1.
1761 in poetry
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Nationality words link to articles with information on the nations poetry or literature. In March, poet Charles Churchills Rosciad was published at his own expense, no leading London actor, with the exception of David Garrick, had escaped censure, and in the Apology Garrick was clearly threatened. The actor deflected criticism by showing every possible civility to Churchill, Churchills satire made him many enemies, and brought reprisals. In Night, an Epistle to Robert Lloyd, be answered the attacks made on him, Churchill received a considerable sum from sales of the poem, paid off all of his old creditors, and gave an allowance to his wife. This year James Macpherson announced the discovery of an epic on the subject of Fingal which Macpherson claimed was written by Ossian. Macpherson is said to have challenged Johnson, who replied that he was not to be deterred from detecting what he thought a cheat by the menaces of a ruffian, Macpherson never produced his originals, which he refused to publish on the grounds of expense. Modern scholars tend to agree with Johnsons assessment
2.
1749 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1749. February - The second part of John Clelands erotic novel Fanny Hill is published in London, the author is released from debtors prison in March. The Church of England asks the Secretary of State to stop the progress of this vile Book, in November, Cleland is arrested and charged with corrupting the Kings subjects. February 28 - Henry Fieldings comic novel The History of Tom Jones and it reaches its 4th edition by the end of the year. Also this year, Fielding becomes magistrate at Bow Street, and first enlists the help of the Bow Street Runners, april 12 - Official opening of the circular Radcliffe Library in Oxford, designed by James Gibbs. Sarah Fieldings novel The Governess, or Little Female Academy, generally seen as the first school story, is published in London, Élie Catherine Frérons journal Lettres de la comtesse de. is suppressed but he immediately replaces it by Lettres sur quelques écrits de ce temps. Oliver Goldsmith graduates from Trinity College, Dublin
3.
1752 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1752. January 4 – Paper War of 1752–1753, in the first issue of The Covent-Garden Journal Henry Fielding starts his long-running quarrel with John Hill, tobias Smollett soon becomes involved, accusing Fielding of plagiarism. Thomas Sheridan introduces a version of Shakespeares Coriolanus incorporating portions of the version by James Thomson as Coriolanus, lewis Hallam opens a tour of north America with his brother Williams company at Williamsburg, Virginia, with Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice. Library at Melk Abbey in Lower Austria completed, september–December – Jovan Ševićs migration to Slavo-Serbia inspires Miloš Crnjanskis novel Сеобе
4.
1752 in architecture
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The year 1752 in architecture involved some significant events. Valletta Waterfront on Malta is built, including the Church of the Flight into Egypt, mansion House, London, designed by George Dance the Elder, is completed. West wing of St Bartholomews Hospital, London, designed by James Gibbs, is built, mariyinsky Palace in Kiev is completed by Ivan Fyodorovich Michurin to the design of Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli. Khan Asad Pasha, Damascus is completed, rebuilding of church of San Biagio, Venice, probably by Filippo Rossi, is completed. Church of La Visitation-de-la-Bienheureuse-Vierge-Marie on the island of Montreal, designed by Philippe Liébert is consecrated, opéra-Théâtre de Metz Métropole in Metz, Lorraine, designed by Jacques Oger is opened. Osteiner Hof in Mainz, designed by Johann Valentin Thomann, is completed, croome Court in Worcestershire, England, designed by Capability Brown and Sanderson Miller, is completed. Pollok House near Glasgow in Scotland, designed by William Adam is built, kinbuck Bridge in Scotland is built
5.
