III, all Flanders was immediately seized by King Louis XI of France. However, the defeated the French troops at the 1479 Battle of Guinegate. The area remained disputed between Spain, the United Netherlands, England and France. At the beginning of the Eighty Years War, Dunkirk was briefly in the hands of the Dutch rebels, Spanish forces under Duke Alexander Farnese of Parma re-established Spanish rule in 1583 and it became a base for the notorious Dunkirkers. The Dunkirkers briefly lost their home port when the city was conquered by the French in 1646, in 1658, as a result of the long war between France and Spain, it was captured after a siege by Franco-English forces following the battle of the Dunes. The city along with Fort-Mardyck was awarded to England in the peace the following year as agreed in the Franco-English alliance against Spain and it came under French rule when Charles II of England sold it to France for £320,000 on 17 October 1662. The French government developed the town as a fortified port, the towns existing defences were adapted to create ten bastions. The port was expanded in the 1670s by the construction of a basin that could hold up to thirty warships with a lock system to maintain water levels at low tide. The basin was linked to the sea by a channel dug through coastal sandbanks secured by two jetties and this work was completed by 1678. The jetties were defended a few years later by the construction of five forts, Château dEspérance, Château Vert, Grand Risban, Château Gaillard, an additional fort was built in 1701 called Fort Blanc
24.
1794 in Sweden
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Events from the year 1794 in Sweden Monarch – Gustav IV Adolf 27 March - Neutrality treaty between Sweden and Denmark to protect the trade. 15 May - The free port status of Marstrand, the one in Sweden, is removed. 1 November - The first Semaphore line in Sweden,23 September - Magdalena Rudenschöld is pilloried in Stockholm for her part in the Armfelt Conspiracy. - Anna Leonore König inducted to the Royal Swedish Academy of Music, - Creation of the Göta Artillery Regiment. - Creation of the Svea Artillery Regiment, - Creation of the Wendes Artillery Regiment
25.
1765 in Sweden
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Events from the year 1765 in Sweden Monarch – Adolf Frederick - Sweden form an alliance with Russia and Denmark. October - A new government is formed by the Caps,10 June - Metta Fock, convicted murderer - Julie Eckerman, courtesan and spy - Sofia Liljegren, opera singer 10 January - Adolph Ribbing, count and politician. He participated in the regicide of Gustav III of Sweden in 17921 August - Ulla Adlerfelt, painter - Samuel Klingenstierna, mathematician and scientist
26.
Erland Samuel Bring
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Erland Samuel Bring was a Swedish mathematician. Bring studied at Lund University between 1750 and 1757, in 1762 he obtained a position of a reader in history and was promoted to professor in 1779. This work describes Brings contribution to the solution of equations. Bring had developed an important transformation to simplify an equation to the form x 5 + p x + q =0. In 1832–35 the same transformation was derived by George Jerrard. Brings curve is named after him
27.
1789 in Sweden
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Events from the year 1789 in Sweden Monarch – Gustav III7 January – Johan Henrik Hästesko is arrested for involvement in the Anjala conspiracy. January – King Gustav III summon the Riksdag of the Estates to Stockholm,21 February – King Gustav III has three of four estates pass to the Union and Security Act against the will of the nobility. April - The Riksdag of the Estates is dissolved, may - The Supreme Court of Sweden is founded. 12 May - Stjärnorp Castle burns down, - The Swedish National Debt Office is founded. - The privileges of the nobility from 1723 is abolished, - The peasantry of the state are allowed to hunt freely
28.
Brigitta Scherzenfeldt
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She dictated her memoirs, describing her life as a slave, after her release. Her story is regarded as a source of information about life among the Dzungars. She mainly lived in Riga, and when her died in Thorn in 1703. After the Battle of Narva, they were taken to Moscow as prisoners, where she became a widow in 1711. Ziems, who was not a Swedish subject, joined the service of the Russian army in 1715 to gain their freedom. In 1716, Ziems was a part of the reinforcements sent to the garrison of Ivan Bucholtz at Jarmyn Lake, above the Irtysh River, Scherzenfeldt, as well as several other Swedish and German people in Russian service, was a part of that convoy. At the same time, the garrison was attacked and captured by the Dzungar, Scherzenfeldt was captured, abused with iron and ropes, stripped and almost raped, but she defended herself so forcefully that she tore a piece of flesh from the leg of her attacker. The Khan then gave her as a gift to one of his wives, a Princess from Tibet, the story about the rape attempt is not in her official story, but was told to an English woman, Mrs. Vigor, several years later in Moscow. She was also active in making a life for other slaves belonging to the Dzungars. They had been allowed to only to visit their home country. In Moscow, she told an English woman, Mrs Vigor, some about her experiences, when the survivors entered Stockholm in 1734, the three remaining Kalmyks were baptized to become Anna Catharina, Maria Stina and Sara Greta, they then became maids in the Renat household. Scherzenfeldt died in Stockholm in 1736 and her Dzungar costume of red silk is now on display in the Livrustkammaren in Stockholm. Lovisa von Burghausen Brita Olsdotter Ulrika Eleonora Stålhammar Yefrosinya Fedorov List of slaves Höjer Signe, Blomquist Gunvor, starka kvinnor, ett urval märkliga kvinnoöden från radioserien Värt att veta. Fångars elände, karolinerna i Ryssland 1700-1723
29.
Sovereign state
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A sovereign state is, in international law, a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, one government, and it is also normally understood that a sovereign state is neither dependent on nor subjected to any other power or state. The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact, States came into existence as people gradually transferred their allegiance from an individual sovereign to an intangible but territorial political entity, of the state. States are but one of political orders that emerged from feudal Europe, others being city states, leagues. Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of sovereignty based on territoriality. It is a system of states, multinational corporations. Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused and that position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their sovereignty was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of civilised people. Lassa Oppenheim said There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is a fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon. In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia, sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all. The right of nations to determine their own status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized. The Westphalian model of sovereignty has increasingly come under fire from the non-west as a system imposed solely by Western Colonialism. What this model did was make religion a subordinate to politics and this system does not fit in the Islamic world because concepts such as separation of church and state and individual conscience are not recognised in the Islamic religion as social systems. Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, however, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law. State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory, State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations, There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal, in international law, however, there are several theories of when a state should be recognised as sovereign
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