1.
History of Jakarta
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Jakarta is Indonesias capital and largest city. Located on an estuary of the Ciliwung River, on the part of Java. Historical evidence from Jakarta dates back to the 4th century CE, the city has been sequentially claimed by the Indianized kingdom of Tarumanegara, the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda, the Muslim Sultanate of Banten, and by Dutch, Japanese and Indonesian administrations. The Dutch East Indies built up the area before it was taken during World War II by the Empire of Japan, Jakarta has been known by several names. It was called Sunda Kelapa during the Kingdom of Sunda period, thereafter, Jakarta evolved in three stages. The old city, close to the sea in the north, the new city to the south evolved between 1809 and 1942 after the Dutch government took over control of Batavia from the failed VOC whose charter expired in 1799. The third was the development of modern Jakarta since the proclamation of independence in 1945, under the Dutch, it was known as Batavia, and was Djakarta or Jakarta, during the Japanese occupation and the modern period. For a more detailed history of Jakarta before the proclamation of Indonesian independence, see Batavia, the coastal area and port of Jakarta in northern West Java has been the location of human settlement since the 4th century BCE Buni culture. The earliest historical record discovered in Jakarta is the Tugu inscription and it is among the oldest inscriptions in Indonesian history. The area was part of the Indianized kingdom of Tarumanagara, in AD397, King Purnawarman established Sunda Pura, located on the northern coast of West Java, as the new capital city for the kingdom. The capital of Tarumanagara kingdom was most probably located somewhere between Tugu sub-district North Jakarta and Bekasi Regency West Java, Purnawarman left seven memorial stones across the area, including the present-day Banten and West Java provinces, consisting of inscriptions bearing his name. After the power of Tarumanagara declined, its territories became part of the Kingdom of Sunda, according to the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written by Chou Ju-kua in the early 13th Century, the Sumatra-based kingdom of Srivijaya ruled Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, and western Java. The port of Sunda was described as strategic and thriving, with pepper from Sunda renowned for its supreme quality, the people of the area worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden piles. The port served Pakuan Pajajaran, the capital of the Sunda Kingdom, by the fourteenth century, Sunda Kelapa became a major trading port for the kingdom. Accounts of 16th century European explorers make mention of a city called Kalapa, in 1522, the Portuguese secured Luso Sundanese padrão, a political and economic agreement with the Sunda Kingdom, the authority of the port. In exchange for assistance against the threat of the rising Islamic Javan Sultanate of Demak, Prabu Surawisesa, king of Sunda at that time. Portuguese who were in the service of the made their homes in Sunda Kelapa. Later, the became a part of the Banten Sultanate
2.
Batavia (ship)
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Batavia was a ship of the Dutch East India Company. It was built in Amsterdam in 1628, and armed with 24 cast-iron cannons, Batavia was shipwrecked on her maiden voyage, and was made famous by the subsequent mutiny and massacre that took place among the survivors. A twentieth-century replica of the ship is called the Batavia and can be visited in Lelystad. On 27 October 1628, the newly built Batavia, commissioned by the Dutch East India Company, sailed from Texel for the Dutch East Indies and it sailed under commandeur and opperkoopman Francisco Pelsaert, with Ariaen Jacobsz serving as skipper. These two had previously encountered each other in Surat, India, some animosity had developed between them in Surat after Jacobsz became drunk and insulted Pelsaert in front of other merchants, leading to a public dressing-down for Jacobsz by Pelsaert. However, it is not known whether Pelsaert even remembered Jacobsz when he boarded Batavia. During the voyage, Jacobsz and Cornelisz conceived a plan to take the ship, after leaving the Cape of Good Hope, where they had stopped for supplies, Jacobsz deliberately steered the ship off course, away from the rest of the fleet. Jacobsz and Cornelisz had already gathered a group of men around them. This involved molesting a young female passenger, Lucretia Jans. They hoped to paint his discipline as unfair and recruit more members out of sympathy, however, the woman was able to identify her attackers. The mutineers were forced to wait until Pelsaert made arrests. On 4 June 1629 the ship struck Morning Reef near Beacon Island, of the 322 aboard, most of the passengers and crew managed to get ashore, although 40 people drowned. The survivors, including all the women and children, were transferred to nearby islands in the ships longboat. An initial survey of the islands found no water and only limited food. Pelsaert realised the situation and decided to search for water on the mainland. A group comprising Captain Jacobsz, Francisco Pelsaert, senior officers, a few crewmembers, after an unsuccessful search for water on the mainland, they abandoned the other survivors and headed north in a danger-fraught voyage to the city of Batavia, now known as Jakarta. En route they made further forays onto the mainland, including at Yardie Creek not in the Cape Range National Park and it was not until they reached the now-former island of Nusa Kambangan in Indonesia that they found any. This journey, which ranks as one of the greatest feats of navigation in open boats, took 33 days and, extraordinarily, all aboard survived
3.
Jakarta
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Jakarta /dʒəˈkɑːrtə/, officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, is the capital and most populous city of the Republic of Indonesia. Located on the northwest coast of the worlds most populous island of Java, Jakarta is the economic, cultural and political centre. The official metropolitan area, known as Jabodetabek, is the second largest in the world, established in the fourth century, the city became an important trading port for the Kingdom of Sunda. It was the de facto capital of the Dutch East Indies, today, the city has continued as the capital of Indonesia since the countrys independence was declared in 1945. Jakarta is listed as a city in the 2012 Globalization and World Cities Study Group. Based on the global metro monitor by the Brookings Institution, in 2014, Jakarta has grown more rapidly than Kuala Lumpur, Beijing, and Bangkok. Jakarta has been home to multiple settlements along with their names, Sunda Kelapa, Jayakarta, Batavia, Djakarta. Its current name derives from the word Jayakarta, the origins of this word can be traced to the Old Javanese and ultimately to the Sanskrit language. Jayakarta translates as victorious deed, complete act, or complete victory, Jakarta is nicknamed the Big Durian, the thorny strongly-odored fruit native to the region, as the city is seen as the Indonesian equivalent of the US city of New York. In the colonial era, the city was known as Koningin van het Oosten, initially in the 17th century for the urban beauty of downtown Batavias canals, mansions. After expanding to the south in the 19th century, this came to be more associated with the suburbs, with their wide lanes, many green spaces. The area in and around modern Jakarta was part of the fourth century Sundanese kingdom of Tarumanagara, following the decline of Tarumanagara, its territories, including the Jakarta area, became part of the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda. From 7th to early 13th century port of Sunda was within the sphere of influence of the Srivijaya maritime empire. According to the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1225, Chou Ju-kua reported in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the source reports the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden piles, the harbour area became known as Sunda Kelapa and by the fourteenth century, it was a major trading port for Sunda kingdom. The first European fleet, four Portuguese ships from Malacca, arrived in 1513 when the Portuguese were looking for a route for spices, in 1527, Fatahillah, a Javanese general from Demak attacked and conquered Sunda Kelapa, driving out the Portuguese. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta, and became a fiefdom of the Sultanate of Banten which became a major Southeast Asia trading centre, through the relationship with Prince Jayawikarta from the Sultanate of Banten, Dutch ships arrived in Jayakarta in 1596. In 1602, the English East India Companys first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and this site became the centre of English trade in Indonesia until 1682
4.
Dutch East Indies
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The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony. It was formed from the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded and this colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch Empires rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from. The term Indonesia came into use for the location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, Japans World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution, the word Indies comes from Latin, Indus. The original name Dutch Indies was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, the name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Companys documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the late 15th century, following disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed, recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company. The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, a capital was established in Batavia, which became the centre of the VOCs Asian trading network. Smuggling, the expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century, finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java, Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, the resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and Indonesia
5.
Pogrom
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A pogrom is a violent riot aimed at the massacre or persecution of an ethnic or religious group, particularly one aimed at Jews. The term originally entered the English language in order to describe 19th and 20th century attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire, similar attacks against Jews at other times and places also became retrospectively known as pogroms. The word is now sometimes used to describe publicly sanctioned purgative attacks against non-Jewish ethnic or religious groups. First recorded in 1882, the Russian word pogrom is a derived from the verb gromit meaning to destroy, to wreak havoc. Its literal translation is to harm, the noun pogrom, which has a relatively short history, is used in English and many other languages as a loanword, possibly borrowed via Yiddish. Its widespread circulation in todays world began with the excesses in the Russian Empire in 1881–1883. Anti-Jewish riots took place in Europe already in the Middle Ages, some 510 Jewish communities were destroyed in this period, extending further to the Brussels massacre of 1370. The first atrocities against Jewish civilians, on a scale of destruction, were committed during the Khmelnytsky Pogroms of 1648–1657 in present-day Ukraine. The precise number of dead is not known, although it is estimated that about 20 percent of Jews of the region were killed. Modern historians give estimates of the scale of the murders by Khmelnytskys Cossacks ranging between 40,000 and 100,000 men, women and children, or perhaps many more. In conquered territories, a new entity called Pale of Settlement was formed in 1791 by Catherine the Great. Most Jewish people from the former Commonwealth were only allowed to reside within the Pale, including families expelled by decree from St. Petersburg, Moscow. The 1821 Odessa pogroms marked the beginning of the 19th century pogroms in Tsarist Russia, Jewish self-governing Kehilla was abolished by Tsar Nicholas I in 1844. The first, in the 20th century Russia, was the Kishinev pogrom of 1903 in which 47 Jews were killed and it was followed by the Kiev pogrom of October 1905, resulting in a massacre of approximately 100 Jews. However, at about the time, the Jewish Labour Bund began organizing armed self-defence units ready to shoot. According to professor Colin Tatz, between 1881 and 1920, there were 1,326 pogroms in Ukraine which took the lives of 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews, leaving half a million homeless. Large-scale pogroms, which began in the Russian Empire several decades earlier, intensified during the period of the Russian Civil War and the Revolution of 1917. Professor Zvi Gitelman estimated that only in 1918–1919 over 1,200 pogroms took place in Ukraine thus amounting to a greatest slaughter of Jews in Eastern Europe since 1648
6.
Native Indonesians
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Native Indonesians, or Pribumi, are members of the population group in Indonesia that shares a similar sociocultural and ethnic heritage whose members are considered natives of the country. The term native Indonesians should not be confused with the generic term Indonesians or Indonesian citizens. The latter might apply to a demographic group which include ethnicities of foreign origin. Pribumi make up about 95% of the Indonesian population, using Indonesia’s population estimate in 2006, this translates to about 230 million people. As an umbrella of similar cultural heritage among various groups in Indonesia. The United States Library of Congress Country Study of Indonesia defines Pribumi as, Literally, in the colonial era, the great majority of the population of the archipelago came to regard themselves as indigenous, in contrast to the non-indigenous Dutch and Chinese communities. After independence the distinction persisted, expressed as a dichotomy between elements that were pribumi and those that were not, the distinction has had significant implications for economic development policy There are over 300 ethnic groups in Indonesia. 200 of those are of Native Indonesian ancestry, the largest ethnic group in Indonesia are the Javanese people who make up 41% of the total population. The Javanese are concentrated on the island of Java but millions have migrated to other islands throughout the archipelago, the Sundanese, Malay, and Madurese are the next largest groups in the country. Many ethnic groups, particularly in Kalimantan and the province of Papua, have only hundreds of members, most of the local languages belong to the Austronesian language family, although a significant number, particularly in Papua, speak Papuan languages. The same considerations may apply to the Baduy people who share so many similarities with the Sundanese people that they can be considered as belonging to the ethnic group. Sawo matang usually refers to the colour of the Pribumis in Indonesia which connotes mid light to dark tone brown especially for those who live in Java, Bali, Sumatra. For islandic people, they tend to have dark skin colour which all of the physical characteristics depend on the areas they inhabit. Most Native Indonesians are genetically close to Asians while the eastern one goes the more people show Melanesian affinity. Geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza claims that there is a division between East and Southeast Asians. In a similar manner, Zhou Jixu agrees that there is a difference between these two populations. The regions of Indonesia have some of their indigenous ethnic groups, due to migration within Indonesia, there are significant populations of ethnic groups who reside outside of their traditional regions. Populations have long moved between the areas which make up the modern-day states and these earlier populations have mostly effectively or partially assimilated with the larger Malaysian-Malay community due to religious, social and cultural similarities
7.
