1.
1745 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1745. September 21 – Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock delivers a speech on epic poetry – Abschiedsrede über die epische Poesie, october 19 – Jonathan Swift, Irish satirist and Dean of St. Patricks Cathedral, Dublin, dies aged 78. The London theatres stage competing productions of Shakespeares King John in response to the Jacobite rising begun this summer by Bonnie Prince Charlie, david Garricks production of the original text at Drury Lane contrasts with Colley Cibbers adaptation Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John at Covent Garden. The rivalry anticipates the Romeo and Juliet war of five years later
2.
1749 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1749. February - The second part of John Clelands erotic novel Fanny Hill is published in London, the author is released from debtors prison in March. The Church of England asks the Secretary of State to stop the progress of this vile Book, in November, Cleland is arrested and charged with corrupting the Kings subjects. February 28 - Henry Fieldings comic novel The History of Tom Jones and it reaches its 4th edition by the end of the year. Also this year, Fielding becomes magistrate at Bow Street, and first enlists the help of the Bow Street Runners, april 12 - Official opening of the circular Radcliffe Library in Oxford, designed by James Gibbs. Sarah Fieldings novel The Governess, or Little Female Academy, generally seen as the first school story, is published in London, Élie Catherine Frérons journal Lettres de la comtesse de. is suppressed but he immediately replaces it by Lettres sur quelques écrits de ce temps. Oliver Goldsmith graduates from Trinity College, Dublin
3.
1762 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1762. The Académie française produces a new edition of its dictionary of the French language, in Paris, the Comédie-Italienne is merged with the Opéra-Comique and performs at the Hôtel de Bourgogne. Benjamin Victors adaptation of The Two Gentlemen of Verona is staged by David Garrick at Drury Lane and it is the earliest known performance of that Shakespearean play in any form. Christoph Martin Wieland begins publishing his prose translations of 22 Shakespearean plays, hugh Blair is appointed first Professor of Rhetoric and Belles Lettres at the University of Edinburgh by King George III, the first such chair in English literature
4.
1752 in architecture
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The year 1752 in architecture involved some significant events. Valletta Waterfront on Malta is built, including the Church of the Flight into Egypt, mansion House, London, designed by George Dance the Elder, is completed. West wing of St Bartholomews Hospital, London, designed by James Gibbs, is built, mariyinsky Palace in Kiev is completed by Ivan Fyodorovich Michurin to the design of Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli. Khan Asad Pasha, Damascus is completed, rebuilding of church of San Biagio, Venice, probably by Filippo Rossi, is completed. Church of La Visitation-de-la-Bienheureuse-Vierge-Marie on the island of Montreal, designed by Philippe Liébert is consecrated, opéra-Théâtre de Metz Métropole in Metz, Lorraine, designed by Jacques Oger is opened. Osteiner Hof in Mainz, designed by Johann Valentin Thomann, is completed, croome Court in Worcestershire, England, designed by Capability Brown and Sanderson Miller, is completed. Pollok House near Glasgow in Scotland, designed by William Adam is built, kinbuck Bridge in Scotland is built
5.
Samuel Foote
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Samuel Foote was a British dramatist, actor and theatre manager from Cornwall. He was known for his acting and writing, and for turning the loss of a leg in a riding accident in 1766 to comedic opportunity. Born into a family, Foote was baptized in Truro. His father, Samuel Foote, held public positions, including mayor of Truro, Member of Parliament representing Tiverton. His mother, née Eleanor Goodere, was the daughter of baronet Sir Edward Goodere of Hereford, Foote may have inherited his wit and sharp humour from her and her family which was described as eccentric. whose peculiarities ranged from the harmless to the malevolent. About the time Foote came of age, he inherited his first fortune when one of his uncles, baronet Sir John Dineley Goodere, 2nd Baronet was murdered by another uncle and this murder was the subject of his first pamphlet, which he published around 1741. An undisciplined student, he frequently was absent from his Latin and Greek classes and subsequently, Foote was destined for the law, but certainly not by nature. Though he never applied himself to his studies at the Inner Temple, he applied himself to spending money. After finding himself in debt, Foote married a certain Mary Hickes on 10 January 1741, with his wife also came a sizable dowry. Contemporaries note that Foote mistreated his wife, deserting her when his situation improved. But a stronger attraction drew him to the Bedford Coffee-house in Covent Garden and his extravagant living soon forced him into debtors prison in 1742, and friends encouraged Footes going onto the stage to make a living. Footes first training for the stage came under the tutelage of Charles Macklin, by 1744, when they appeared onstage together, Macklin had made a name for himself as one of the most notable actors on the British stage, after David Garrick. His appearance as Shylock in Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice at the Drury Lane Theatre in 1741, dismissing the conventional comedic approach to the character, Macklin played the character as consummately evil. Following less than a year of training, Foote appeared opposite Macklins Iago as the role in Shakespeares Othello at the Haymarket Theatre,6 February 1744. In order to skirt this law, the Haymarket Theatre held musical concerts with plays included gratis, following his unsuccessful London appearance, Foote spent the summer season in Dublin at the Theatre Royal, Smock Alley where he found his first success. Returning to England, he joined the company at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane which at that time included such noted actors as Peg Woffington, David Garrick and Spranger Barry. There he played comic roles including Harry Wildair in Farquhars The Constant Couple, Lord Foppington in Vanbrughs The Relapse and most notably and it was in this role that Foote publicly showed his gift of mimicry. Borrowing from David Garricks interpretation of the role, Foote used this role to many leading contemporaries
6.