Irish poetry
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Irish poetry includes poetry in two languages, Irish and English. The earliest surviving poems in Irish date back to the 6th century and this culminated in the work of the poets of the Irish Literary Revival in the late 19th and early 20th century. Poetry in Irish represents the oldest vernacular poetry in Europe, the earliest examples date from the 6th century, and are generally short lyrics on themes from religion or the world of nature. They were frequently written by their authors in the margins of the illuminated manuscripts that they were copying. The best known example is Pangur Bán and it was practical for poems to be short because the Irish recognized that it was necessary to use any means necessary to make the poems lasting in their oral culture. To accomplish such a feat as well as they have, they used complicated rhyme schemes that would render a poem nonsensical if any of the key words were changed from the original version, in an oral culture, Irish poetry had many uses. A poem could be used to both the poet and the subject of the poem, oftentimes kings would commission poets to create a piece about them. Such poems would be passed on to descendants so they would remember the deeds of past generations. Kings would also commission poets to write poems of advertisement, speaking of the greatness and worthiness. Oral poetry, because it was in the vernacular, was used for entertainment. Poems that were entertaining could also be informative, teaching people lessons or offering them wisdom of experience for dealing with situations they would encounter in their everyday lives. Finally, poems, especially those featured in the sagas, were thought to be an instrument of the supernatural, Another source of early Irish poetry is the poems in the tales and sagas, such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge. Unlike many other European epic cycles, the Irish sagas were written in prose, Irish bards formed a professional hereditary caste of highly trained, learned poets. As officials of the court of king or chieftain, they performed a number of official roles and they were chroniclers and satirists whose job it was to praise their employers and damn those who crossed them. It was believed that a well-aimed bardic satire, glam dicin, the Metrical Dindshenchas, or Lore of Places, is probably the major surviving monument of Irish bardic verse. It is a great onomastic anthology of naming legends of significant places in the Irish landscape, the earliest of these date from the 11th century, and were probably originally compiled on a provincial basis. As a national compilation, the Metrical Dindshenchas has come down to us in two different recensions. Knowledge of the real or putative history of local places formed an important part of the education of the elite in ancient Ireland, verse tales of Fionn and the Fianna, sometimes known as Ossianic poetry, were extremely common in Ireland and Scotland throughout this period
6.
Christopher Smart
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Christopher Smart, also known as Kit Smart, Kitty Smart, and Jack Smart, was an English poet. He was a contributor to two popular magazines and a friend to influential cultural icons like Samuel Johnson and Henry Fielding. Smart, a high church Anglican, was known throughout London. Smarts two most widely known works are A Song to David and Jubilate Agno, both at least partly written during his confinement in asylum, however, Jubilate Agno was not published until 1939 and A Song to David received mixed reviews until the 19th century. To his contemporaries, Smart was known mainly for his contributions in the journals The Midwife and The Student, along with his famous Seaton Prize poems. Although he is recognised as a religious poet, his poetry includes various other themes, such as his theories on nature. Christopher Smart was born in Shipbourne in Kent, England on the Fairlawn estate of William, Viscount Vane and he was, according to his nephew, of a delicate constitution having been born earlier than the natural period. He was baptised in Wrotham parish on 11 May 1722, Smarts father was Peter Smart, steward or bailiff of Fairlawne. His mother was Winifred Smart of the Griffiths family of Radnorshire, John Hawkesworth visited him in October 1764, and found him silently hostile towards his mother, Winifred Smart, and his sister, Margaret Hunter, at Margate. Winifreds parentage Of the Griffiths family of Radnorshire has not been established before. Fathers address described as in Parish of Dissearth Wales and she was also of the Inner Temple at her marriage, where she presumably had lodged with her brother before he was called to the Bar. First Marriage,19 May 1715 Jeremiah Griffith of the Inner Temple, London, Bach. and Sarah Twells of St Andrew, Holborn, Midx. Jeremy died c1759 Copy of the will of Jeremiah Griffiths of Downton, before giving birth to Christopher, Winifred had two daughters, Margaret and Mary Anne. During Smarts younger years, Fairlawne was the residence of Christopher Vane, 1st Baron Barnard and Lady Barnard, who bequeathed £200 to Smart. He is supposed to have received so much due to his fathers closeness to the Vane family, his being named after Christopher Vane. However, there is controversy over the exact nature of this inheritance, while some cynically disagree with the reasons for his inheritance. From the age of four until eleven, he spent much time around the farms, however, not all scholars agree that he was a sickly youth. The only written record of events during his childhood comes from his writing of a poem, at the age of four
7.