Chinese Indonesians
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Chinese Indonesians, are Indonesians descended from various Chinese ethnic groups, primarily the Han Chinese. Chinese came to Indonesia as workers both directly and through Maritime Southeast Asia and their population grew rapidly during the colonial period when workers were contracted from their home provinces in southern China. Evidence of discrimination against Chinese Indonesians can be throughout the history of Indonesia. Resentment of ethnic Chinese economic aptitude grew in the 1950s as native Indonesian merchants felt they could not remain competitive, in some cases, government action only propagated the stereotype that ethnic Chinese-owned conglomerates were corrupt. The development of local Chinese society and culture is based upon three pillars, clan associations, ethnic media, and Chinese-language schools, one group supported political reforms in mainland China, while others worked towards improved status in local politics. The New Order government dismantled the pillars of ethnic Chinese identity in favor of policies as a solution to the Chinese Problem. Patterns of assimilation and ethnic interaction can be found in Indonesias literature, architecture, the Chinese Indonesian population of Sumatra accounts for nearly half of the groups national population. Although they are more urbanized than Indonesias indigenous population, significant rural and agricultural communities exist throughout the country. Declining fertility rates have resulted in a shift in the population pyramid. Emigration has contributed to a population, and communities have emerged in more industrialized nations in the second half of the 20th century. Some have participated in programs to the Peoples Republic of China. Among the overseas residents, their identities are noticeably more Indonesian than Chinese, the first recorded movement of people from China into Maritime Southeast Asia was the arrival of Mongol forces under Kublai Khan that culminated in the invasion of Java in 1293. The Mongols introduced Chinese technologies to the island, including shipbuilding and their intervention hastened the decline of the classical kingdoms such as Singhasari and precipitated the rise of the Majapahit empire. Chinese Muslim traders from the eastern coast of China arrived at the towns of Indonesia and Malaysia in the early 15th century. They were led by the mariner Zheng He, who commanded several expeditions to southeastern Asia between 1405 and 1430, in the book Yingya Shenglan, his translator Ma Huan documented the activities of the Chinese Muslims in the archipelago and the legacy left by Zheng He and his men. These traders settled along the northern coast of Java, but there is no documentation of their settlements beyond the 16th century, the Chinese Muslims were likely to have been absorbed into the majority Muslim population. Between 1450 and 1520, the Ming Dynastys interest in southeastern Asia reached a low point and trade, the Portuguese made no mention of any resident Chinese minority population when they arrived in Indonesia in the early 16th century. Trade from the north was re-established when China legalized private trade in 1567 through licensing 50 junks a year, several years later silver began flowing into the region, from Japan, Mexico, and Europe, and trade flourished once again
8.
Adriaan Valckenier
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Adriaan Valckenier was Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1737 to 1741. Mainly remembered for his involvement in the 1740 Batavia massacre, Valckenier later died in a prison in Batavia, valckeniers father, an alderman and secretary in Amsterdam, was an official of the Dutch East India Company based in Amsterdam. Valckeniers grandfather was Gillis Valckenier, one of the regents of Amsterdam during the later Dutch Golden Age. On 22 October 1714, Adriaan left on board the ‘Linschoten’ to be assistant buyer in the Dutch East Indies, where he arrived on 21 June 1715 at Batavia. In 1726, he became merchant and chief buyer, in 1727 he was Accountant General of the Dutch Indies, in 1730, he was appointed to the Council of the Indies, and, in 1733, as a full Councillor. In 1736, he was made First Councillor and Director-General, but was beaten to the post of Governor General by Abraham Patras, when Patras died, Valckenier was named Governor General by the Council of the Indies on 3 May 1737. It was during the rule of Adriaan Valckenier that the slaughter of Chinese took place in Batavia. A previous Governor General had encouraged many Chinese to come to Batavia, the population was approaching 50% of Chinese provenance. They worked in the construction of the houses and fortifications of Batavia, many Chinese merchants also took a leading, if illegal, role in the trade with China. From 1725 the sugar trade began to collapse, partly because of competition from Brazil, unemployment in the countryside grew, and along with that, unrest. This spread to Batavia as unemployed Chinese left the countryside to work or food relief there. The authorities were alarmed at this and began issuing residence permits, unrest grew to a full-scale insurrection in the countryside in September 1740, when the Dutch had suggested transporting unemployed Chinese to other Dutch colonies in Ceylon and South Africa. A rumour spread that they would all be thrown overboard en route, and riots in the countryside exploded. This massacre lasted three days, followed by many days of looting and arson, with no obvious government attempt to stop the violence. One estimate is that between 5,000 and 10,000 Chinese were killed in total, gustaaf Willem baron van Imhoff, a colleague and rival of Valckenier, objected to this violence. He was arrested and sent back to the Netherlands, where, unfortunately for Valckenier, Valckenier had also been accused of mishandling the coffee trade – fearing overproduction, he had destroyed over half of the plantations. This resulted in a loss when he could not supply renewed demand. He did not manage his Council very well, and there were many intrigues, van Imhoffs influence in Amsterdam resulted in Valckenier being dismissed as Governor-General and recalled to the Netherlands
9.
Dutch language
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It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German
10.
Indonesian language
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Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a register of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation in the world, of its large population, the majority speak Indonesian, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. However, most formal education, and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, judiciary, the Indonesian name for the language is Bahasa Indonesia or sometimes simplified as Bahasa. This term is occasionally found in English and other languages. Indonesian is a register of Riau Malay, which despite its common name is not the Malay dialect native to Riau. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium and it might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language. The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago, Indonesian is essentially the same language as the official Malaysian, Singaporean and Brunei standards of Malay. However, it does differ from Malaysian in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and these differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar, which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax. The question of whether High Malay or Low Malay was the parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language, however, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC the Dutch crown took control of the colony in 1799 and it was then that education in. Even then, Dutch administrators were reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a elite, in 1940
11.
Sugar cane mill
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A sugar cane mill can refer to a factory that processes sugar cane to produce raw or white sugar. It can also mean the piece of equipment that crushes the sticks of sugar cane to extract the juice, the raw sugar produced is often refined to produce white sugar. This sugar refining can be either at a completely separate factory or at a back-end refinery which is attached to the raw sugar factory. There are two processes for extracting juice from cane, Milling, and Diffusion, juice extraction by milling is the process of squeezing the juice from the cane under a set mills using high pressure between heavy iron rollers. Those mills can have from 3 up to 6 rolls, every set of mills are called tandem mill or mill train, mixed juice is withdrawn from the first and second mills and is sent for further processing. Milling trains typically have four, five or six mills in the tandem, for improve the milling extraction performance before the cane reach the first mill, normally are used knife and shredder as preparation equipments. Sugarcane diffusion is the process of extracting the sucrose from the cane with the use of imbibtion, shredded cane is introduced into the diffuser at the feed end, Hot water is poured over the shredded cane just before the discharge end of the diffuser. The hot water percolates through the bed of cane and removes sucrose from the cane.0 to 4.5 which is quite acidic, calcium hydroxide, also known as Milk of lime or limewater, is added to the cane juice to adjust its pH to 7. The lime helps to prevent sucroses decay into glucose and fructose, the limed juice is then heated to a temperature above its boiling point. The superheated limed juice is allowed to flash to its saturation temperature. The flashed juice is transferred to a clarification tank which allows the suspended solids to settle. The supernatant, known as clear juice is drawn off of the clarifier, the clarified juice is concentrated in a multiple-effect evaporator to make a syrup of about 60 percent sucrose by weight. This method boils the sugar liquors in three stages, called A-, B- and C-, a batch type sugar centrifuge separates the sugar crystals from the mother liquor. These centrifuges have a capacity of up to 2,200 kilograms per cycle, the sugar from the centrifuges is dried and cooled and then stored in a silo or directly packed into bags for shipment. The mother liquor from the first crystallization step is again crystallized in vacuum pans, the mother-liquor is again crystallized in vacuum pans. Due to the low purity the evapo-crystallization alone is not sufficient to exhaust molasses, then the massecuite is re-heated in order to reduce its viscosity and then purged in the C-produced centrifugals. The run-off from the C-centrifugals is called molasses, the spun-off sugar from the B-product and C-product centrifuges is re-melted, filtered and added to the syrup coming from the evaporator station. Some cane sugar mills have so-called back-end refineries, in this case, a portion of the raw sugar produced in the mill is directly converted to refined sugar with a higher purity for local consumption, exportation, or bottling companies
12.
Dutch East India Company
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It is often considered to be the worlds first truly transnational corporation and the first company in history to actually issue bonds and shares of stock to the general public. In other words, the VOC was officially the first publicly traded company of the world, the company was also considered by many to be the very first major and the greatest corporation in history. Statistically, the VOC eclipsed all of its rivals in international trade for almost 200 years of existence. Between 1602 and 1796 the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships, the VOC enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the 17th century. Having been set up in 1602, to profit from the Malukan spice trade, in 1619 the VOC established a capital in the city of Jayakarta. Over the next two centuries the Company acquired additional ports as trading bases and safeguarded their interests by taking over surrounding territory and it remained an important trading concern and paid an 18% annual dividend for almost 200 years. Around the world and especially in English-speaking countries, the VOC is widely known as the Dutch East India Company, the name ‘Dutch East India Company’ is used to make a distinction with the East India Company and other East Indian companies. The abbreviation VOC stands for Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie in Dutch, the VOC monogram was possibly the first globally-recognized corporate logo. The logo of the VOC consisted of a large capital V with an O on the left and it appeared on various corporate items, such as cannon and coins. The first letter of the hometown of the conducting the operation was placed on top. An Australian vintner has used the VOC logo since the late 20th century, the flag of the company was orange, white, and blue, with the company logo embroidered on it. Before the Dutch Revolt, Antwerp had played an important role as a centre in northern Europe. At the same time, the Portuguese trade system was unable to supply to satisfy growing demand. Demand for spices was relatively inelastic, and therefore each lag in the supply of pepper caused a rise in pepper prices. These three factors motivated Dutch merchants to enter the spice trade themselves. Further, a number of Dutchmen like Jan Huyghen van Linschoten and Cornelis de Houtman obtained first hand knowledge of the secret Portuguese trade routes and practices, thereby providing opportunity. The stage was set for Houtmans 1595 four-ship exploratory expedition to Banten, the main pepper port of West Java. Houtmans expedition then sailed east along the north coast of Java, losing twelve crew to a Javanese attack at Sidayu, half the crew were lost before the expedition made it back to the Netherlands the following year, but with enough spices to make a considerable profit
13.