Robert Smirke (painter)
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Robert Smirke RA was an English painter and illustrator, specialising in small paintings showing subjects taken from literature. He was a member of the Royal Academy, Smirke was born at Wigton near Carlisle, the son of a travelling artist. When he was twelve he was apprenticed to a painter in London. In 1775 he became a member of the Incorporated Society of Artists, with which he began to exhibit by sending five works, he showed works there again in 1777 and 1778. In 1786 he exhibited Narcissus and The Lady and Sabrina at the Royal Academy, in 1791 Smirke was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, in which year he exhibited The Widow. He became an academician in 1793, when he painted as his diploma work Don Quixote. His last contribution to the academy, entitled Infancy, appeared in 1813, Smirke is generally accepted as the author in 1815–16 of a series of satirical Catalogues Raisonnés, which savagely lampooned the great and the good of British art patronage. Of his sons, Richard Smirke, was a notable antiquarian artist, Robert and Sydney both became notable architects and were both elected members of the Royal Academy. His fourth son, Edward was a lawyer and antiquary. There is a portrait of Smirke by John Jackson taken from a picture by Mary Smirke. Sir William John Newton painted several miniatures of him, Smirke died at 3 Osnaburgh Terrace, Regents Park, London, on 5 January 1845, aged 92, and was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery. Smirkes pictures were usually of small size and painted in monochrome, the Pedagogue, engraved by Joseph Goodyear for the Amulet of 1830, is typical. The Rivals was engraved by William Finden for the Keepsake of 1828, The Secret, by James Mitchell for the annual in 1830. Smirke painted also some pictures for John Boydells Shakespeare Gallery and for Bowyers History of England and these works included Katharine and Petruchio, Juliet and the Nurse, Prince Henry and Falstaff, and The Seven Ages. A large commemorative plate, with fifteen medallion portraits, of The Victory of the Nile was engraved by John Landseer from his design. In the Guildhall Art Gallery was a picture by him representing Conjugal Affection, or Industry and Prudence, and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Smirke, Robert. Robert Smirke online Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections
7.