English poetry
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This article focuses on poetry written in English from the United Kingdom, England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The article does not include poetry from other countries where the English language is spoken, the earliest surviving English poetry, written in Anglo-Saxon, the direct predecessor of modern English, may have been composed as early as the 7th century. This is generally taken as marking the beginning of Anglo-Saxon poetry and it is possible to identify certain key moments, however. The Dream of the Rood was written before circa AD700, by and large, however, Anglo-Saxon poetry is categorised by the manuscripts in which it survives, rather than its date of composition. While the poetry that has survived is limited in volume, it is wide in breadth, beowulf is the only heroic epic to have survived in its entirety, but fragments of others such as Waldere and the Finnesburg Fragment show that it was not unique in its time. Other genres include much religious verse, from works to biblical paraphrase, elegies such as The Wanderer, The Seafarer, and The Ruin, and numerous proverbs, riddles. With one notable exception, Anglo-Saxon poetry depends on alliterative verse for its structure, with the Norman conquest of England, beginning in 1111 the Anglo-Saxon language rapidly diminished as a written literary language. The new aristocracy spoke predominantly Norman, and this became the language of courts, parliament. While Anglo-Norman or Latin was preferred for high culture, English literature by no means died out, other transitional works were preserved as popular entertainment, including a variety of romances and lyrics. With time, the English language regained prestige, and in 1362 it replaced French and Latin in Parliament, the reputation of Chaucers successors in the 15th century has suffered in comparison with him, though Lydgate and Skelton are widely studied. A group of Scottish writers arose who were believed to be influenced by Chaucer. The rise of Scottish poetry began with the writing of The Kingis Quair by James I of Scotland, the main poets of this Scottish group were Robert Henryson, William Dunbar and Gavin Douglas. The Renaissance was slow in coming to England, with the generally accepted start date being around 1509 and it is also generally accepted that the English Renaissance extended until the Restoration in 1660. However, a number of factors had prepared the way for the introduction of the new learning long before this start date. A number of medieval poets had, as noted, shown an interest in the ideas of Aristotle. The introduction of printing by Caxton in 1474 provided the means for the more rapid dissemination of new or recently rediscovered writers and thinkers. Caxton also printed the works of Chaucer and Gower and these books helped establish the idea of a poetic tradition that was linked to its European counterparts. In addition, the writings of English humanists like Thomas More and Thomas Elyot helped bring the ideas, the establishment of the Church of England in 1535 accelerated the process of questioning the Catholic world-view that had previously dominated intellectual and artistic life
8.
John Byrom
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John Byrom or John Byrom of Kersal or John Byrom of Manchester FRS was an English poet, the inventor of a revolutionary system of shorthand and later a significant landowner. He is most remembered as the writer of the lyrics of Anglican hymn Christians awake, salute the happy morn, which was supposedly a Christmas gift for his daughter. Byrom was descended from an old genteel Lancashire family, ralph Byrom came to Manchester from Lowton in 1485 and became a prosperous wool merchant. His son Adam acquired property in Salford, Darcy Lever, Bolton, Edward Byrom helped to foil a Royalist plot to seize Manchester in 1642. Byrom was born at what is now The Old Wellington Inn, Manchester, the Wellington Inn, now a major tourist attraction, has a plaque in the bar area which commemorates his birth. However, some claim that he was born at Kersal Cell in Lower Kersal in the township of Broughton, near Salford. According to Bailey he was one of the tallest men in the kingdom and his privileged background enabled him to obtain an excellent education, including The Kings School, Chester, and Merchant Taylors School, London. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a fellow there in 1714, He subsequently travelled abroad, Byrom invented a system of shorthand and, having perfected this, returned to England in 1716. Shortly after coming into his inheritance in 1740, he patented his New Universal Shorthand. This system of shorthand, officially taught at both Oxford and Cambridge Universities, was used by the clerk of the House of Lords. On 16 June 1742, His Majesty George II secured to John Byrom, M. A. the sole right of publishing for a term of years the art. It was used by John and Charles Wesley, founders of Methodism, the ancestral home of the Byrom family is Byrom Hall at Slag Lane in Lowton. He lived here from time to time, but seems to have resided in a town house in Manchester. Byrom had several children, but his favourite was his daughter Dorothy, in December 1745, after a romp with Dolly, he promised to write her something for Christmas, it was to be written especially for her and no one else. The delighted Dolly reminded her father of his promise each day as Christmas grew nearer, on Christmas morning, when she ran down to breakfast, she found several presents awaiting her. Among them was an envelope addressed to her in her fathers handwriting and it was the first thing she opened and, to her great delight, it proved to be a Christmas carol entitled Christians awake. The original manuscript, headed with Christmas Day for Dolly, was first published in Harrops Manchester Mercury in 1746, although Byrom is probably best remembered for this Christmas carol, he was regarded by his contemporaries as a poet and a literary man. Most of his poems, the best-known of which is My spirit longeth for Thee, were religious in tone and he is also remembered for his epigrams and, above all, his coinage of the phrase Tweedledum and Tweedledee
9.
Richard Owen Cambridge
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Richard Owen Cambridge was a British poet. He was educated at Eton and at St Johns College, Oxford, leaving the university without taking a degree, he took up residence at Lincolns Inn in 1737. Four years later he married, and went to live at his seat of Whitminster. In 1751 he removed to Twickenham, where he enjoyed the society of many notable persons, horace Walpole in his letters makes many humorous allusions to Cambridge in the character of newsmonger. Cambridges major work was the Scribleriad, an epic poem. The poem is preceded by a dissertation on the mock heroic and it is full of literary in-jokes. The Account of the War in India on the Coast of Coromandel from the year 1750 to 1760, robert Orme, who had promised Cambridge the use of his papers, limited the work carried out in favour of a project of his own. The Works of Richard Owen Cambridge included several pieces never before published, cambridges poems were included in Alexander Chalmers English Poets. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Cambridge. Richard Owen Cambridge at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive
10.
Samuel Davies (clergyman)
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Samuel Davies was an evangelist and Presbyterian minister. Davies ministered in Hanover County from 1748-1759, followed by a term as the fourth President of Princeton University, then known as the College of New Jersey, from 1759 to 1761. One of the first non-Anglican preachers in Virginia, he was an advocate for religious freedom. Davies was also a writer, authoring several hymns and publishing a book of poetry. Davies was born in New Castle County, Delaware to David Davies and Martha Thomas Davies, Daviess mother eventually became a follower of presbyterian doctrine, which led to his earliest exposure to Calvinist theology. A child of religious parents, his mother named him after the prophet Samuel. Blairs son, also named Samuel, was a member of Princetons graduating class of 1760, the younger Blair later became the second chaplain of the United States House of Representatives. After Davies completed his studies with Blair, the Presbytery of New Castle licensed him to preach in 1746 and he joined the New Side synod of New York, and married Sarah Kirkpatrick on October 23,1746, while he was preaching in Pennsylvania and Delaware. Commissioned as an evangelist to Virginia several months later, on February 17,1747, virginias colonial legislature in 1743 had licensed Polegreen reading room and three others in and near Hanover County, Virginia. Davies eventually led seven congregations in five counties, fulfilling his duties despite frail health from tuberculosis and his beloved wife Sarah also died from a miscarriage on September 15,1747, shortly before their first anniversary. Her death led Davies to believe that he too was near death, Davies eventually recovered his health and continued to preach. Davies returned to Virginia in May 1748, and on October 4,1748, married Jane Holt and he fathered six children with Jane, including one child who died at birth. As one of the first non-Anglican ministers licensed to preach in Virginia, Davies advanced the cause of religious, Davies strong religious convictions led him to value the freeborn mind and the inalienable liberty of conscience that the established Anglican Church in Virginia often failed to respect. Davies helped found the Presbytery of Hanover, encompassing all Presbyterian ministers in Virginia and he served as its first moderator and was considered the regions leading voice for religious dissenters. Rev. Davies also served as the first minister at Providence Presbyterian Church in Louisa County, while in Virginia, unlike the earlier Rev. Makemie, Davies advocated educating slaves, including teaching them to read. Although personally not opposed to slavery, Davies believed that slaves deserved direct access to the word of God the same as their masters, slaves became a particular focus of his ministry, and several contemporaries noted how Davies converted African slaves at unusually high numbers. Davies used the materials he received from his sponsors in Great Britain to instruct slaves. The classic spiritual Lord, I want to be a Christian in my heart reportedly originated at Polegreen, Rev. Davies eventually baptized hundreds as Christians, and they joined other members of the congregation at the communion table
11.
American poetry
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Unsurprisingly, most of the early colonists work relied on contemporary British models of poetic form, diction, and theme. However, in the 19th century, a distinctive American idiom began to emerge, the history of American poetry is not easy to know. The received narrative of Modernism proposes that Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot were perhaps the most influential modernist English-language poets in the period during World War I. But this narrative leaves out African American and women poets who were published, by the 1960s, the young poets of the British Poetry Revival looked to their American contemporaries and predecessors as models for the kind of poetry they wanted to write. There are 14 such writers whom we might on that basis call American poets, early examples include a 1616 testimonial poem on the sterling warlike character of Captain John Smith and Rev. One of the first recorded poets of the British colonies was Anne Bradstreet, the poems she published during her lifetime address religious and political themes. She also wrote tender evocations of home, family life and of her love for her husband, edward Taylor wrote poems expounding Puritan virtues in a highly wrought metaphysical style that can be seen as typical of the early colonial period. This narrow focus on the Puritan ethic was, understandably, the dominant note of most of the written in the colonies during the 17th. Of course, being a Puritan minister as well as a poet, a distinctly American lyric voice of the colonial period was Phillis Wheatley, a slave whose book Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, was published in 1773. She was one of the poets of her day, at least in the colonies. The 18th century saw an emphasis on America itself as fit subject matter for its poets. The work of Rebecca Hammond Lard, although old, still apply to life in todays world. She writes about nature, not only the nature of environment, on the whole, the development of poetry in the American colonies mirrors the development of the colonies themselves. The early poetry is dominated by the need to preserve the integrity of the Puritan ideals that created the settlement in the first place, as the colonists grew in confidence, the poetry they wrote increasingly reflected their drive towards independence. This shift in subject matter was not reflected in the mode of writing which tended to be conservative and this can be seen as a product of the physical remove at which American poets operated from the center of English-language poetic developments in London. The first significant poet of the independent United States was William Cullen Bryant, whose contribution was to write rhapsodic poems on the grandeur of prairies. Formed the Fireside Poets were a group of 19th-century American poets from New England, the poets primary subjects were the domestic life, mythology, and politics of the United States, in which several of the poets were directly involved. Other notable poets to emerge in the early and middle 19th century include Ralph Waldo Emerson, Edgar Allan Poe, Henry David Thoreau, Sidney Lanier, and James Whitcomb Riley
12.
William Mason (poet)
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William Mason was an English divine, poet, amateur draughtsman, author, editor and gardener He was born in Hull and educated at Hull Grammar School and St Johns College, Cambridge. He was ordained in 1754 and held a number of posts in the church, in 1747 his poem Musaeus, a Monody on the Death of Mr. Pope was published to acclaim and quickly went through several editions. Summarizing this poem, a threnody, William Lyon Phelps writes, Musaeus was a monody on the death of Pope, there is nothing remarkable about these imitations. His garden designs included one for the Viscount Harcourt and he entered the Church in 1754, and in 1762 became the precentor and canon of York Minster. He was the friend, executor, and biographer of Thomas Gray, in 1775 The Poems of Mr. Gray. To which are prefixed Memoirs of his Life and Writings by W. Mason and he was also a friend of Horace Walpole and Joshua Reynolds. Masons artwork was considered worthy of showing at the Royal Academy between 1782 and 1786, in 1785 he was William Pitt the Youngers choice to succeed William Whitehead as Poet Laureate but refused the honour. Two of his works of scenes at the York racecourse, A Country Racecourse with horses preparing to start, were reproduced as mezzotint illustrations in 1786 by Francis Jukes in collaboration with Robert Pollard. In 1797 Mason hurt his shin on a Friday while stepping out of his carriage and he was able to officiate in his church at Aston on the Sunday, but died from the injury on the following Wednesday,7 April. Memorial inscriptions for Mason may be found in the church at Aston near Rotherham where he was rector, a cenotaph was also erected by Countess Harcourt in the gardens at Nuneham Courtenay. He was the guardian of Francis Ferrand Foljambe during his minority, Poets Corner Author and Bookinfo. com Translation into French of The English Garden with five drawings. William Mason at the Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900 William Mason at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive Lee, Sidney, ed. Mason, William
13.
Arthur Dobbs
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Arthur Dobbs was a British administrator who served as the seventh Governor of North Carolina, serving from October 31,1754, until his death in 1765. He was born the eldest son of Richard Dobbs of Carrickfergus, County Antrim and he was a neighbour and family friend of Jonathan Swift despite their political differences. He served briefly in a regiment in the Irish Army. He became an engineer and Surveyor-General of Ireland, supervising the construction of the Irish Parliament House in Dublin and he was appointed High Sheriff of Antrim in 1720 and in 1727 was elected Member of Parliament for Carrickfergus, a seat he held until 1760. Whilst a member of the Irish Parliament, he purchased 400,000 acres in North Carolina in 1745 and encouraged settlement in the colony, following the death of North Carolina governor Gabriel Johnston, Dobbs was confirmed to succeed him on 25 January 1753. However, he did not arrive to assume his duties until October of the following year, while governor of North Carolina, Dobbs sought unsuccessfully to establish a permanent capital, to be called George City, near Tower Hill and the Neuse River. Plans were drawn up for a Palladian governors mansion similar to Tryon Palace, Dobbs governorship was overshadowed by the French and Indian War and the start of the American Revolution. Shortly after his arrival, Dobbs visited the western frontiers of North Carolina, organised the construction of Fort Dobbs, Dobbs moved to Brunswick Town, North Carolina in 1758 where he lived for the rest of his life. In 1759 and 1760, Governor and Assembly were often at odds, Dobbs even dissolved the Assembly in 1760 and ordered new elections, but this plan backfired, a secret committee drew up outlandish charges against the governor to be sent to the King. Only the succession of King George III, which additional powers to Dobbs. Apart from his North Carolina interests, Dobbs was heavily involved in attempts to find a Northwest Passage in the Canadian Arctic during the 1740s, Dobbs felt that others might finance exploration if they had some expectation of trade. Revoking the Hudson’s Bay Company’s trade monopoly was his solution for stimulating exploration, from 1741 to 1747, Dobbs managed to stimulate exploration, the result of which convinced most people that such a passage did not exist. A British Parliamentary inquiry in 1749 ended attempts to revoke the Hudson’s Bay Company’s charter, Dobbs involvement in the Canadian Arctic exploration resulted in a substantial increase in geographical knowledge as well as increased awareness of the economic potential. Dobbs was also an amateur scientist and published several articles as well as a pamphlet on honeybees. He had married in 1720 Anne, daughter and heir of Captain Osborne of Timahoe, County Kildare and they had three sons and a daughter. In 1762, Dobbs, then seventy-three, married fifteen-year-old Justina Davis at St. Philips Church in Brunswick, a few months later he suffered a stroke and was bound to a wheelchair. In the fall of 1763 he attended a conference of Southern governors and Indian tribes in Augusta, Georgia, in 1764 Dobbs look a leave of absence to return to England, and Tryon arrived as lieutenant-governor to fill his place. Dobbs later decided to retire and return to Ireland, but while packing, suffered a seizure on 28 March 1765
14.
Northwest Passage
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For centuries explorers sought a navigable passage as a possible trade route. Until 2009, the Arctic pack ice prevented regular marine shipping throughout most of the year, Arctic sea ice decline has rendered the waterways more navigable. If, as has been claimed, parts of the end of the Passage are barely 15 metres deep. Fully loaded, Nordic Orion was too large to sail through the Panama Canal, between the end of the 15th century and the 20th century, colonial powers from Europe dispatched explorers in an attempt to discover a commercial sea route north and west around North America. The Northwest Passage represented a new route to the trading nations of Asia. England called the northern route the Northwest Passage. The desire to establish such a route motivated much of the European exploration of both coasts of North America, when it became apparent that there was no route through the heart of the continent, attention turned to the possibility of a passage through northern waters. There was a lack of knowledge about conditions, for instance. Explorers thought that a water route close to the North Pole must exist. The belief that a route lay to the far north persisted for several centuries, many ended in disaster, including that by Sir John Franklin in 1845. While searching for him the McClure Arctic Expedition discovered the Northwest Passage in 1850, in 1906, the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen first successfully completed a passage from Greenland to Alaska in the sloop Gjøa. Since that date, several fortified ships have made the journey, from east to west, the direction of most early exploration attempts, expeditions entered the passage from the Atlantic Ocean via the Davis Strait and through Baffin Bay. Five to seven routes have taken through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, via the McClure Strait, Dease Strait, and the Prince of Wales Strait. From there ships passed through waterways through the Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, on August 21,2007, the Northwest Passage became open to ships without the need of an icebreaker. According to Nalan Koc of the Norwegian Polar Institute, this was the first time the Passage has been clear since they began keeping records in 1972, the Northwest Passage opened again on August 25,2008. Thawing ocean or melting ice simultaneously opened up the Northwest Passage, awaited by shipping companies, this historic event will cut thousands of miles off their routes. We are going to see more and more as the years go by. Due to Arctic shrinkage, the Beluga group of Bremen, Germany, however, Canadas Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that ships entering the North-West passage should first report to his government
15.
Christoph Martin Wieland
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Christoph Martin Wieland was a German poet and writer. He is best-remembered for having written the first Bildungsroman, as well as the epic Oberon and he was born in Oberholzheim, which then belonged to the Free Imperial City of Biberach an der Riss in the south-east of the modern-day state of Baden-Württemberg. His father, who was pastor in Oberholzheim and subsequently in Biberach, from the town school of Biberach he passed on at the age of twelve to the Kloster Berge gymnasium, near Magdeburg. During the summer of 1750, he fell in love with a cousin, Sophie Gutermann, and this affair inspired him to plan his first ambitious work, Die Natur der Dinge. In 1750 he went to the University of Tübingen as a student of law, the poems he wrote at the university — Hermann, an epic, Zwölf moralische Briefe in Versen, Anti-Ovid — are pietistic in tone and dominated by the influence of Klopstock. They attracted the attention of the Swiss literary reformer, J. J. Bodmer, here he became intimate with Jean-Jacques Rousseaus friend Julie de Bondeli. In Cyrus, he had been inspired by the deeds of Frederick the Great to write a poem exhibiting the ideal of a hero, araspes und Panthea is based on an episode from the Cyropaedia of Xenophon. Wielands conversion was completed at Biberach, having returned in 1760 as director of the chancery. The monotony of his life here was relieved by the friendship of a Count Stadion, whose library in the castle of Warthausen, not far from Biberach, was stocked with French. Wieland met again his early love Sophie Gutermann, who had become the wife of Hofrat La Roche, then manager of Count Stadions estates. In Don Sylvia von Rosalva, a romance in imitation of Don Quixote, he held up to ridicule his earlier faith, more important is the novel Geschichte des Agathon, in which, under the guise of a Greek fiction, Wieland described his own spiritual and intellectual growth. This work, which Lessing recommended as a novel of classic taste, musarion advocates a rational unity of the sensual and spiritual, Amadis celebrates the triumph of intellectual over physical beauty. Wieland married Anna Dorothea von Hillenbrand on October 21,1765, Wielands daughter Sophia Catharina Susanna Wieland married philosopher Karl Leonhard Reinhold on May 18,1785. Between 1769 and 1772, Wieland was a professor of philosophy at the University of Erfurt, in his Verklagter Amor he defended amatory poetry, and in the Dialogen des Diogenes von Sinope he gave a general vindication of his philosophical views. With the exception of years spent at Ossmannstedt, where in later life he bought an estate. Turning his attention to poetry, he wrote the Wahl des Hercules. In 1773, he founded Der teutsche Merkur, which under his editorship became the most influential literary review in Germany. His views, as exhibited therein, however, showed so much of the narrow conventional spirit of French criticism and this Wieland answered with great good nature, recommending it to all who were fond of wit and sarcasm
16.
German literature
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German literature comprises those literary texts written in the German language. This includes literature written in Germany, Austria, the German parts of Belgium and Switzerland, Liechtenstein, South Tyrol in Italy and to a lesser extent works of the German diaspora. German literature of the period is mostly in Standard German. The Old High German period is reckoned to run until about the mid-11th century, the most famous works are the Hildebrandslied, Middle High German starts in the 12th century, the key works include The Ring and the poems of Oswald von Wolkenstein and Johannes von Tepl. The Baroque period was one of the most fertile times in German literature, modern literature in German begins with the authors of the Enlightenment. The Sensibility movement of the 1750s-1770s ended with Goethes best-selling Die Leiden des jungen Werther, the Sturm und Drang and Weimar Classicism movements were led by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller. German Romanticism was the dominant movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Biedermeier refers to the literature, music, the visual arts, under the Nazi regime, some authors went into exile and others submitted to censorship. Periodization is not a science but the following list contains movements or time periods typically used in discussing German literature. The closer one nears the present, the more debated the periodizations become, the Old High German period is reckoned to run until about the mid-11th century, though the boundary to Early Middle High German is not clear-cut. The most famous work in OHG is the Hildebrandslied, a piece of Germanic alliterative heroic verse which besides the Muspilli is the sole survivor of what must have been a vast oral tradition. Another important work, in the dialect of Old Saxon, is a life of Christ in the style of a heroic epic known as the Heliand. This was the period of the blossoming of MHG lyric poetry, one of the most important of these poets was Walther von der Vogelweide. The same sixty years saw the composition of the most important courtly romances and these are written in rhyming couplets, and again draw on French models such as Chrétien de Troyes, many of them relating Arthurian material, for example, Parzival by Wolfram von Eschenbach. These high medieval heroic epics are written in rhymed strophes, not the verse of Germanic prehistory. Therefore, the literature of the late 14th and the early 15th century falls, as it were, the Volksbuch tradition which would flourish in the 16th century also finds its origin in the second half of the 15th century. Sebastian Brant Thomas Murner Philipp Melanchthon Sebastian Franck The Baroque period was one of the most fertile times in German literature, many writers reflected the horrible experiences of the Thirty Years War, in poetry and prose. Grimmelshausens adventures of the young and naïve Simplicissimus, in the eponymous book Simplicius Simplicissimus, martin Opitz established rules for the purity of language, style, verse and rhyme