Curfew
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A curfew is an order specifying a time during which certain regulations apply. The word curfew comes from the French phrase couvre-feu, which means fire cover and it was later adopted into Middle English as curfeu, which later became the modern curfew. An order issued by the authorities or military forces requiring everyone or certain people to be indoors at certain times. It can be imposed to maintain order, or suppress targeted groups. An order by the guardians of a teenager to return home by a specific time. This may apply daily, or vary with the day of the week, a daily requirement for guests to return to their hostel before a specified time, usually in the evening or night. In baseball, a time after which a game must end, for example, in the American League the curfew rule for many years decreed that no inning could begin after 1 am local time. In aeronautics, night flying restrictions may restrict aircraft operations over a period in the nighttime. Notable examples are the London airports of Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted, in a few locations in the UK patrons of licensed premises may not enter after a curfew time. In Inverclyde for example this is set at 12,00 am. On 28 January 2011, and following the collapse of the police system, however, it was ignored by demonstrators who continued their sit-in in Tahrir Square. Concerned residents formed vigilante groups to defend their communities against looters. In defiance, the locals took to the streets during the curfew, organizing football tournaments and street festivals, prohibiting police, under Icelands Child Protection Act, children aged 12 and under may not be outdoors after 20,00 unless accompanied by an adult. Children aged 13 to 16 may not be outdoors after 22,00, unless on their way home from an event organized by a school. During the period 1 May to 1 September, children may be outdoors for two hours longer, children and teenagers that break curfew are taken to the local police station and police officers inform their parents to get them. The age limits stated here shall be based upon year of birth, if a parent cannot be reached, the child or teenager is taken to a shelter. The United Kingdoms 2003 Anti-Social Behaviour Act created zones that allow police from 9 PM to 6 AM to hold and escort home unaccompanied minors under the age of 16, whether badly behaved or not. Although hailed as a success, the High Court ruled in one case that the law did not give the police a power of arrest
14.
Javanese people
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The Javanese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Java. With approximately 100 million people, they form the largest ethnic group in Indonesia and they are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of the island. There are also significant numbers of people of Javanese descent in most Provinces of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Suriname, Saudi Arabia, the Javanese ethnic group has many sub-groups, such as the Mataram, Cirebonese, Osing, Tenggerese, Samin, Naganese, Banyumasan, etc. A majority of the Javanese people identify themselves as Muslims, with a minority identifying as Christians, Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived through trade contacts with the Indian subcontinent. Hindu and Buddhist - traders and visitors, arrived in the 5th century, the Hindu, Buddhist and Javanese faiths blended into a unique local philosophy. The cradle of Javanese culture is described as being in Kedu. The earliest Sanjaya and Sailendra dynasties had their base there. The move was most likely caused by the eruption of Merapi and/or invasion from Srivijaya. The major spread of Javanese influence occurred under King Kertanegara of Singhasari in the late 13th century, the expansionist king launched several major expeditions to Madura, Bali in 1284, Borneo and most importantly to Sumatra in 1275. Following the defeat of the Melayu Kingdom, Singhasari controlled trade in the Strait of Malacca, Singhasari dominance was cut short in 1292 by Kediris rebellion under Jayakatwang, killing Kertanegara. However, Jayakatwangs reign as king of Java soon ended as he was defeated by Kertanegaras son-in-law, Raden Wijaya would later establish Majapahit near the delta of the Brantas River in modern-day Mojokerto, East Java. Kertanegara policies were continued by the Majapahits under King Hayam Wuruk. Various kingdoms of Java were actively involved in the trade in the sea route of the Silk Road. Although not major producers, these kingdoms were able to stockpile spice by trading for it with rice. Majapahit is usually regarded as the greatest of these kingdoms and it was both an agrarian and a maritime power, combining wet-rice cultivation and foreign trade. The ruin of their capital can be found in Trowulan, Islam gained its foothold in port towns on Javas northern coast such as Gresik, Ampel Denta, Tuban, Demak and Kudus. The spread and proselytising of Islam among the Javanese was traditionally credited to Wali Songo, Java underwent major changes as Islam spread. Following succession disputes and civil wars, Majapahit power collapsed, after this collapse, its various dependencies and vassals broke free
15.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
16.
Dutch literature
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Dutch-language literature comprises all writings of literary merit written through the ages in the Dutch language, a language which currently has around 23 million native speakers. Dutch-language literature is the produce of Netherlands, Belgium, Suriname, the Netherlands Antilles and of formerly Dutch-speaking regions, such as French Flanders, South Africa, the Dutch East Indies, as Indonesia was called under Dutch colonization, spawned a separate subsection in Dutch-language literature. Conversely, Dutch-language literature sometimes was and is produced by people originally from abroad who came to live in Dutch-speaking regions, such as Anne Frank and Kader Abdolah. In its earliest stages, Dutch-language literature is defined as pieces of literary merit written in one of the Dutch dialects of the Low Countries. Before the 17th century, there was no unified standard language, a separate Afrikaans literature started to emerge during the 19th century, and it shares the same literary roots as contemporary Dutch, as Afrikaans evolved from 17th-century Dutch. The term Dutch literature may either indicate in a narrow sense literature from the Netherlands, until the end of the 11th century, Dutch literature - like literature elsewhere in Europe - was almost entirely oral and in the form of poetry. In the 12th and 13th century, writers starting writing chivalric romances and hagiographies for noblemen, from the 13th century, literature became more didactic and developed a proto-national character, as it was written for the bourgeoisie. With the close of the 13th century a change appeared in Dutch literature, the Flemish and Hollandic towns began to prosper and a new sort of literary expression began. Around 1440, literary guilds called rederijkerskamers arose which were usually middle-class in tone, of these chambers, the earliest were almost entirely engaged in preparing mysteries and miracle plays for the people. Anna Bijns is an important figure who wrote in modern Dutch, the Reformation appeared in Dutch literature in a collection of Psalm translations in 1540 and in a 1566 New Testament translation in Dutch. The best-known of all Dutch writers is the Catholic playwright and poet Joost van den Vondel, during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the Low Countries had gone through major political upheaval. The most prominent writers were Willem Bilderdijk, Hiëronymus van Alphen, piet Paaltjens is one of the very few readable nineteenth-century poets, representing in Dutch the Romantic vein exemplified by Heine. A new movement called Tachtigers or Movement of Eighty, after the decade in which it arose, one of the most important historical writers of the 20th century was Johan Huizinga, who is known abroad and translated in different languages and included in several great books lists. During the 1920s, a new group of writers who distanced themselves from the style of the Movement of 1880 arose. During WW II, influential writers included Anne Frank died in a German concentration camp, as did crime fiction writer, journalist, writers who had lived through the atrocities of the Second World War reflected in their works on the changed perception of reality. Obviously many looked back on their experiences the way Anne Frank had done in her Diary, this was the case with Het bittere kruid of Marga Minco, and Kinderjaren of Jona Oberski. The renewal, which in literary history would be described as ontluisterend realisme, is associated with three authors, Gerard Reve, W. F. Around 500 AD, Old Frankish evolved to Old Dutch, a West Germanic language that was spoken by the Franks, scientific and religious texts were written in Latin and as a consequence most texts written in the Netherlands were written in Latin rather than Old Dutch
17.
Java
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Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of over 141 million or 145 million as of 2015 Census released in December 2015, the Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on western Java. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java and it was the center of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s, Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Formed mostly as the result of eruptions, Java is the 13th largest island in the world. A chain of mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island, Javanese, Sundanese, of these, Javanese is the dominant, it is the native language of about 60 million people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian as their first or second language, while the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Java has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures. Java is divided into four provinces, West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Banten, the origins of the name Java are not clear. One possibility is that the island was named after the plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time. There are other sources, the word jaú and its variations mean beyond or distant. And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous, Yawadvipa is mentioned in Indias earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Ramas army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa and it was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name yāvaka dvīpa. Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by Chithalai Chathanar that states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram, another source states that the Java word is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root word, Iawa that meaning home. The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in Ptolemys Geographia composed around 150 CE Roman Empire, Iabadiu is said to mean barley island, to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicate Java, and seems to be derived from Hindu name Java-dvipa, Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island is to the south and it is the worlds 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, Sunda Strait to the west, Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin, it contains thirty-eight mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes
18.
Dirck van Cloon
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Dirck van Cloon was Eurasian Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies. He died of malaria at the age of 46 and he was born in Batavia sometime in 1684. For his education and training he was sent to the Netherlands and he graduated in Law at Leiden University on 1 April 1707. He returned to Batavia on the clipper Donkervliet and spent some time in Dutch Coromandel and he was among other things a district overseer in Sadraspatnam. He got into a fight with the governor of Coromandel, Adriaan de Visser, the government in Batavia sent Van Cloon back to the Netherlands, but he persuaded the Directors of the Dutch East India Company that de Visser was not to be trusted. Van Cloon was reinstated and he left for the Indies on 4 November 1719 on board the ‘van de Huis te Assenburg’ as Supercargo, in 1720, he became district chief at Negapatnam. In 1723, he became Governor of Dutch Coromandel, in 1724, he returned to Batavia to advise the Governor-General and in 1730, he became “Raad-ordinair” of the Indies. On 9 October 1731 the Directors of the Dutch East India Company named Dirck van Cloon Governor-General of the Indies, to which he succeed on 28 May 1732, by 20 December 1733 van Cloon was asking to resign because of sickness. He died in post, however, and it was not until after he had died that his successor took over, Van Cloon was involved in a stand-off with the nascent Swedish East India Company, but he resolved it amicably. Less happy was an insurrection of unemployed Chinese sugar plantation workers and this was caused by the collapse of the sugar market, due to over-production and government mishandling. Vocsite. nl The organisational structure of the Dutch East India Company
19.
Dutch Ceylon
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Dutch Ceylon was a governorate established in present-day Sri Lanka by the Dutch East India Company. It existed from 1640 until 1796, in the early 17th century, Sri Lanka was partly ruled by the Portuguese and Sri Lankan kingdoms, who were constantly battling each other. Although the Portuguese were not winning the war, their rule was burdensome to the people of those areas controlled by them. While the Dutch were engaged in a war of independence from Spanish rule. The Dutch interest in Ceylon was to have a battle front against the Iberians at that time. The Dutch were invited by the Sri Lankans to liberate the country from the Portuguese and they signed the Kandyan Treaty of 1638 with Rajasinghe II and soon embarked on a war against their common enemy. As such the Dutch were appointed as a protector of the country, meanwhile, however, Rajasinghe II approached the French and offered them the Trincomalee fort as a check against Dutch power. The Dutch captured Trinco from the French and controlled all the provinces of the island. Rajasinghe and the Dutch were both playing a game trying to outwit each other, and the treaty of 1638 was never implemented. The Dutch ruled all the Tamil provinces and brought Tanjore Tamil slaves to work in the Cinnamon gardens in the Western Province, the capital of Dutch Coromandel was in Pulicat and they brought needed manpower from the Indian colonies. Portuguese rule was always in the provinces and the people whom they converted were the coastal folk. They were the backbone of their power, many of the Princes they converted had either died or were no longer Catholic. The rest of the Ceylon remained in the Buddhist-Hindu religion, the Dutch were used by the Sinhala king to take revenge on the Portuguese who wanted to expand their rule. The war with Portugal was against their ruler the King of Spain, once Portugal obtained its freedom from Spain the Netherlands settled for peace with Portugal. Then they divided the areas of Ceylon amicably under a treaty signed in Goa. Slowly, the Dutch became the rulers of coastal and outer areas of Ceylon and Indonesia, and the Portuguese were left with smaller pieces of territory than those of the Dutch and the English. In the east, Portugal held territories not only in Ceylon but in India, in the Persian Gulf, from 1580 to 1640, the throne of Portugal was held by the Habsburg kings of Spain resulting in the biggest colonial empire until then. The Azores were the last part of Portugal to resist Philips reign over Portugal, the Netherlands meanwhile were in open revolt against their Habsburg overlord and declared themselves a Republic in 1581
20.