The Covent-Garden Journal
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The Covent-Garden Journal was an English literary periodical published twice a week for most of 1752. It was edited and almost entirely funded by novelist, playwright and it was Fieldings fourth and final periodical, and one of his last written works. His proclamation attracted multiple aggressors and instigated a long-lasting debate argued in the pages of their respective publications, initially waged for the sake of increasing sales, the Paper War ultimately became much larger than Fielding had expected and generated a huge volume of secondary commentary and literature. Further controversy erupted in June, when Fielding expressed support for a letter decrying the Governments 1751 Disorderly Houses Act in the Journal, Fielding refuted this assertion in the 1 August issue of the Journal, while labelling prostitutes a source of social evils. The final issue of the Journal was released on 25 November 1752, in its last months, poor sales had resulted in a transition from semi-weekly to weekly release. Ill-health and a disinclination to continue led Fielding to end its run after the Number 72 issue and he died two years later while staying in Lisbon, Portugal. The first mention of The Covent-Garden Journal dates to 5 December 1749, to be publishedd Once every Month, during the present Westminster Election by Paul Wronghead, of the Fleet, Esq. It was organized as a paper, with sections called Introductory Essay, Foreign Affairs, Home Affairs. Published with a list of printers, it claimed that the sellers were all the People of London. It was later revealed that the paper was created as a hoax by the Duke of Bedford to mock Sir George Vandeput, 2nd Baronet, the printer, Richard Francklin, ran off 13,000 copies on 5–6 December, only one of which still survives. Dated 7 December 1749, the states, The enclosed is a paper generally given to Mr. Fielding. The humor that is in it is at least akin to his and it may possibly divert you & your company. In late 1751, just before the publication of his novel, Amelia and he expressed a desire to use a periodical to promote the Universal Register Office – a business which connected service providers with consumers – and his other activities and views. Alluding to the publication, he gave it the title The Covent-Garden Journal. The release was delayed until January because of related to the publication of Amelia. At the time of the publication of the journal, Covent Garden, Fielding had earlier written The Covent Garden Tragedy, a mock-tragic play concerning the tale of two prostitutes. The first number of the periodical was published on 4 January 1752, for most of its run, the journal was issued twice a week, on Tuesday and Saturday. Each number consisted of a remark or essay, domestic and foreign news with annotations, advertisements, an obituary, a births and marriages panel
8.
Henry Fielding
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Henry Fielding was an English novelist and dramatist best known for his rich, earthy humour and satirical prowess, and as the author of the novel Tom Jones. His younger sister, Sarah, also became a successful writer, Fielding was born at Sharpham, Somerset, and educated at Eton College, where he established a lifelong friendship with William Pitt the Elder. After a romantic episode with a woman that ended in his getting into trouble with the law, he went to London. In 1728, he travelled to Leiden to study classics and law at the university, however, lack of money obliged him to return to London and he began writing for the theatre. Some of his work was critical of the government of Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole. The Theatrical Licensing Act of 1737 is alleged to be a response to his activities. The particular play that triggered the Licensing Act was the unproduced, anonymously authored, The Golden Rump, once the act was passed, political satire on the stage became virtually impossible, and playwrights whose works were staged were viewed as suspect. Fielding therefore retired from the theatre and resumed his career in law in order to support his wife Charlotte Craddock, Allen went on to provide for the education and support of Fieldings children after the writers death. Fielding never stopped writing political satire and satires of current arts, the Tragedy of Tragedies was, for example, quite successful as a printed play. He also contributed a number of works to journals of the day and he wrote for Tory periodicals, usually under the name Captain Hercules Vinegar. Fielding continued to air his liberal and anti-Jacobite views in articles and newspapers in the late 1730s. Almost by accident he took to writing novels in 1741, angered by Samuel Richardsons success with Pamela and his first big success was an anonymous parody of that, Shamela. This satire follows the model of the famous Tory satirists of the generation, Jonathan Swift and John Gay. Fielding followed this with Joseph Andrews, an original work supposedly dealing with Pamelas brother, although begun as a parody, it developed into an accomplished novel in its own right and is considered to mark Fieldings debut as a serious novelist. It is a satire of Walpole that draws a parallel between him and Jonathan Wild, the gang leader and highwayman. Though a minor item in Fieldings œuvre, the subject is consistent with his preoccupation with fraud, shamming. His greatest work was Tom Jones, a meticulously constructed picaresque novel telling the convoluted, Fielding married his first wife, Charlotte Craddock, in 1734 at the Church of St Mary in Charlcombe, Somerset. Charlotte, on whom he modelled the heroines of both Tom Jones and Amelia, died in 1744
9.