Stamford Raffles
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Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, FRS was a British statesman, Lieutenant-Governor of British Java and Governor-General of Bencoolen, best known for his founding of Singapore. He was also involved in the conquest of the Indonesian island of Java from Dutch and French military forces during the Napoleonic Wars. He was also a writer and wrote a book titled The History of Java. Raffles was born on the ship Ann off the coast of Port Morant, Jamaica, to Captain Benjamin Raffles and his father was a Yorkshireman who had a burgeoning family and little luck in the West Indies trade during the American Revolution, sending the family into debt. The little money the family had went into schooling Raffles, in 1795, at the age of 14, Raffles started working as a clerk in London for the British East India Company, the trading company that shaped many of Britains overseas conquests. In 1805 he was sent to what is now Penang in the country of Malaysia, then called the Prince of Wales Island and he started with a post under the Honourable Philip Dundas, the Governor of Penang. At this time he made the acquaintance of Thomas Otho Travers. His knowledge of the Malay language, as well as his wit and ability, gained him favour with Lord Minto, Governor-General of India, and he was sent to Malacca. Then, in 1811, after the invasion and annexation of the Kingdom of Holland by France during Napoleons war, Raffles had no choice and he mounted a military expedition against the Dutch and French in Java, Indonesia. The British, led by Colonel Gillespie, stormed the fort, janssens attempted to escape inland but was captured. The British invasion of Java took a total of forty-five days and he took his residence at Buitenzorg and despite having a small subset of Britons as his senior staff, he kept many of the Dutch civil servants in the governmental structure. During the relatively brief British rule in Java, Raffles negotiated peace, Most significant of these was the 21 June 1812 assault on Yogyakarta, one of the two most powerful indigenous polities in Java. During the attack the Yogyakarta kraton was badly damaged and extensively looted by British troops, Raffles seized much of the contents of the court archive. The event was unprecedented in Javanese history and it was the first time an indigenous court had been taken by storm by a European army, and the humiliation of the local aristocracy was profound. Under Raffless aegis, a number of ancient monuments in Java were systematically catalogued for the first time. The first detailed English-language account of Prambanan was prepared by Colin Mackenzie while Borobudur was surveyed and cleared of vegetation by H. C, under the harsh conditions of the island, his wife, Olivia, died on 26 November 1814, an event that devastated Raffles. In 1815, he left again for England shortly before the island of Java was returned to control of the Netherlands following the Napoleonic Wars, under the terms of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814. He sailed to England in early 1816 to clear his name and, en route, visited Napoleon, who was in exile at St. Helena, but found him unpleasant and unimpressive
21.
Kapitan Cina
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Kapitan Cina or Kapitan China was a high-ranking government position in the civil administration of colonial Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. Office holders exercised varying degrees of power and influence, from political and legal jurisdiction over local Chinese communities. The origin of the office back to court positions in the precolonial states of Southeast Asia, such as Banten, Melaka. Many rulers assigned self-governance to local communities, including the Chinese. Often, these also had responsibilities beyond their local communities. For example, the title of Chao Praya Chodeuk Rajasrethi in Thailand combined the roles of Chinese headman and head of the Department of Eastern Affairs. A long succession of Kapitans since formed a part of colonial history in Southeast Asia. Kapitans were also pivotal in facilitating large-scale Chinese migration to Southeast Asia, throughout Southeast Asia, Batavia arguably boasts the longest continuous history of the institution of Kapitan Cina. In 1619, the Dutch appointed Souw Beng Kong, formerly Kapitan Cina of Bantam, through Kapitein Beng Kong, then, the Batavian Captaincy succeeded the much-earlier institution of Kapitan Cina of Bantam. Batavia also produced probably Asias only female Kapitan Cina, the so-called Nyai Bali, the Batavian Captaincy ended in 1945 with the death of Khouw Kim An, the last Majoor der Chinezen of Batavia, possibly also the last such intermediary rulers in Southeast Asia. The issue of a Luitenant, Kapitein or Majoor der Chinesen are entitled, by Peranakan custom, List of Kapitan Cina Kapitan Arab Kapitan Keling Kangchu system List of place names of Kangchu system origin Kongsi federations Lanfang Republic Overseas Chinese Trocki, Carl A. Prince of Pirates, The Temenggongs and the Development of Johor and Singapore 1784-1885, NUS Press, p.130, ISBN 978-9971-69-376-3 Hwang, personalized Politics, The Malaysian State Under Matahtir. Singapore, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, the Kapitan Cina of Batavia, 1837-1942. Southeast Asia, A Historical Encyclopedia, From Angkor Wat to East Timor, ISBN 1-57607-770-5 Chinese Kapitans of Malacca
22.
Betawi people
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Betawi people often described as the native Jakartans. They are the descendants of the living in and around Batavia from around the 17th century. Although the term itself is questionable, since Betawi people was formed in the 18th century as an amalgamation of various immigrant ethnic groups into Batavia. The name Betawi is derived from Batavia, the old name of Jakarta. In neighboring Javanese and Sundanese languages, the term Betawi originally referred to colonial Batavia, the Betawis are one of the youngest, or the latest formed ethnic group in Indonesia. They are an ethnic group that their ancestors came from various parts of Indonesia. Prior to the 19th century, the self-identity of Betawi people was not yet formed, in the 17th century, Dutch colonials began to imported servants and labours from all over the archipelago into Batavia. One of the earliest are Balinese slaves brought from Bali and Ambonese mercenaries, subsequently other ethnic groups follow suit, they are Malays, Sundanese, Javanese, Minangkabau, Bugis and Makassarese. Foreign ethnic groups were included, such as Mardijker, Portuguese, Dutch, Arabs, Chinese and Indian. This was shown in the Batavia census record that listed immigrants ethnic background of Batavias citizen and these ethnic groups merged and formed in around 18th to 19th century. The term Betawi was first listed as a category in 1930 census of Batavia residents. The Betawi people have a culture and language distinct from the surrounding Sundanese and Javanese, the Betawis are known for their traditions in music and food. The Betawi language—also known as Betawi Malay, is a Malay-based creole language, Betawi vocabulary has large amount of Hokkien Chinese, Arabic, and Dutch loanwords. Today the Betawi language is an informal language in Indonesia. It has become one of language in Indonesia, and also one of active local dialect in the country. Majority of the Betawi people follow Sunni Islam, however, there are significant number of them who profess the Christian faith. Although today Betawi culture is perceived as a Muslim culture. The culture and artform of the Betawi people demonstrate the influences experienced by them throughout their history, foreign influences are visible, such as Portuguese and Chinese influences on their musics, and Sundanese, Javanese and Chinese influences in their dances
23.
Arrack
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The clear distillate may be blended, aged in wooden barrels, or repeatedly distilled and filtered depending upon the taste and color objectives of the manufacturer. Arrack is not to be confused with arak, an alcoholic beverage traditionally consumed in Eastern Mediterranean. The word Arrack originated from the Sinhalese word අරක්කු which means any kind of residue and this is not to be confused with the word derived from the Arabic word arak, meaning distillate. In the Middle East and Near East, the term arak is usually used for liquor distilled from grapes and flavored with anise. Unlike arak, the word arrack has been considered by experts to be derived from areca nut. In 1838, Samuel Morewoods work on the histories of liquors was published and this is largely due to the proliferation of distillation knowledge throughout the Middle East during the 14th century. Each country named its own alcohol by using various Latin alphabet forms of the word which was synonymous with distillation at the time. Arrack was banned in the states of Kerala in 1996, in Indonesia, the term arak is widely used to describe the arrack. Arak was an alcoholic beverage during the colonial era. It is considered the rum of Indonesia, because like rum and it is a pot still distillation. To start the fermentation, local fermented red rice is combined with local yeast to give a unique flavor, like rum, Batavia-arrack is often a blend of different original parcels. The Batavia Arak Company also exported arak to the Netherlands and had an office in Amsterdam, some of the arrack brand produced by Batavia Arak Company were KWT and OGL. Batavia-Arrack is said to enhance the flavor when used as a component in other products, as in the herbal and it is used as a component in liqueurs, pastries, and also in the confectionery and flavor industries. In Indonesia, arrack is often created as a form of moonshine, such illicit production may result in methanol-tainted arrack that can lead to death. The Filipino term for wine is alak, derived from the Arabic word arrak, the term arak, though, is specifically used in Ilocano. Lambanóg is commonly described as coconut wine or coconut vodka, as with coconut arrack, the process begins with the sap from the coconut flower. The sap is harvested into bamboo receptacles similar to rubber tapping, the tubà, which by itself is also a popular beverage, is further distilled to produce lambanóg. Until recently, lambanóg was considered an analogue to moonshine
24.
West Indies
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Indigenous peoples were the first inhabitants of the West Indies. In 1492, Christopher Columbus became the first European to arrive at the islands, after the first of the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, Europeans began to use the term West Indies to distinguish the region from the East Indies of South Asia and Southeast Asia. In the late century, French, English and Dutch merchants and privateers began their operations in the Caribbean Sea, attacking Spanish and Portuguese shipping. These African slaves wrought a demographic revolution, replacing or joining with either the indigenous Caribs or the European settlers who were there as indentured servants. The Dutch, allied with the Caribs of the Orinoco would eventually carry the struggles deep into South America, first along the Orinoco and these interconnected commercial and diplomatic relations made up the Western Caribbean Zone which was in place in the early eighteenth century. In 1916, Denmark sold the Danish West Indies to the United States for US$25 million in gold, the Danish West Indies became an insular area of the US, called the United States Virgin Islands. Between 1958 and 1962, the United Kingdom re-organised all their West Indies island territories into the West Indies Federation and they hoped that the Federation would coalesce into a single, independent nation. West Indian is the term used by the U. S. government to refer to people of the West Indies. Tulane University professor Rosanne Adderly says he phrase West Indies distinguished the territories encountered by Columbus, … The term West Indies was eventually used by all European nations to describe their own acquired territories in the Americas. Despite the collapse of the Federation … the West Indies continues to field a joint cricket team for international competition, the West Indies cricket team includes participants from Guyana, which is geographically located in South America. More than Slaves and Sugar, Recent Historiography of the Trans-imperial Caribbean, a Concise History of the Caribbean. Martin, Tony, Caribbean History, From Pre-colonial Origins to the Present
25.
Gustaaf Willem van Imhoff
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Gustaaf Willem, Baron van Imhoff was a Dutch colonial administrator for the Dutch East India Company. He served as Governor of Ceylon from 1736 to 1740 and as Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1743 until his death in 1750 at Istana Cipanas, Van Imhoff was born into an East Frisian aristocratic family. His father, Wilhelm Heinrich Freiherr von Imhoff, came from the town of Leer in northwestern Germany, in 1725 Van Imhoff entered into the service of the Dutch East India Company in Batavia, then colonial capital of the Dutch East Indies. Van Imhoff was promoted several times within the company before being appointed governor in Ceylon on 23 July 1736. Van Imhoffs tenure as governor of Ceylon put an end to the chaos that had pervaded the previous administration and he established constructive relations with Vira Narendra Sinha, King of Kandy. King Narendra was married to a Tamil princess of Madurai, and their child, in his letters, Van Imhoff expressed his surprise that the Sinhalese people had accepted such a king, considering their haughty attitude towards the Tamils of India. However, Van Imhoff saw an opportunity in this turn of events. They rejected the proposition as war was deemed as too costly, despite the profitable production of spices, the colony was always in a state of deficit because its profits were allotted to the VOC in general, not to the colony itself. This practice prevented the Governors from becoming too extravagant in their habits, in January 1739, Imhoff travelled to the port of Cochin on the south west coast of India with a view to authoring a report on the state of Dutch Malabar for the VOCs governors in Batavia. Imhoff demanded that Marthanda Varma restore the kingdom of Kayamkulam to its former ruling princess. Marthanda Varma countered that he would overcome any Dutch forces that were sent to his kingdom, the situation on the Malabar Coast triggered the Travancore–Dutch War, a conflict unauthorised by the Dutch government in Batavia. On 12 March 1740, Willem Maurits Bruyninck replaced Van Imhoff as governor of Ceylon and Imhoff returned to Batavia, former Governor-General Adriaan Valckenier believed that the Chinese population in the area around Batavia had grown too large. Vackenier had then responded with a counter-attack on 9 October 1740 that was meant to put insurgents under control, Van Imhoff voiced opposition to this brutal policy, which led to his arrest and deportation back to the Dutch Republic. However, upon his arrival, the Lords Seventeen decided to name him Governor-general of the Dutch East Indies, Van Imhoff proposed improving education efforts and the work of the Protestant Church in the colony. In May 1743, Van Imhoff began his tenure in Batavia, the Javanese princes took advantage of the chaotic situation following Valckeniers actions to begin a war against the VOC. Van Imhoff succeeded in reestablishing peace and began several reforms and he founded a Latin school, opened the first post offices in the Dutch East Indies, built a hospital and launched a newspaper. He also founded the city of Buitenzorg and suppressed opium trade, in 1746, Imhoff embarked on a tour of Java to inspect the companys holdings and decided on several institutional reforms. Van Imhoffs tenure was marked by catastrophe
26.
Balinese people
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The Balinese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Bali. The Balinese population of 4.2 million live mostly on the island of Bali, there are also significant populations on the island of Lombok, and in the eastern-most regions of Java. The Balinese originated from three periods of migration, the first waves of immigrants came from Java and Kalimantan in prehistoric times and were of proto-Malay stock. The second wave of Balinese came slowly over the years from Java during the Hindu period and this in turn reshaped the Balinese culture into a syncretic form of classical Javanese culture mixed with many Balinese elements. A DNA study in 2005 by Karafet et al. found that 12% of Balinese Y-chromosomes are of likely Indian origin, while 84% are of likely Austronesian origin, Balinese culture is a mix of Balinese Hindu-Buddhist religion and Balinese customs. It is perhaps most known for its dance, drama and sculpture, the island is also known for its Wayang kulit or Shadow play theatre. Even in poor rural and neglected villages, beautiful temples are a common sight, even layered pieces of palm leaf and neat fruit arrangements made as offerings by Balinese women have an artistic side to them. Balinese artists are skilled in duplicating art works such as carvings that resemble Chinese deities or decorating vehicles based on what is seen in foreign magazines. The culture is noted for its use of the gamelan in music, each type of music is designated for a specific type of event. For example, music for a piodalan is different from music used for a ceremony, just as it is for weddings, Ngaben, Melasti. The diverse types of gamelan are also specified according to the different types of dance in Bali, according to Walter Spies, the art of dancing is an integral part of Balinese life as well as an endless critical element in a series of ceremonies or for personal interests. Traditionally, displaying of female breasts is not regarded as immodest, Balinese women can often be seen with bared chests, however, a display of the thigh is considered immodest. In modern Bali these customs are not strictly observed. In the Balinese naming system, a rank of birth or caste is reflected in the name. A puputan is an act of mass suicide through frontal assaults in battle, the latest act of puputan was during the Indonesian war of Independence, with Lt. Colonel I Gusti Ngurah Rai as the leader in the battle of Margarana. The airport in Bali is named after him in commemoration, the vast majority of the Balinese believe in Agama Tirta, holy-water religion. It is a Shivaite sect of Hinduism, traveling Indian priests are said to have introduced the people to the sacred literature of Hinduism and Buddhism centuries ago. The people accepted it and combined it with their own pre-Hindu mythologies, the Balinese from before the third wave of immigration, known as the Bali Aga, are mostly not followers of Agama Tirta, but retain their own animist traditions
27.
Jatinegara
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Jatinegara is one of the Subdistrict of East Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia. Established in the 17th-century, the area of the Subdistrict Jatinegara was one of the oldest area of Jakarta, Jatinegara contains a number of buildings from the colonial period. The area is known as Pecinan or Chinatown since the majority of the traders are of Chinese descent In Jatinegara Market. This article describes both Jatinegara as an area and as a Subdistrict. There is also a village named Jatinegara located in Cakung Subdistrict. The name Jatinegara was derived from Jatina Nagara, a Malay term meaning the might of the state, in the 17th century, in the area of Jatinegara was a settlement for the princes of the Sultanate of Banten. During the Dutch colonial period, the area was named Meester Cornelis, Cornelis Senen was one of the most celebrated Malay preacher and schoolmaster at that time, a son of an indigenous Christians who had been resettled in Lontor Island, one of the. In 1656, Senen was granted land to the east of Ciliwung, with area of 5 square kilometers. As a landlord, he received the title Meester, the land was used mainly for forestry. Meester Cornelis Senen died in 1661, but his name stuck, during the 18th century, Meester Cornelis was a military territory, with residential areas, wide roads, and a rural character. A buffalo market, known for its Thursday Market, was built in the old area of Meester Cornelis in 1706, a fort was built in 1734. The commander of the established entertainment facilities around the fort. In 1746, an encampment for soldiers with malaria was built in area because of its higher altitude. An artillery school was built in 1805, in 1810, General Daendels established this territory as the center of defense against a possible attack by the British. The main point of this system was the Meester Cornelis fort. A British attack occurred in 1811, in 1820, the fort was transformed into a prison. Meester Cornelis Military School was opened in 1852 and closed in 1892 and it was not the first military school in the Dutch East Indies, but it was the most successful one. One third of the students were born in the colony, the majority came from the Netherlands, most students were from the middle class
28.
Tanah Abang
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Tanah Abang is a subdistrict of Central Jakarta, Indonesia. The subdistrict hosts the biggest textile market in Southeast Asia, Tanah Abang Market, Tanah Abang subdistrict is also the location of Bung Karno Stadium and the western half of the Sudirman Central Business District. Tanah Abang is also the name of two historic roads located in Kelurahan South Petojo, Gambir Subdistrict, one of these roads, Tanah Abang 1, is known as the location of a former Dutch Cemetery, now a museum called Museum Taman Prasasti. The cemetery is the place of Olivia Mariamne Devenish, Eurasian wife of Stamford Raffles. The Textile Museum, generally known to be located in Tanah Abang Subdistrict, is located in West Jakarta. The museum is identified with Tanah Abang Subdistrict because it is located close to the boundary of the two subdistricts, Tanah Abang market is located in the Kelurahan Kebon Kacang. The Kelurahan is served by the Tanah Abang railway station, which is located in the border of the administrative village. The market has been known to exist since 1735, Tanah Abang market is the main textile trade in Indonesia and the biggest in Southeast Asia. Before 2003, the market was divided into three areas, known as Metro Tanah Abang, Tanah Abang Lama, and Tanah Abang AURI, a small part of the market was destroyed by the fire in February 2003. Since 2003 the market has been rebuilt, other market areas, Blok A and Blok B, were added to the area in 2005 and 2010
29.
Schutterij
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Schutterij refers to a voluntary city guard or citizen militia in the medieval and early modern Netherlands, intended to protect the town or city from attack and act in case of revolt or fire. Their training grounds were often on open spaces within the city, near the city walls, but and they are mostly grouped according to their district and to the weapon that they used, bow, crossbow or gun. Together, its members are called a Schuttersgilde, which could be translated as a shooters guild. It is now a title applied to ceremonial shooting clubs and to the countrys Olympic rifle team, the schutterij, civic guard, or town watch, was a defensive military support system for the local civic authority. Its officers were wealthy citizens of the town, appointed by the city magistrates and its captain was usually a wealthy inhabitant of the district, and the groups ensign was a wealthy young bachelor. Joining as an officer for a couple of years was often a stepping-stone to other important posts within the city council, the members were expected to buy their own equipment, this entailed the purchase of a weapon and uniform. Each night two men guarded their district in two shifts, from 10,00 p. m. until 2,00 a. m. at a set time each month, the schutters would parade under the command of an officer. The ideal was that, for every hundred inhabitants, three would belong to the schutterij, the Dutch Mennonites were excluded from a position in the schutterij in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries and paid a double tax in lieu of service. Roman Catholics were permitted in the lower regions, persons in the service of the city, and the citys Jews, did not need to serve. The beer and peat bearers had to serve as the towns firefighters instead, the schutters or cloveniers met at target practice grounds called Doelen. These fields were generally adjoining a building where they met indoors for gymnastic exercises. It was in great halls where the large group portraits hung for centuries. These locations were not the place the schutters met each other. These guilds also kept altars in churches, where they met for religious reasons. Most schutterij guilds had as patron saints Saint Sebastian, Saint Anthony, Saint George and these religious duties were a significant part of the guild membership since that is also where they paid their dues. After the Protestant Reformation, all the altars were disbanded in the Dutch Reformed churches in the Northern Netherlands, and membership dues were no longer paid in church, but at the city hall. After 1581, the schutterij were officially prohibited from influencing city politics, but since the ruling regenten were all members of these guilds, once a year they held a banquet, with beer and a roasted ox. Whenever a changeover of the leading officers occurred, a painter was invited to paint the members
30.
Tangerang
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Tangerang is a city in the province of Banten, Indonesia. It is located about 25 kilometres west of Jakarta and it is the third largest urban centre in the Jabotabek region after Jakarta and Bekasi, now the sixth largest city in the nation and also the largest city in Banten province. Tangerang is an industrial and manufacturing hub on Java and is home to over 1,000 factories, many international corporations have plants in the city. Tangerang tends to be hot and humid, with little in the way of trees or geographical features, certain areas consist of swamps, including the areas near the Soekarno–Hatta International Airport. In recent years the expansion of Jakarta has covered Tangerang. Many high-class and middle-class satellite cities have developed in Tangerang, complete with their own shopping malls, private schools. The government is working on expanding the system to accommodate more traffic flow to. Tangerang also has a significant community of Chinese Indonesians, many of whom are of Cina Benteng extraction and they were descended from Manchu laborers who were brought there by the Dutch colonials in the 18th and 19th centuries. A large Chinese cemetery is located in Tangerang, much of which has now been developed into modern suburban communities such as Gading Serpong, Alam Sutera. Most of the Chinatown of Tangerang is located at Sewan, Pasar Lama, Pasar Baru, Benteng Makasar, Kapling, one can find any food and all things Chinese there. Lippo Karawaci, Bintaro Jaya, Bumi Serpong Damai and Alam Sutera are new locations of residential places, a vast majority of the residents are newcomers from Jakarta or outside, not genuine Benteng Chinese. In October 1945, Laskar Hitam, a Muslim militia was established in Tangerang, the goal of this movement was to establish an Islamic nation in Indonesia. This movement later became a part of DI/TII rebel group, on October 31,1945, Laskar Hitam kidnapped Otto Iskandardinata, Republic of Indonesias Minister of State. He was presumed to have murdered at Mauk beach, Tangerang on December 20,1945. Tangerang city was formed as a city on 27 February 1993 out of the Tangerang Regency. The city was previously a city within that Regency. In August 1996, Walmart, the largest retail group in USA, opened its first branch in Lippo Karawaci, the branch was ransacked and burned down during the Indonesian riots of May 1998. Walmart discontinued their investment in Indonesia after the riot, Tangerang District is the location of the Situ Gintung reservoir built by the Dutch colonial authorities in 1933
31.
Bekasi
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Bekasi is a city in West Java, Indonesia, located on the eastern border of Jakarta within the Jabodetabek metropolitan region, as such it serves as a dormitory and factory city for Jakarta. The borders for this city are Bekasi Regency at the north, Bogor Regency and Depok City at the south, at the west is East Jakarta, at the east is Bekasi Regency. It is Indonesias most populated incorporated city to Jakarta, and one of the most populated worldwide. The large number of companies, has apparently attracted a lot of expatriates to settle in Bekasi. It has an area of 210.49 square kilometres and had 2,663,011 people in 2014, the 2010 population was 2,378,211, making it Indonesias fourth largest city, and second in West Java only to Bandung. Many middle-up satellite cities have developed in Bekasi, complete with their own shopping malls, schools, club houses, water park. Substantial urban areas surround the city and it serves as a commuter city for Jakarta, although it has notable trade, business and processing industries. These are primarily clustered in the area of Cikarang, Bekasi is one of the oldest cities in Indonesia, and has a history of being the capital city of the Kingdom of Tarumanagara. At that time, the name of Bekasi was Dayeuh Sundasembawa, the earliest evidence of its existence dates from the 5th century according to the Tugu inscription. In recent years, many residences have developed along the Jatibening/Cikunir — Tambun toll highway and these include Harapan Indah, Summarecon Bekasi, Kemang Pratama, Grand Galaxy City, and Grand Wisata. There are several shopping centers in Bekasi, the largest is Grand Metropolitan with over 125,000 m² of floor space. Many hotels developed in Bekasi, such as Santika, Horison, Harris, Aston Imperial, Amaris, Amaroossa, Bekasi is connected by the Trans-Java Highway, the main road across Java. There are two connections from the Jabodetabek urban area. The first is the Jakarta–Cikampek Toll Road, which has four exits in Bekasi, the other is the Jakarta Outer Ring Road, which provides access to Tangerang, Jakarta, and Bogor. Owing to its location as a city of Jakarta, heavy rush hour traffic jams have become common on the roads between East Jakarta and Bekasi. Efforts have been made to overcome these problems, mainly by widening the roads between Sumber Arta and Bekasi Cyber Park along the Kalimalang river, the most recent traffic project is the constructing Becakayu toll road, which will be an alternate to the Jakarta-Cikampek Toll Road. Its route will be West Bekasi-Cawang-Kampung Melayu, commuter train KRL Jabotabek, serves from Bekasi to Jatinegara–Manggarai–Jakarta Kota vice versa. The government is constructing a double track railway connecting Manggarai to Cikarang
32.
Bali
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Bali is an island and province of Indonesia. The province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and it is located at the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islands, between Java to the west and Lombok to the east. Its capital, Denpasar, is located in the part of the island. With a population of 3,890,757 in the 2010 census, and 4,225,000 as of January 2014, the island is home to most of Indonesias Hindu minority. According to the 2010 Census,83. 5% of Balis population adhered to Balinese Hinduism, followed by 13. 4% Muslim, Christianity at 2. 5%, Bali is a popular tourist destination, which has seen a significant rise in tourists since the 1980s. Tourism-related business makes up 80% of its economy and it is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. The Indonesian International Film Festival is held every year in Bali, in March 2017, Tripadvisor named the island the worlds top destination in its Travelers choice award. Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species, in this area alone over 500 reef building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about 7 times as many as in the entire Caribbean, most recently, Bali was the host of the 2011 ASEAN Summit,2013 APEC and Miss World 2013. Bali is the home of the Subak Irrigation System, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Bali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia. Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the islands west. In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, namely Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Waisnawa, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora, each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead. Inscriptions from 896 and 911 dont mention a king, until 914 and they also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Sivaism were practiced simultaneously. Mpu Sindoks great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta, married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa around 989 and this marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali. Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150, jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204. Balinese culture was influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture. The name Bali dwipa has been discovered from inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD. It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system subak to grow rice in wet-field cultivation, some religious and cultural traditions still practiced today can be traced to this period
33.
Sulawesi
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Sulawesi, formerly known as Celebes, is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the worlds eleventh-largest island, within Indonesia, only Sumatra, Borneo and Papua are larger in territory, and only Java and Sumatra have larger populations. The landmass of Sulawesi includes four peninsulas, the northern Minahasa Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the South Peninsula, the Strait of Makassar runs along the western side of the island and separates the island from Borneo. The name Sulawesi possibly comes from the words sula and besi, the term sula also means tines, horn or spikes, derived from Sanskrit, as trishula refer to trident. Thus sulawesi means iron spikes, which suggested that the island was also a producer of iron edged weapons, the name came into common use in English following Indonesian independence. The name Celebes was originally given to the island by Portuguese explorers and it is widely considered a Portuguese rendering of the native name Sulawesi. Sulawesi is the worlds eleventh-largest island, covering an area of 174,600 km2, the central part of the island is ruggedly mountainous, such that the islands peninsulas have traditionally been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road. The three bays that divide Sulawesis peninsulas are, from north to south, the Tomini, the Tolo and these separate the Minahassa or Northern Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the Southeast Peninsula and the South Peninsula. The Strait of Makassar runs along the side of the island. The island is surrounded by Borneo to the west, by the Philippines to the north, by Maluku to the east, the Selayar Islands make up a peninsula stretching southwards from Southwest Sulawesi into the Flores Sea are administratively part of Sulawesi. All the above-mentioned islands, and many smaller ones, are part of Sulawesis six provinces. The island slopes up from the shores of the seas surrounding the island to a high, mostly non-volcanic. Active volcanoes are found in the northern Minahassa Peninsula, stretching north to the Sangihe Islands, the northern peninsula contains several active volcanoes such as Mount Lokon, Mount Awu, Soputan and Karangetang. Because of its several tectonic origin, faults scar the land, as a result, Sulawesi, in contrast to most of the other islands in the biogeographical region of Wallacea, is not truly oceanic, but a composite island at the centre of the Asia-Australia collision zone. Parts of the island were attached to either the Asian or Australian continental margin. In the west, the opening of the Makassar Strait separated West Sulawesi from Sundaland in the Eocene c.45 Mya. Before October 2014, the settlement of South Sulawesi by modern humans had been dated to c.30,000 BC on the basis of dates obtained from rock shelters in Maros. Initial settlement was probably around the mouth of the Sadan river, on the northwest coast of the peninsula, although the south coast has also been suggested
34.
Bugis
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The Austronesian ancestors of the Buginese people settled on Sulawesi around 2500 B. C. E. Migration from South China by some of the ancestors of the Buginese is also supported by studies of Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups. The Bugis in 1605 converted to Islam from Animism, some Buginese have retained their pre-Islamic belief called Tolotang, and some Bugis converted to Christianity by means of marriage, but they have remained a minority. The current Prime Minister of Malaysia, Najib Razak and the current Vice President of Indonesia, Jusuf Kalla are both Buginese. Although many Buginese people live in the port cities of Makassar and Parepare. The name Bugis is an exonym which represents a form of the name. The Buginese people speak a regional language in addition to Indonesian, called Basa Ugi. In reality, there are dialects, some of which are sufficiently different from others to be considered separate languages. Buginese language belongs to the South Sulawesi language group, other members include Makassarese language, Torajan, Mandar and Enrekang, the homeland of the Buginese is the area around Lake Tempe and Lake Sidenreng in the Walannae Depression in the southwest peninsula of Sulawesi. It was here that the ancestors of the present-day Bugis settled and this led over the next 400 years to the development of the major kingdoms of South Sulawesi, and the social transformation of chiefly societies into hierarchical proto-states. The conclusion in 1669 of a civil war led to a diaspora of Bugis and their entry into the politics of peninsular Malaysia. The Bugis played an important role in defeating Jambi and had an influence in Sultanate of Johor. Apart from the Malays, another faction in Johor at that time was the Minangkabau. Both the Buginese and the Minangkabau realised how the death of Sultan Mahmud II had provided them with the chance to exert power in Johor. Long before European colonialists extended their influence into these waters, the Makassarese, the Bajau, the Buginese sailors left their mark and culture on an area of the northern Australian coast which stretches over two thousand kilometres from the Kimberley to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Throughout these parts of northern Australia, there is evidence of a significant Bugis presence. Each year, the Bugis sailors would sail down on the monsoon in their wooden pinisi. They would stay in Australian waters for several months to trade, as Thomas Forrest wrote in A Voyage from Calcutta to the Mergui Archipelago, S.78 ff
35.
Ducat
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The ducat /ˈdʌkət/ was a gold or silver coin used as a trade coin in Europe from the later medieval centuries until as late as the 20th century. Many types of ducats had various metallic content and purchasing power throughout the period, the gold ducat of Venice gained wide international acceptance, like the medieval Byzantine hyperpyron and the Florentine florin, or the modern British pound sterling and the United States dollar. The word ducat is from Medieval Latin ducatus = relating to a duke, Doge Enrico Dandolo of Venice, whose title means duke, introduced a silver ducat whose types are related to the ducats of Roger II. Later gold ducats of Venice, however, became so important that the name ducat was associated exclusively with them, the Venetian business model of the 13th century was importing goods from the East and selling them at a profit north of the Alps. They paid for goods with Byzantine gold coins but when the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos backed a rebellion called the Sicilian Vespers in 1282. This was just one more in a series of debasements of the hyperpyron, both Florence and Genoa had introduced gold coins in 1252 and the florin of Florence had become the standard European gold coin. Venice modeled the size and weight of their ducat on the florin, the Venetian ducat contained 3.545 grams of 99. 47% fine gold, the highest purity medieval metallurgy could produce. Gold ducat types derive from silver ducat types, which were ultimately Byzantine, the obverse shows the Doge of Venice kneeling before St. Mark, the patron saint of Venice. Saint Mark holds the gospel, which is his usual attribute, the legend on the left identifies the saint as S M VENET, i. e. Saint Mark of Venice, and the legend on the right identifies the doge, with his title DVX in the field. On the reverse, Christ stands among a field of stars in an oval frame, the reverse legend is the same as on Roger II’s ducats. Succeeding doges of Venice continued striking ducats, changing only their name on the obverse, during the 15th century, the value of the ducat in terms of silver money was stable at 124 Venetian soldi, i. e. schillings. The term ducat became identified with this amount of money as well as the gold coin. Conflict between England and Spain in 1567, however, increased the price of gold and upset this equivalence, at this point, the coin was called the ducato de zecca, i. e. ducat of the mint, which was shortened to zecchino and corrupted to sequin. Leonardo Loredan extended the coinage with a half ducat and subsequent doges added a quarter, all of these coins continued to use the designs and weight standards of the original 1284 ducat. Even after dates became a feature of western coinage, Venice struck ducats without them until Napoleon ended the Venetian Republic in 1797. Instead, the Roman coin showed a senator kneeling before St. Peter on the obverse, the Popes subsequently changed these designs, but continued to strike ducats of the same weight and size into the 16th century. Most imitations of the Venetian ducat were made in the Levant, the Knights of Saint John struck ducats with grand master Dieudonné de Gozon, 1346-1353, kneeling before Saint John on the obverse and an angel seated on the Sepulcher of Christ on the reverse. Subsequent Grand masters, however, found it expedient to copy the Venetian types more exactly, first at Rhodes and they struck ducats at Chios that could be distinguished from the Venetian originals only by their workmanship
36.
Grenadier
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A grenadier was originally a specialized soldier, first established as a distinct role in the mid-to-late 17th century, for the throwing of grenades and sometimes assault operations. At that time grenadiers were chosen from the strongest and largest soldiers, certain countries such as France and Argentina established units of Horse Grenadiers and for a time the British Army had Horse Grenadier Guards. Like their infantry counterparts, these horse-mounted soldiers were chosen for their size. These soldiers operate as part of a fireteam, the concept of throwing grenades may go back to the Ming China, when Chinese soldiers on the Great Wall were reported to be using this weapon. The earliest references to these soldiers in Western armies come from Austria. References also appear in England during the English Civil War, however, it was King Louis XIV of France who made the grenadier an official type of soldier and company during his army reforms late in the 17th century. According to René Chartrand, Lt. Col. Jean Martinet introduced the idea of having men detailed to throw grenades in the Régiment du Roi in 1667 and their clothing being likewise piebald, yellow and red. The first grenades were small iron spheres filled with gunpowder fused with a length of slow-match, understandably, such requirements led to grenadiers being regarded as an elite fighting force. The wide hats with broad brims characteristic of infantry during the late 17th century were discarded and replaced with caps and this was originally to allow the grenadier to sling his musket over his back with greater ease while throwing grenades. Additionally, a brimless hat permitted the greater ease in throwing the grenade overhand. By 1700, grenadiers in the English and other armies had adopted a cap in the shape of a bishops mitre, in addition to grenades, they were equipped with contemporary longarms. The uniform included a tube that held the match for lighting the fuse. Grenade usage declined significantly in the early 18th century, a fact that can be attributed to the effectiveness of massive infantry line tactics. However, the need for assault troops remained, and the existing grenadier companies were used for this purpose. As noted, above average physical size had been considered important for the grenadiers and, in principle, height. In the British regiments of foot during the 18th century the preference was, however, the traditional criterion of size was only resorted to when newly raised regiments required a quick sorting of a mass of new recruits. Transferral to a company generally meant both enhanced status and an increase in subsistence pay. Whether for reasons of appearance or reputation, grenadiers tended to be the showpiece troops of their respective armies, when a regiment was in line formation the grenadiers were always the company which formed on the right flank
37.
Dutch rijksdaalder
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The rijksdaalder was a Dutch coin first issued by the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands in the late 16th century during the Dutch Revolt. Featuring an armored half bust of William the Silent, rijksdaalder was minted to the Saxon reichsthaler weight standard –448 grains of.885 fine silver. Friesland, Gelderland, Holland, Kampen, Overijssel, Utrecht, West Friesland, Zeeland, 17th century rijksdaalder was set to be equal to from 48 to 50 stuivers and circulated along with silver florins, daalders, leeuwendaalders, silver ducats, and ducatons. While liondaalders were made of pure silver at 427.16 grains of.750 fineness, silver ducats and rijksdaalders were almost of the same size. With the disappearance of the original armored half bust rijksdaalder design, silver ducats, unification of the Dutch monetary system in the beginning of the 18th century introduced guilder and set rijksdaalders and silver ducats at 2 1⁄2 guilders. Following decimalization, 2 1⁄2-guilder coins were no longer produced because a 3-guilder coin was thought to fit in the series of denominations. This turned out to be a mistake and from 1840 onward 2 1⁄2-guilder coins were produced again, production stopped in 2002 due to the introduction of the euro. 2 1⁄2-guilder coins continued to be called by their nicknames rijksdaalder, riks, the Royal Dutch Mint still mints a silver ducat today. The Dutch rijksdaalder or the versions of the 2 1⁄2-guilder coin were circulating in Dutch East India from 1602 until 1949. In this year the Netherlands Indies gulden was replaced by the Indonesian rupiah, the The Netherlands United East India Company issued the rijksdaalder in the Cape Colony in the sixteenth century. The Dutch monetary system overseas of a rijksdaalder – or rixdollar – of 48 stuiver was continued in the Cape Province by the British in the nineteenth century. In Ceylon, the VOC issued coins during the 18th century in denominations of 1⁄8 and 1 duit, 1⁄4,1,2, the currency derived from the Dutch rijksdaalder, although again the Dutch rijksdaalder was worth 50 stuiver and the Ceylon version 48 stuiver. After the British took over Ceylon, the rixdollar was the currency of Ceylon until 1828, the rixdollar was then replaced by the British pound at a rate of 1 rixdollar =1 shilling 6 pence. In Suriname the Surinamese Rijksdaalder circulated until 2004, when the Surinamese guilder was replaced by the Surinamese dollar, in the former Netherlands Antilles the rijksdaalder circulated until 2011. In that year the Netherlands Antillean guilder will be replaced by the American dollar, the similarly named Reichsthaler, riksdaler and rigsdaler were used in Germany and Austria-Hungary, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, respectively. The American dollar is named after the Dutch daalder, the brother of the rijksdaalder
38.
Tambora, Jakarta
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Tambora is a subdistrict of West Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia. Tambora Subdistrict is bounded by a railway to the west and to the north, Kali Krukut - Kali Besar canal to the east, and Duri Selatan Road to the south. The Roa Malaka Administrative Village of the Tambora Subdistrict contains the area of Jakarta Old Town. The area of Jakarta Old Town that was located within Tambora are generally residential areas, notable colonial buildings are located along the Kali Besar Canal, most of them are former palaces or houses dating from the 18th century. These buildings are now used as offices. Its roof is on two levels, the typical Javanese style for roofs of places of worship, in 1856 Prince Syarif Hamid, a Sultan from Pontianak was captured by the Dutch and held at Manggadua. When he died he was buried in front of the mosque on July 17,1858, people from Pontianak often visit his grave and many of them have decided to stay at Angke. Many Chinese in this area are devout Moslems, many tombstones near the mosque bear Chinese as well as Arabic inscriptions. The oldest tombstones show Islamic Banten and Aceh origins, former Chartered Bank Omni Batavia Hotel Toko Merah Malacca Gallery Official site
39.
Cornet (rank)
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Cornet was originally the third and lowest grade of commissioned officer in a British cavalry troop, after captain and lieutenant. It was abolished in the Cardwell Reforms of 1871 and replaced by sub-lieutenant and it is equivalent to a modern second lieutenant. The Blues and Royals and Queens Royal Hussars still use it to refer to their second lieutenants and this rank was also used in other countries, e. g. in the Russian Empire. The rank was in use by the time of the English Civil War, among famous cornets in that conflict were George Joyce, Robert Stetson, and Ninian Beall. It was abolished along with the purchase of commissions in the Army Reform Act of 1871, the ranks of ensign and cornet were abolished in the US Army in 1815. The rank also existed in other nations troops, such as those of Sweden and Imperial Russia. General Alexander Macomb was initially commissioned a cornet in a career in which he eventually became Commanding General of the United States Army and it is still used in the artillery and cavalry divisions of the Netherlands. The rank of veld-Cornet was used for the officer of a ward or sub-district in the independent republican states of the Transvaal. They were elected by the commandos of their ward for periods of three years, in the case of large wards, an assistant field cornet could also be chosen. The rank was reminiscent of the Dutch use in cavalry troops that the commandos most closely resembled, in apartheid-era South Africa, the rank of field cornet was used in the South African Army from 1960 to 1968. The subaltern rank of cornet was the equivalent of the contemporary infantry rank of ensign, the cornet carried the troop standard, known as a guidon
40.
Banten Sultanate
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The Banten Sultanate was founded in the 16th century and centred in Banten, a port city on the northwest coast of Java, the contemporary English spelling of both was Bantam. It is said to have founded by Sunan Gunungjati, who had previously founded Cirebon. Once a great trading centre in Southeast Asia, especially of pepper, its importance was overshadowed by Batavia and its core territory now forms the Indonesian province of Banten. Today, in Old Banten, the Grand Mosque of Banten is an important destination for tourists and for pilgrims from across Indonesia and it was known as Banten Girang, meaning Banten-up-the-river owing to its location. Sunan Gunungjati was an ulama, a class of Muslim legal scholars. He was educated in Middle East, and can trace his ancestry to the Kingdom of Sunda, Sharif Hidayatullah become the Sultan of Cirebon in 1479. In 1482 Sharif Hidayatullah sent a letter to King of Sunda, previously Cirebon settlement was founded in 1445 by his uncle Prince Cakrabuana. In the early 16th century, Gunungjati arrived in the town with the intention of spreading the word of Islam in this still-Hindu area. Although at first well received by Sunda authorities, after news of the Portuguese-Sunda alliance in 1522 became known, Gunungjati nevertheless asked Demak sultanate to send troops to Banten. It was likely his son, Hasanudin, who commanded this military operation in 1527, just as the Portuguese fleet was arriving of the coast at Sunda Kelapa, to capture these towns. Sunan Gunungjati had Hasanudin named king of Banten by the Sultan of Demak who, in turn, thus, a new dynasty was born at the same time as a new kingdom was created. Banten was the capital of kingdom, held as a province under Sultanate of Cirebon. From the beginning it was obviously Hasanuddin’s intention to revive the fortunes of the ancient kingdom of Sunda for his own benefit. One of his earliest decision was to travel to southern Sumatra, which had belonged to the kingdom of Sunda. Having established control over the ports and the trade, Hasanuddin decided to build a new capital. On the advice of his father, Sunan Gunungjati, he choose to construct it on the coast at the mouth of the Cibanten River. That a settlement already existed at this place is evidence by its harbour activities, the royal city was founded on the delta, formed by the two arms of the river. Two main streets running north-south and east-west divided the city into quarters, the royal palace surrounded by residences of the principal minister of state, was built on the south side of the royal square and the great mosque on the west side
41.
Sultanate of Cirebon
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The Sultanate of Cirebon was an Islamic sultanate in West Java founded in the 15th century. Sunan Gunungjati also established the Sultanate of Banten and it was one of the earliest Islamic states established in Java, around the same period with the Sultanate of Demak. The sultanate court lies near the modern day city of Cirebon on West Javas north coast, throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, the sultanate thrived and became the regions centre of trade and commerce, as well as served as an Islamic learning and dissemination centre. The sultanate split into four houses, starting in 1677. Most of the history of Cirebon Sultanate was found in a local Javanese chronicle known as Babad, some notable chronicles that focused on the history of Cirebon are Carita Purwaka Caruban Nagari and Babad Cerbon. Foreign sources also mentioned Cirebon, such as Tomé Pires Suma Oriental, the later period of the sultanate documented from the colonial Dutch East Indies sources. There are several suggestions about the origin of the name Cirebon, another popular opinion suggested that the towns name derived from rebon the Sundanese word for small shrimp. Initially most of the peoples livelihood was fishing and collecting rebon along the coast as well as making shrimp paste, petis paste, rebon is the main ingredients on making shrimp paste. From the term of water used for shrimp paste manufacture that is called cai rebon which later became Cirebon, in addition, the Islamic Sultanate of Cirebon grew into the centre of Islam in West Java. The border of the Sunda kingdom in the west is Sunda Strait and in the east is Cipamali river, at this time Muara Jati was located around 14 kilometres north from modern Cirebon, and later known as Singapura. The transformation from small Hindu coastal fishing village into thriving Muslim port began with the rule of Ki Gedeng Tapa, Ki Gedeng Tapa was a wealthy merchant living in the village of Muara Jati. He was appointed as the master of Muara Jati fishing village by Sunda king reside in Kawali, Galuh. The Muara Jati was later called Singapura, located several kilometres north of modern Cirebon, the thriving port town attract Muslim traders. Ki Gedeng Tapa and his daughter, Nyai Subang Larang are said to be converted to Islam, Nyai Subang Larang studied at Quro pesantren in Karawang area. At that time the West Java region including Muara Jati were belongs to Sunda kingdom with its capital in Pakuan Pajajaran, although Prince Walangsungsang was the first-born son of Sunda King, the prince did not earned the right as a crown prince of Pakuan Pajajaran. This was because his mother, Nyai Subang Larang was not the prameswari, another reason was probably because of his conversion to Islam, probably influenced by his mother, Subang Larang whom was a Muslim woman. At that time in 16th century West Java, the religion was the Sunda Wiwitan. It was his brother, King Siliwangis son from his third wife Nyai Cantring Manikmayang, was chosen as crown prince
42.
Semarang
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Semarang, is a city on the north coast of the island of Java, Indonesia. It is the capital and largest city of the province of Central Java, the built-up area had 3,183,516 inhabitants at the 2010 census spread on 2 cities and 26 districts. Greater Semarang has a population of close to 6 million, and is located at 6°58′S 110°25′E, a major port during the Dutch colonial era, and still an important regional center and port today, the city has a dominant Javanese population. In 1678, Sunan Amangkurat II promised to control of Semarang to the Dutch East India Company as a part of a debt payment. In 1682, the Semarang state was founded by the Dutch colonial power, the VOC, and later, the Dutch East Indies government, established tobacco plantations in the region and built roads and railroads, making Semarang an important colonial trading centre. The historic presence of a large Indo community in the area of Semarang is also reflected by the fact a creole mix language called Javindo existed there, Semarang was handed by the Sultan of Mataram to the Dutch East Indies in 1678. The city was pictured as a settlement with a pious Muslim area called Kauman, a Chinese quarter. In fact, the city of Semarang was only referred to the Dutch quarter while the ethnic settlement were considered as villages outside the city boundary. The city, known as de Europeesche Buurt, was built in classical European style with church located in the centre, wide boulevards and streets skirted by beautiful villas. According to Purwanto, the urban and architectural form of settlement is very similar to the design principles applied in many Dutch cities. Due to the long and costly Java War, there were not much of funding from the Dutch East Indies government, the majority of land was used for rice fields and the only small improvement was the development of surrounding fortress. The existence of the market, in the years, become a primary element. The project was followed by the development of the Netherlands Indies railway. Colombijn marked the development as the shift of urban functions, from the former river orientation to all facing the roads. Improved communication, as the result of the Mail and Railway projects, had brought an economic booming for the city in the 1870s, urban growth had made acutely dense the urban kampong, reaching the number of 1000 inhabitants per hectare and degrading the quality of living condition. In this early 20th century, mortality rate was high due to the overcrowding and lack of hygiene that triggered the invasion of cholera. In 1917, a housing project was implemented in the Southern part of Semarang called Candi Baru. Thomas Karsten, the advisor for city planning, transformed the concept of ethnic segregation that divided previous urban settlements into a new housing district plan based on economic classes
43.
Surabaya
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Surabaya, is the capital of Jawa Timur, located on northeastern Java island and along the edge of the Madura Strait and the second-largest-city in Indonesia. At the 2010 census, the city had a population over 2, Surabaya was once the largest city in Dutch East Indies and virtually the center of trading in the nation, exceeding those of Batavia, competing with the likes of Shanghai and Hong Kong. It was said that the two powerful animals agreed for a truce and set boundaries, that the domain would be in the sea while the crocodiles domain would be on the land. However one day the shark swam into the estuary to hunt, this angered the crocodile. The Shark argued that the river was a water-realm which meant that it was shark territory, while the crocodile argued that the river flowed deep inland, a ferocious fight resumed as the two animals bit each other. Finally the shark was badly bitten and fled to the sea. The two animals are now used as the symbol, with the two facing and circling each other, as depicted in a statue appropriately located near the entrance to the city zoo. Alternate derivations proliferate, from the Javanese sura ing baya, meaning bravely facing danger, some people consider Jayabayas prophecy as being about the great war between native Surabayan people and foreign invaders at the start of the war of independence in 1945. Another story tells of two heroes who fought each other in order to be the king of the city, the two heroes were named Sura and Baya. These folk etymologies, though embraced enthusiastically by its people and city leaders, are unverifiable, the earliest record of Surabaya was in the 1225 book Zhu fan zhi written by Zhao Rugua, in which it was called Jung-ya-lu, the ancient name of Surabaya. At the estuary, the water is fresh. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Surabaya was a duchy and it entered a conflict with, and was later captured by, the more powerful Sultanate of Mataram in 1625 under Sultan Agung. It was one of Matarams fiercest campaigns, in which they had to conquer Surabayas allies, Sukadana and Madura, with this conquest, Mataram then controlled almost the whole of Java, with the exception of the Sultanate of Banten and the Dutch settlement of Batavia. The expanding Dutch East India Company took the city over from a weakened Mataram in November 1743, Surabaya became a major trading center under the Dutch colonial government, and hosted the largest naval base in the colony. Surabaya was also the largest city in the serving as the center of Javas plantation economy. However, by 1920 a census recorded that Batavia has overtaken Surabayas population size, in 1917, a revolt occurred among the soldiers and sailors of Surabaya, led by the Indies Social Democratic Association. The revolt was crushed and the insurgents given harsh sentences. Japan occupied the city in 1942, as part of the occupation of Indonesia, after Japanese surrender at the end of World War II Surabaya was seized by Indonesian nationalists
44.
Gresik
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Gresik Regency is a regency within East Java Province of Indonesia. It includes the offshore Bawean Island, some 125 km to the north of Java, the port of Gresik-Djaratan has functioned as an important commercial center since the eleventh century, trading with merchants from as far away as China, India, and Arabia. Some of these traders helped spread Islam in the area, in 1487, Sunan Giri, Syech Maulana Malik Ibrahim, also known as Sultan Ainul Yaqin, began to rule Gresik. In his 1515 book, Suma Oriental, the Portuguese apothecary, Sunan Giris descendants ruled the area for the following two centuries. In 1974 the Indonesian government made Gresik, now a suburb of the capital of Surabaya. The Gresik Regency was divided at 2010 into eighteen kecamatan, tabulated below with their 2010 Census population, a large number of industries have established themselves in Gresik, mainly supporting agriculture and agricultural machinery. A lot of home-based industry exists, making caps, bags, one of the largest factories in Gresik are PT. Semen Gresik and PT Petrokimia Gresik, semen Gresik, the largest cement factory in Indonesia, supplies 41% of the Indonesian market. While PT Petrokimia Gresik, the most complete fertilizer producer in Indonesia, the city has a reputation for its many coffee shops, called warkop. In 2002, Petrokimia Putra, a club from Gresik. The maximum humidity is 88% and the humidity is 58%. The wind velocity of Gresik is within the range of 0–18 km/hour, the maximum wind velocity is 18 km/hour and the average is 12.6 km/hour. The temperature of this City is within the range of 23 °C-35 °C with the temperature is 28.5 °C. Official Information Center of Gresik Regency Gresik Tourism Photo Galleries
45.
Chinatown
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A Chinatown is historically any ethnic enclave, of Chinese or Han people outside of Mainland China or Taiwan, most often in an urban setting. Areas known as Chinatown exist throughout the world, including the Americas, Europe, Africa, Australasia, a Chinatown, as a Chinese enclave, is defined as. Any small, distinct area or group enclosed or isolated within a larger group, the development of most Chinatowns typically start with mass migration to an area having zero or very few Chinese. The Oxford Dictionary defines Chinatown as, a district of any non-Chinese town, especially a city or seaport, in which the population is predominantly of Chinese origin. However, some Chinatowns may have little to do with China, some Vietnamese enclaves are in fact a citys second Chinatown, and some Chinatowns are in fact pan-Asian, meaning they could also be counted as a Koreatown or Little India. One example includes Asiatown in Cleveland, Ohio and it was initially referred to as a Chinatown but was subsequently renamed due to the influx of non-Chinese Asian Americans who opened businesses there. Today the district acts as a factor for the Chinese, Taiwanese, Korean, Japanese, Filipino, Indian, Vietnamese, Cambodian, Laotian, Nepalese. As isolated from the population as Hispanics. This contrasts with narrower definitions, where the only described Chinatown in a city setting. In some cities in Spain, the term denotes an area, neighborhood or district where prostitution or other related to the sex industry are concentrated. Some examples of this are the Chinatown of Salamanca and the Chinatown of Barcelona, trading centres populated predominantly by Chinese men and their native spouses have long existed throughout Southeast Asia. Emigration to other parts of the world from China accelerated in the 1860s with the signing of the Treaty of Peking, early emigrants came primarily from the coastal provinces of Guangdong and Fujian in southeastern China – where the people generally speak Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew and Hokkien. As conditions in China have improved in recent decades, many Chinatowns have lost their initial mission, as net migration slows, the smaller Chinatowns have slowly decayed, often to the point of becoming purely historical and no longer serving as ethnic enclaves. Binondos Chinatown located in Manila, Philippines is the oldest Chinatown in the world, several Asian Chinatowns, although not yet called by that name, have a long history. Those in Nagasaki, Japan, Binondo in Manila, Hoi An, glodok, the Chinese quarter of Jakarta, Indonesia, dates to 1740. Chinese presence in India dates back to the 5th century AD, a Chinatown first appeared in the Indian city of Calcutta and subsequently in Mumbai and Chennai. The first Chinese settler in Calcutta was Young Atchew around 1780, the Chinatown centered on Yaowarat Road in Bangkok, Thailand, was founded at the same time as the city itself, in 1782. Many Chinese immigrants arrived in Liverpool in the late 1850s in the employ of the Blue Funnel Shipping Line, the commercial shipping line created strong trade links between the cities of Shanghai, Hong Kong and Liverpool, mainly in the importation of silk, cotton and tea
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Media related to 1740 Batavia massacre at Wikimedia Commons