John Hill (botanist)
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John Hill, called because of his Swedish honours, Sir John Hill, was an English author and botanist. He contributed to periodicals and was awarded the title of Sir in recognition of his illustrated botanical compendium The Vegetable System. He was the son of the Rev. Theophilus Hill and is said to have born in Peterborough. He was apprenticed to an apothecary and on the completion of his apprenticeship he set up in a shop in St Martins Lane. He also travelled over the country in search of herbs, with a view to publishing a hortus siccus. He had a degree from Edinburgh, and he practised as a quack doctor. His first publication was a translation of Theophrastuss History of Stones, from this time forward he was an indefatigable writer. He edited the British Magazine, and for two years he wrote a letter, The Inspector, for the London Advertiser and Literary Gazette. He also produced novels, plays and scientific works, and was a contributor to the supplement of Ephraim Chamberss Cyclopaedia. From 1759 to 1775 he was engaged on a huge botanical work--The Vegetable System --adorned by 1600 copper-plate engravings, Hills botanical labours were undertaken at the request of his patron, Lord Bute, and he was rewarded by the Order of Vasa from the King of Sweden in 1774. Of the seventy-six separate works with which he is credited in the Dictionary of National Biography, Samuel Johnson said of him that he was an ingenious man, but had no veracity. See a Short Account of the Life, Writings and Character of the late Sir John Hill, John Hills often provocative and scurrilous writings involved him in many quarrels, both in the field of science and that of literature. His works On the manner of seeding mosses and On Windsor loam appeared in the Royal Societys journal, on the basis of these contributions, Hill apparently hoped to be elected Fellow of the Royal Society. Furthermore, he had the backing of members of the Royal Society, the botanist Peter Collinson, the physician and scientist William Watson. Despite Hills merits as a scientist and his relations, his election to the title of Fellow failed to materialise, disappointed by the Royal Societys lack, in his opinion, of scientific standards, Hill started to criticise the Society. In December 1749, he started writing anonymous, critical reviews of articles published in the Philosophical Transactions. Moreover, in January 1750, Hill began a campaign of criticism and derision against the Royal Society by publishing, under an alias, a treatise entitled Lucina sine concubitu. Under the false name of Abraham Johnson, a physician and man-midwife and he had other literary passages-at-arms with John Rich, who accused him of plagiarising his Orpheus, also with Samuel Foote and Henry Woodward
10.
Tobias Smollett
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Tobias George Smollett was a Scottish poet and author. He was best known for his novels, such as The Adventures of Roderick Random and The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle. His novels were amended liberally by printers, an edition of each of his works was edited by Dr. O. M. Brack. Smollett was born at Dalquhurn, now part of Renton, in present-day West Dunbartonshire and he was the fourth son of Archibald Smollett of Bonhill, a judge and land-owner who died about 1726, and Barbara Cunningham, who died about 1766. His career in medicine came second to his ambitions, during 1739 he went to London to seek fortune as a dramatist. Unsuccessful, he obtained a commission as a surgeon on HMS Chichester and travelled to Jamaica. During 1742 he served as a surgeon during the campaign to capture Cartagena. On his return, he established practice in Downing Street and married a wealthy Jamaican heiress, Anne Nancy Lascelles and she was a daughter of William Lascelles. They had one child, a daughter Elizabeth, who died aged 15 years about 1762 and he had a brother, Capt. James Smollet, and a sister, Jean Smollett, who married Alexander Telfair of Symington, Ayrshire. Jean succeeded to Bonhill after the death of her cousin-german, Mr. Commissary Smollett and they lived in St. John Street off Canongate, Edinburgh and had a son who was in the Military. The Adventures of Roderick Random was modelled on Le Sages Gil Blas, after that Smollett finally had his tragedy, The Regicide, published, though it was never performed. During 1750, Smollett was granted his MD degree in Aberdeen, and also travelled to France, having lived for a brief time in Bath, he returned to London and published The Adventures of Ferdinand Count Fathom during 1753. He was now recognised as an author, whose novels were published by the well-known London bookseller Andrew Millar. Smollett became associated with the likes of David Garrick, Laurence Sterne, Oliver Goldsmith and Samuel Johnson, during 1755 he published an English translation of Miguel de Cervantess novel Don Quixote, which he revised during 1761. During 1756, he became editor of the magazine The Critical Review, Smollett then began what he regarded as his major work, A Complete History of England, from 1757 to 1765. During this period he served a prison sentence for libel. Having suffered the loss of a daughter, he went abroad with his wife, and he also published The History and Adventures of an Atom, which gave his opinion of British politics during the Seven Years War in the guise of a tale from ancient Japan. He also re-visited Scotland and this visit helped inspire his last novel, The Expedition of Humphry Clinker, published during the year of his death
11.
Plagiarism
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Plagiarism is the wrongful appropriation and stealing and publication of another authors language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions and the representation of them as ones own original work. Plagiarism is considered academic dishonesty and a breach of journalistic ethics and it is subject to sanctions like penalties, suspension, and even expulsion. Recently, cases of plagiarism have been identified in academia. The modern concept of plagiarism as immoral and originality as an ideal emerged in Europe in the 18th century, Plagiarism is not in itself a crime, but can constitute copyright infringement. In academia and industry, it is a serious ethical offense, Plagiarism is not defined or punished by law, but rather by institutions. In the 1st century, the use of the Latin word plagiarius to denote stealing someone elses work was pioneered by the Roman poet Martial, plagiary, a derivative of plagiarus, was introduced into English in 1601 by dramatist Ben Jonson to describe someone guilty of literary theft. The derived form plagiarism was introduced into English around 1620, the Latin plagiārius, kidnapper, and plagium, kidnapping, have the root plaga, based on the Indo-European root *-plak, to weave. Plagiarism specifically is not mentioned in any current statute, either criminal or civil, some cases may be treated as unfair competition or a violation of the doctrine of moral rights. The increased availability of copyrighted material due to the development of technology has furthered the debate as to whether copyright offences are criminal. In short, people are asked to use the guideline, if you did not write it yourself, Plagiarism is not the same as copyright infringement. Copyright infringement is a violation of the rights of a copyright holder, Plagiarism, in contrast, is concerned with the unearned increment to the plagiarizing authors reputation, or the obtaining of academic credit, that is achieved through false claims of authorship. Thus, plagiarism is considered an offense against the plagiarists audience. Plagiarism is also considered an offense against anyone who has provided the plagiarist with a benefit in exchange for what is specifically supposed to be original content. In such cases, acts of plagiarism may sometimes form part of a claim for breach of the plagiarists contract, or, if done knowingly. Within academia, plagiarism by students, professors, or researchers is considered academic dishonesty or academic fraud, many institutions use plagiarism detection software to uncover potential plagiarism and to deter students from plagiarizing. Most universities address the issue of academic integrity by providing students with thorough orientations, required writing courses, indeed, there is a virtually uniform understanding among college students that plagiarism is wrong. Nevertheless, each year students are brought before their institutions’ disciplinary boards on charges that they have misused sources in their schoolwork, an extreme form of plagiarism, known as contract cheating involves students paying someone else, such as an essay mill, to do their work for them. In journalism, plagiarism is considered a breach of journalistic ethics, some individuals caught plagiarizing in academic or journalistic contexts claim that they plagiarized unintentionally, by failing to include quotations or give the appropriate citation
12.
Thomas Sheridan (actor)
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Thomas Sheridan was an Irish stage actor, an educator, and a major proponent of the elocution movement. He received his M. A. in 1743 from Trinity College in Dublin and he also published a respelled dictionary of the English language. He was married to Frances Chamberlaine and his son was the better known Richard Brinsley Sheridan, while his daughter Alicia also wrote plays. His work is noticeable in the writings of Hugh Blair. In 1739, he earned his BA from Trinity College, Dublin and he had his début in acting when he played the title role in Shakespeare’s Richard III in Dublin. Soon after, he was noted as the most popular actor in Ireland, not only an actor, he also wrote The Brave Irishman or Captain OBlunder which premièred in 1738. He became the manager of the Dublin theatre sometime in the 1740s, Sheridan left his acting career, although he continued to manage theatre companies and occasionally play bit parts, and moved permanently to England with his family in 1758. There, his time was spent as a teacher and an offering a very successful lecture course. In 1762 Sheridan published Lectures on Elocution, following that work, he published A Plan of Education, Lectures on the Art of Reading, and A General Dictionary of the English Language. Each of these works was based on some form of an argument taken in an earlier work British Education, Or, The source of the Disorders of Great Britain. With an attempt to shew, that a revival of the Art of Speaking, and this venture apparently proving to be unsuccessful, he returned to Dublin and the theatre in 1771. Thomas’s son Richard became an owner of the Theatre Royal in London in 1776. Two years later Thomas was appointed manager of the theatre, a position he held until 1781, Sheridan attempted to supply the willing student with a guide to public speaking that was correct, appropriate, and successful. What he actually wanted was a reform of the British education system. In his work British Education, Sheridan revealed that poor preaching was negatively affecting religion itself, Sheridans belief in the valuable effects of strong and correct public speaking was so strong that he was sure studying elocution would help ensure perfection in all of the arts. In British Education, Sheridan writes that preaching from the pulpit must either effectually support religion against all opposition, or be the principal means of its destruction. This he can never be, unless the tones of voice in which you come from the heart, accompanied by corresponding looks, and gestures. Sheridan believed that elocution was not restricted to the voice, but embodied the person with facial expressions, gestures, posture
13.
Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
14.
Coriolanus
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Coriolanus is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1605 and 1608. The play is based on the life of the legendary Roman leader Caius Marcius Coriolanus, the tragedy is numbered as one of the last two tragedies written by Shakespeare, along with Antony and Cleopatra. Coriolanus is the given to a Roman general after his more than adequate military success against various uprisings challenging the government of Rome. Following this success, Coriolanus becomes active in politics and seeks political leadership and his temperament is unsuited for popular leadership and he is quickly deposed, whereupon he aligns himself to set matters straight according to his own will. The alliances he forges to accomplish his own will result in his ultimate downfall, the play opens in Rome shortly after the expulsion of the Tarquin kings. There are riots in progress, after stores of grain were withheld from ordinary citizens, the rioters are particularly angry at Caius Marcius, a brilliant Roman general whom they blame for the grain being taken away. The rioters encounter a patrician named Menenius Agrippa, as well as Caius Marcius himself, Menenius tries to calm the rioters, while Marcius is openly contemptuous, and says that the plebeians were not worthy of the grain because of their lack of military service. Two of the tribunes of Rome, Brutus and Sicinius, privately denounce Marcius and he leaves Rome after news arrives that a Volscian army is in the field. The commander of the Volscian army, Tullus Aufidius, has fought Marcius on several occasions, the Roman army is commanded by Cominius, with Marcius as his deputy. While Cominius takes his soldiers to meet Aufidius army, Marcius leads a rally against the Volscian city of Corioli, the siege of Corioli is initially unsuccessful, but Marcius is able to force open the gates of the city, and the Romans conquer it. Even though he is exhausted from the fighting, Marcius marches quickly to join Cominius, Marcius and Aufidius meet in single combat, which only ends when Aufidius own soldiers drag him away from the battle. In recognition of his courage, Cominius gives Caius Marcius the agnomen, or official nickname. When they return to Rome, Coriolanuss mother Volumnia encourages her son to run for consul, Coriolanus is hesitant to do this, but he bows to his mothers wishes. He effortlessly wins the support of the Roman Senate, and seems at first to have won over the commoners as well, however, Brutus and Sicinius scheme to undo Coriolanus and whip up another riot in opposition to his becoming consul. Faced with this opposition, Coriolanus flies into a rage and rails against the concept of popular rule and he compares allowing plebeians to have power over the patricians to allowing crows to peck the eagles. The two tribunes condemn Coriolanus as a traitor for his words, and order him to be banished, Coriolanus retorts that it is he who banishes Rome from his presence. After being exiled from Rome, Coriolanus seeks out Aufidius in the Volscian capital of Antium, moved by his plight and honoured to fight alongside the great general, Aufidius and his superiors embrace Coriolanus, and allow him to lead a new assault on Rome. Rome, in its panic, tries desperately to persuade Coriolanus to halt his crusade for vengeance, finally, Volumnia is sent to meet her son, along with Coriolanuss wife Virgilia and child, and a chaste gentlewoman Valeria
15.
James Thomson (poet, born 1700)
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James Thomson was a Scottish poet and playwright, known for his poems The Seasons and The Castle of Indolence, and for the lyrics of Rule, Britannia. James Thomson was born in Ednam in Roxburghshire around 11 September 1700 and he was the fourth of nine children of Thomas Thomson and Beatrix Thomson. Beatrix Thomson was born in Fogo, Berwickshire and was a distant relation of the house of Hume, Thomas Thomson was the Presbyterian minister of Ednam until eight weeks after Thomson’s birth, when he was admitted as minister of Southdean, where Thomson spent most of his early years. Thomson may have attended the school of Southdean before going to the grammar school in Jedburgh in 1712. He failed to distinguish himself there and he was, however, encouraged to write poetry by Robert Riccaltoun, a farmer, poet and Presbyterian minister, and Sir William Bennet, a whig laird who was a patron of Allan Ramsay. While some early poems by Thomson survive, he burned most of them on New Year’s Day each year, Thomson entered the College of Edinburgh in autumn 1715, destined for the Presbyterian ministry. At Edinburgh he studied metaphysics, Logic, Ethics, Greek, Latin and he completed his arts course in 1719 but chose not to graduate, instead entering Divinity Hall to become a minister. In 1716 Thomas Thomson died, with legend saying that he was killed whilst performing an exorcism. At Edinburgh Thomson became a member of the Grotesque Club, a literary group, after the successful publication of some of his poems in the ‘’Edinburgh Miscellany’’ Thomson followed Mallet to London in February 1725 in an effort to publish his verse. In London, Thomson became a tutor to the son of Charles Hamilton, Lord Binning, through David Mallet, by 1724 a published poet, Thomson met the great English poets of the day including Richard Savage, Aaron Hill and Alexander Pope. Thomson’s mother died on 12 May 1725, around the time of his writing ‘Winter’, ‘Winter’ was first published in 1726 by John Millian, with a second edition being released later the same year. By 1727, Thomson was working on Summer, published in February, and was working at Watt’s Academy, a school for young gentlemen, in the same year Millian published a poem by Thomson titled ‘A Poem to the Memory of Sir Isaac Newton’. He wrote Spring in 1728 and finally Autumn in 1730, when the set of four was published together as The Seasons, during this period he also wrote other poems, such as to the Memory of Sir Isaac Newton, and his first play, The Tragedy of Sophonisba. In 1730, he became tutor to the son of Sir Charles Talbot, then Solicitor-General, on his return Talbot arranged for him to become a secretary in chancery, which gave him financial security until Talbots death in 1737. Meanwhile, there appeared his next work, Liberty. In 1740, he collaborated with Mallet on the masque Alfred which was first performed at Cliveden, the Prince gave him a pension of £100 per annum. He had also introduced him to George Lyttelton, who became his friend and patron. In later years, Thomson lived in Richmond upon Thames, and it was there that he wrote his final work The Castle of Indolence, which was published just before his untimely death on 27 August 1748
16.
Smock Alley Theatre
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The Smock Alley Theatre is a theatre in Dublin. The original theatre opened in 1662 and operated till 1787, in 2012, after a €3.5 million investment, a new theatre opened on the original foundations and with a lot of the original superstructure. The Smock Alley Theatre was the purpose built theatre in Ireland. It was preceded by the Werburgh Street Theatre - which was, however, only active for four years and that earlier theater came to a sudden end with the outbreak of the Irish Rebellion of 1641. In October of that year, the Lords Justices prohibited playing there, already shortly afterwards, the building was said to be ruined and spoiled, and a cow-house made of the stage. There never was an attempt to renew theatrical activity in that location, the years of Oliver Cromwells Puritan rule were a bad time for the theater, altogether outlawed also in England itself. Moreover, Ireland, conquered by Cromwells troops, suffered various other kinds of harsh oppression, but the restoration of King Charles II - who strongly appreciated French culture, including French theater - saw the swift revival of theater and its flourishing in both England and Ireland. Within a short time of the Restoration of the Monarchy, no less than three major theaters were opened, the construction in London of Lincolns Inn Fields, and Drury Lane was closely followed by Dublins Smock Alley Theatre, the first Irish institute to be dubbed Theatre Royal. It was known as the Theatre Royal at Smock Alley when it was built and it consisted of a classical proscenium stage, pit, boxes, a middle and upper gallery, lattices and a music/orchestra loft above the stage, also the acoustics were said to be excellent. The pit had backless benches and a floor that rose toward the back of the audience to help sightlines. Mostly single men sat here, and it was the noisiest, rowdiest area in the theatre, boxes sat upper class aristocrats—mostly married couples with wives who wanted to be seen. Boxes were luxuriously decorated with velvet drapes should the occupants require some privacy during the evening. for whatever reason, the doors were wider in the boxes to allow access for the voluminous dresses of the ladies. Galleries held the class, including servants of the upper classes in attendance. These were the worst seats as they were on the level as the large chandeliers that lit the theatre. Candles were made of tallow and they were very pungent and smokey and he was pulled from the wreckage of his box with two broken legs There was another partial collapse in March 1734 after which it was abandoned for a short while. The major decision was taken to demolish and rebuild the theatre in 1735 with increased audience capacity. However a new theatre had opened in Aungier Street and it managed to wrestle the title Theatre Royal from Smock Alley for a time, in 1745 Thomas Sheridan, godson of Jonathan Swift, took on the role of manager of Smock Alley and Aungier Street. He made many improvements and reclaimed the title Theatre Royal for Smock Alley, by 1750 the Aungier Street theatre had closed down
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Dublin
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Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle
