1.
1782
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As of the start of 1782, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 7 – The first American commercial bank opens, january 15 – Superintendent of Finance Robert Morris goes before the U. S. Congress to recommend establishment of a national mint and decimal coinage. February 5 – The Spanish defeat British forces and capture Minorca, march 14 – Battle of Wuchale, Emperor Tekle Giyorgis pacifies a group of Oromo near Wuchale. March 27 – Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, march 31 – Mission San Buenaventura is founded in Las Californias, part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. April 6 – Rama I succeeds King Taksin of Siam who is overthrown in an coup détat and moves the capital from Thonburi across the Menam to Rattanakosin Island. April 12 – Battle of the Saintes, A British fleet under Admiral Sir George Rodney defeats a French fleet under the Comte de Grasse in the West Indies, april 19 – John Adams secures recognition of the United States as an independent government by the Dutch Republic. During this visit, he negotiates a loan of five million guilders financed by Nicolaas van Staphorst. June 18 – In Switzerland, Anna Göldi is sentenced to death for witchcraft, june 20 – The bald eagle is chosen as the emblem of the United States of America. July – Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, receives a visit from Pope Pius VI, July 1 – Raid on Lunenburg, American privateers attack the British settlement at Lunenburg, Nova Scotia. July 16 – Première of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozarts opera Die Entführung aus dem Serail at the Burgtheater in Vienna,16 July –29 August – Masonic Congress of Wilhelmsbad, Germany - one of historys most important ever secret society congresses. Masonic Congress of Wilhelmsbad by Terry Melanson August 7 George Washington orders the creation of the Badge of Military Merit to honor soldiers merit in battle, Étienne Maurice Falconets Bronze Horseman statue of Tsar Peter the Great is unveiled in Saint Petersburg. November 30 – American Revolutionary War, In Paris, representatives from the United States, december 14 – The Montgolfier brothers first test fly a hot air balloon in France, it floats nearly 2 km. Chief Kamehameha I of Hawaii gains control of the part of the island of Hawaii after defeating his cousin Kīwalaʻō. Princess Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova is the first woman in the world to direct a scientific academy, london creates the Foot Patrol for public security. The British parliament extends James Watts patent for the engine to the year 1800. The North Carolina General Assembly incorporates Washington, North Carolina, in China, the Siku Quanshu is completed, the largest literary compilation in Chinas history. The books are bound in 36,381 volumes with more than 79,000 chapters, comprising about 2.3 million pages, Saint Petersburg in Russia has 300,000 inhabitants. London, H. G. Bohn – via Hathi Trust
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
1780 in the United States
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Events from the year 1780 in the United States. January 16 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Cape St. Vincent, February 3 – American Revolutionary War, Battle of Youngs House February 29 – The Omicron Delta Omega co-ed fraternity is founded by Benjamin Franklin. March 1 - Pennsylvania is the first American state to abolish slavery, may 13 – Cumberland Compact signed by American settlers in the Cumberland Valley of Tennessee. May 19 – New Englands Dark Day, An unaccountable darkness spreads over New England, july 11 – Expédition Particulière, French soldiers arrive in Newport, Rhode Island to reinforce colonists in the American Revolutionary War. Three days later, André is captured with papers revealing that Arnold was planning to surrender West Point to the British, september 25 – Benedict Arnold flees to British-held New York. September 26 – American Revolutionary War, Battle of Charlotte October 2 – American Revolutionary War, In Tappan, New York, British spy John André is hanged by American forces. October 7 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Kings Mountain, American Revolutionary War January 14 – Henry Baldwin, Associate Justice of the US Supreme Court from 1830 till 1844. January 30 – Israel Pickens, United States Senator from Alabama from 1821 till 1825, march 20 – Thomas Metcalfe, United States Senator from Kentucky from 1848 till 1849. April 4 – Edward Hicks, painter May 1 – John McKinley, United States Senator from Alabama from 1826 till 1831, Associate Justice of the U. S. Supreme Court from 1837 till 1852. June 21 – Martin D. Hardin, United States Senator from Kentucky from 1816 till 1817, july 9 – Ephraim Bateman, United States Senator from New Jersey from 1826 from 1829. August 20 – William Woodbridge, Governor of Michigan from 1840 till 1841, september 8 – George Troup, United States Senator from Georgia from 1816 till 1818 and from 1829 till 1833. October 17 – Richard Mentor Johnson, United States Senator from Kentucky from 1819 till 1829, October 22 – John Forsyth, United States Senator from Georgia from 1818 till 1819 and from 1829 till 1834. October 25 – Freeman Walker, United States Senator from Georgia from 1819 till 1821, november 8 – Samuel A. Foote, Governor of Connecticut from 1834 till 1835. United States Senator from Connecticut from 1827 till 1833, december 31 – Gideon Tomlinson, United States Senator from Connecticut from 1831 till 1837. June 3 – Thomas Hutchinson, last governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony Media related to 1780 in the United States at Wikimedia Commons
4.
1781 in the United States
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Events from the year 1781 in the United States. January 2 – Virginia passes a law ceding its western land claims, january 5 – American Revolution – Richmond, Virginia is burned by British naval forces led by Benedict Arnold. January 17 – American Revolution – Battle of Cowpens, Americans under Daniel Morgan defeat British forces, february 2 – The Articles of Confederation are ratified by Maryland, the 13th and final state to do so. March 1 – The United States Continental Congress implements the Articles of Confederation, march 15 – American Revolution – Battle of Guilford Court House, American General Nathanael Greene loses to the British. May 26 – Bank of North America is chartered by the Continental Congress, alstons troops surrender after Fannings men attempt to ram the house with a cart of burning straw. August 30 – American Revolution, A French fleet under Comte de Grasse enters Chesapeake Bay, september 4 – Los Angeles is founded as El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora La Reina de Los Ángeles de Porciuncula by a group of 44 Spanish settlers. September 5 – American Revolution – Battle of the Chesapeake, A British fleet under Thomas Graves arrives and fights de Grasse, september 6 – American Revolution – Battle of Groton Heights, British forces under Benedict Arnold attack a fort in Groton, Connecticut, achieving a strategic victory. September 10 – American Revolution, Graves gives up trying to break through the now-reinforced French fleet and returns to New York, september 28 – American Revolution, American and French troops begin a siege of the British at Yorktown, Virginia. November 5 – John Hanson is elected President of the Continental Congress, december – A school is founded in Washington County, Pennsylvania that would later be known as Washington & Jefferson College. Reverend Samuel Peters publishes his General History of Connecticut, using the blue law for the first time. Meeting in Paris, Benjamin Franklin invites Princess Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova to become the first woman member of the American Philosophical Society, American Revolutionary War Articles of Confederation in effect August 23 – John M. Berrien, United States Senator from Georgia from 1841 till 1852. August 28 – Hannah Tompkins, wife of Daniel D. Tompkins, Second Lady of the United States October 2 – William Wyatt Bibb, media related to 1781 in the United States at Wikimedia Commons
5.
1783 in the United States
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Events from the year 1783 in the United States. February 3 – American Revolutionary War, Britain awards the United States independence, february 4 – American Revolutionary War, Great Britain formally declares that it will cease hostilities with the United States of America. March 5 – Last celebration of Massacre Day, april 15 – Preliminary articles of peace ending the American Revolutionary War are ratified by the Congress of the Confederation. June 20 – Continental Army soldiers mob Independence Hall demanding back pay from the Congress of the Confederation in the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, July 16 – Grants of land in Canada to American loyalists are announced. September 3 – American Revolutionary War – Treaty of Paris, A treaty between the United States and the Kingdom of Great Britain is signed in Paris, ending the war, the treaty also formally granted the United States independence from Great Britain. September 9 – Dickinson College was chartered in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, september 22 – Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783 prohibits the settlement, purchase or receipt of Indian lands beyond existing states without its specific authority and direction. November 2 – In Rocky Hill, New Jersey, US General George Washington gives his Farewell Address to the Army. November 25 – Evacuation Day, The last British troops leave New York City and George Washington triumphantly returns, November 29 – A5.3 magnitude earthquake strikes New Jersey. December 4 – At Fraunces Tavern in New York City, U. S, General George Washington formally bids his officers farewell. December 23 – George Washington resigns his commission as commander-in-chief of the American armies, United Empire Loyalists flee to Canada from the new United States. Loyalists from New York settle Great Abaco in the Bahamas, spain refuses to grant diplomatic recognition to the United States. Evan Williamss distillery was founded in Bardstown, Kentucky, American Revolutionary War Articles of Confederation in effect January 14 – Wilson Lumpkin, United States Senator from Georgia from 1837 till 1841 and Governor of Georgia from 1831 till 1835. May 25 – Philip Pendleton Barbour, Associate Justice of the US Supreme Court from 1836 till 1841, june 21 – Theodosia Burr Alston, Daughter of Aaron Burr July 31 – John Wales, United States Senator from Delaware from 1849 till 1851. August 12 – John Williams Walker, United States Senator from Alabama from 1819 till 1822, september 14 – Henry Johnson, United States Senator from Louisiana from 1818 till 1824 and from 1844 till 1849. December 14 – David Barton, United States Senator from Missouri from 1821 till 1831, may 23 – James Otis, Jr. political activist and pamphleteer November 22 – John Hanson, President of the Continental Congress Media related to 1783 in the United States at Wikimedia Commons
6.
1784 in the United States
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Events from the year 1784 in the United States. January 14 – The US Congress ratifies the Treaty of Paris with Great Britain to end the American Revolutionary War, march 1 – Jefferson creates a ban slavery in a new territory. March 2 – Governor George Clinton of New York writes to Congress asking them to war against Vermont. Vermont was at time a unrecognized de facto independent state claimed by New York. September 22 – Russia establishes their first colony in Kodiak, Alaska, october 22 – Treaty of Fort Stanwix is signed between the United States and Native Americans of the Iroquois League. November 26 – The Roman Catholic Apostolic Prefecture of the United States is established, december 25 – The Methodist Episcopal Church, USA is officially formed at the so-called Christmas Conference led by Thomas Coke and Francis Asbury. King Carlos III of the Spanish Empire authorizes land grants in Alta California, the North Carolina General Assembly incorporates the town of Morgansborough, named for Daniel Morgan. The town is designated as the county seat for Burke County, North Carolina and is subsequently renamed Morgantown, the North Carolina General Assembly changes the name of Kingston, North Carolina, originally named for King George III of Great Britain, to Kinston. Benjamin Franklin tries in vain to persuade the French to alter their clocks in winter to take advantage of the daylight, Britain receives its first bales of imported American cotton. Articles of Confederation in effect February 5 – William T. Barry, United States Senator from Kentucky from 1814 to 1816, postmaster General from 1829 to 1835. November 24 Zachary Taylor, 12th President of the United States from 1849 till 1850, josiah S. Johnston, United States Senator from Louisiana from 1824 till 1833. Date Unknown – Thomas W. Cobb, United States Senator from Georgia from 1824 till 1828
7.
Flag of the United States
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The flag of the United States, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. S. Nicknames for the flag include The Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, the current design of the U. S. flag is its 27th, the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48-star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49-star version became official on July 4,1959, the 50-star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21,1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the version of the U. S. flag and has been in use for over 56 years. At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the flag contemporaneously known as the Continental Colors has historically been referred to as the first national flag. The name Grand Union was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the American flag, the flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign. However, an East India Company flag could have nine to 13 stripes. In any case, both the stripes and the stars have precedents in classical heraldry, Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment. The first official U. S. flag flown during battle was on August 3,1777, Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag, the 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a flag did not yet exist. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee, on May 10,1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. However, the term, Standard, referred to a standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag, the appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows, one arrangement features 13 five-pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle, the so-called Betsy Ross flag
8.
Betsy Ross flag
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The first documented usage of this flag was in 1792. The flag features 13 stars to represent the original 13 colonies with the stars arranged in a circle, the National Museum of American History notes that the story first entered into American consciousness about the time of the 1876 Centennial Exposition celebrations. Canby said he first obtained this information from his aunt Clarissa Sydney Wilson in 1857, Canby dates the historic episode based on Washingtons journey to Philadelphia, in late spring 1776, a year before Congress passed the Flag Act. Betsy Ross was promoted as a role model for young girls. Historian Laurel Thatcher Ulrich further explored this line of enquiry in a 2007 article, How Betsy Ross Became Famous, Oral Tradition, Nationalism, Betsy accepted the job to manufacture the flag, altering the committees design by replacing the six-pointed stars with five-pointed stars. Betsy Rosss story was published in 1870,34 years after her death, by her only surviving grandson, William J. Canby, the paper included stories he had heard from family members throughout the years. According to Canbys paper, Sitting sewing in her one day with her girls around her. She recognized one of these as the uncle of her husband, Col. GEORGE ROSS. The committee were shown into her back parlor, the back of the shop. It was defective to the eye of Mrs Ross and unsymmetrical, and she offered suggestions which Washington. One of the alterations had reference to the shape of the stars, in the drawing they were made with six points. Mrs Ross at once said that this was wrong, the stars should be five pointed, they were aware of that, colonel Washington was the active one in making the design, the others having little or nothing to do with it. When it was completed, it was given to William Barrett, painter, the gentleman drew out of a chest an old ships color, which he loaned her to show her how the sewing was done, and also the drawing painted by Barrett. Other designs had been prepared by the committee and one or two of them were placed in the hands of other seamstresses to be made. The flag was finished, and Betsy returned it, the first Star Spangled Banner that ever floated upon the breeze. The next day Col. Canbys account has been the source of some debate and it is generally regarded as being neither proven nor disproven, and any evidence that may have once existed has been lost. The main reason historians and flag experts do not believe that Betsy Ross designed or sewed the first American flag is a lack of historical evidence, no records show that the Continental Congress had a committee to design the national flag in the spring of 1776. However he did serve on a committee with John Ross uncle George Read in 1776, there is no evidence to show that Betsy Ross and George Washington knew each other, or that George Washington was ever in her shop
9.
Timeline of United States history
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This is a timeline of United States history, comprising important legal and territorial changes and political and economic events in the United States and its predecessor states. To read about the background to these events, see History of the United States, some dates before September 14,1752, when the British government adopted the Gregorian calendar, may be given in the Old Style
10.
John Hanson
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John Hanson was a merchant and public official from Maryland during the era of the American Revolution. In 1779, Hanson was elected as a delegate to the Continental Congress after serving in a variety of roles for the Patriot cause in Maryland and he signed the Articles of Confederation in 1781 after Maryland finally joined the other states in ratifying them. John Hanson was born in Port Tobacco Parish in Charles County in the Province of Maryland on April 3,1721, sources published prior to a 1940 genealogical study sometimes listed his birth date as April 13 or his year of birth as 1715. Hanson was born on a plantation called Mulberry Grove into a wealthy and his parents were Samuel and Elizabeth Hanson. Samuel Hanson was a planter who owned more than 1,000 acres, John Hanson was of English ancestry, his grandfather, also named John, came to Charles County, Maryland, as an indentured servant around 1661. In 1877, a writer named George Hanson placed John Hanson in his family tree of Swedish-Americans descended from four Swedish brothers who emigrated to New Sweden in 1642. This story was repeated over the next century, but scholarly research in the late 20th century showed that John Hanson was of English heritage. Little is known about Hansons early life, he was privately tutored as was customary among the gentry of his time. He followed his fathers path as a planter, slave owner and he was often referred to as John Hanson, Jr. to distinguish him from an older man of the same name. Hansons career in service began in 1750, when he was appointed sheriff of Charles County. In 1757 he was elected to represent Charles County in the house of the Maryland General Assembly. He was an opponent of the 1765 Stamp Act, chairing the committee that drafted the instructions for Marylands delegates to the Stamp Act Congress. In protest of the Townshend Acts, in 1769 Hanson was one of the signers of a resolution that boycotted British imports until the acts were repealed. Hanson changed course in 1769, apparently to pursue his business interests. He resigned from the General Assembly, sold his land in Charles County, there he held a variety of offices, including deputy surveyor, sheriff, and county treasurer. When relations between Great Britain and the became a crisis in 1774, Hanson became one of Frederick Countys leading Patriots. He chaired a meeting that passed a resolution opposing the Boston Port Act. In 1775, he was a delegate to the Maryland Convention, with hostilities underway, Hanson chaired the Frederick County Committee of Observation, part of the Patriot organization that assumed control of local governance
11.
Elias Boudinot
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Elias Boudinot was a lawyer and statesman from Elizabeth, New Jersey who was a delegate to the Continental Congress and served as President of Congress from 1782 to 1783. Congressman for New Jersey following the American Revolutionary War and he was appointed by President George Washington as Director of the United States Mint, serving from 1795 until 1805. Elias Boudinot was born in Philadelphia on May 2,1740 and his father, Elias Boudinot III, was a merchant and silversmith, he was a neighbor and friend of Benjamin Franklin. His mother, Mary Catherine Williams, was born in the British West Indies, Elias paternal grandfather, Elie Boudinot, was the son of Jean Boudinot and Marie Suire of Marans, Aunis, France. They were a Huguenot family who fled to New York about 1687 to avoid the religious persecutions of King Louis XIV, Mary Catherine Williams and Elias Boudinot, Sr. were married on August 8,1729. Over the next twenty years, they had nine children, the first, John, was born in the British West Indies-Antigua. Of the others, only the younger Elias and his siblings Annis, Mary, Annis became one of the first published women poets in the Thirteen Colonies, and her work appeared in leading newspapers and magazines. Elisha Boudinot became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of New Jersey, after studying and being tutored at home, Elias Boudinot went to Princeton, New Jersey to read the law as a legal apprentice to Richard Stockton. An attorney, he had married Elias older sister Annis Boudinot, Richard Stockton was later a signatory of the Declaration of Independence. In 1760, Boudinot was admitted to the bar, and began his practice in Elizabeth and he owned land adjacent to the road from Elizabethtown to Woodbridge Township, New Jersey. After getting established, on April 21,1762, Boudinot married Hannah Stockton and they had two children, Maria Boudinot, who died at age two, and Susan Vergereau Boudinot. Susan married William Bradford, who became Chief Justice of Pennsylvania, after her husbands death in 1795, Susan Boudinot Bradford returned to her parents home to live. The young widow edited her fathers papers, now held by Princeton University, these provide significant insight into the events of the Revolutionary era. In 1805, Elias, Hannah and Susan moved to a new home in Burlington, Hannah died a few years after their move, and Elias lived there for the remainder of his years. In his later years, Boudinot invested and speculated in land and he owned large tracts in Ohio including most of Green Township in what is now the western suburbs of Cincinnati, where there is a street bearing his surname. At his death, he willed 13,000 acres to the city of Philadelphia for parks and he was buried in the churchyard of St. Marys Church, Burlington, New Jersey. Boudinot became a prominent lawyer and his practice prospered, as the revolution drew near, he aligned with the Whigs, and was elected to the New Jersey provincial assembly in 1775. In the early stages of the Revolutionary War, he was active in promoting enlistment, Boudinot helped support the activities of rebel spies
12.
Bank of North America
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It was based upon a plan presented by US Superintendent of Finance Robert Morris on May 17,1781 that created the Nations first de facto central bank. When shares in the bank were sold to the public, the Bank of North America became the countrys first initial public offering and it was succeeded in its role as central bank by the First Bank of the United States in 1791. In May 1781 Alexander Hamilton revealed that he had recommended Morris for the position the previous summer when the constitution of the executive was being solidified, Second, he proceeded to lay out a proposal for a National Bank. Morris, who had corresponded with Hamilton previously on the subject of funding the war, immediately drafted a proposal based on Hamiltons suggestion. Morris persuaded Congress to charter the Bank of North America, the first private bank in the United States. When Robert Morris became superintendent of finance in February 1781, continental currency had ceased to be issued, on April 30,1781, Alexander Hamilton sent Morris a letter. The original charter called for the disbursement of 1,000 shares priced at $400 each, benjamin Franklin purchased one share for 0. 1% ownership as a sign of good faith to Federalists and the new bank and Hamilton made public endorsement of the establishment under his pseudonym. William Binghams first daughter, Ann Louisa Baring was born the day before the bank opened and she was also the granddaughter of Thomas Willing, a primary shareholder and the original President of the bank offices at Philadelphia. Using a gift/loan from France, Robert Morris purchased 63. 3% of the shares for the government. Robert Morris deposited large quantities of gold and silver coin and bills of exchange obtained through loans from the Netherlands and he then issued new paper currency backed by this supply. By 1783, Congress and several states including Massachusetts enacted legislation, within three years, the Bank was considered a creditworthy institution. John Nixon was the first director of the Bank of Pennsylvania, Morris subscribed £10,000 sterling to fund it. It was not a bank in the ordinary sense but an organization formed for the purpose of financing supplies for the army, in 1782, the Bank of North America superseded the Bank of Pennsylvania. Serving from 1792 to 1808, Nixon succeeded the first president of the Bank of North America, Thomas Willing, Nixon was in turn succeeded by John Morton, who served as President until 1822. William Frederick Havemeyer was its president from 1851 to 1861 and brought it successfully through the crisis of 1857, after it had become a National Bank in 1865, a president of the same name presided over its liquidation in 1908. The Bank of Pennsylvania was re-established in 1793, with a charter from the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and branches were opened in Pittsburgh, Harrisburg, Lancaster, Reading, and Easton. Wachovia operated a branch at the northwest corner of S. 6th and Chestnut Sts. in Philadelphia, diagonally opposite Independence Hall and this branch is the longest continuously operating branch bank in the States, operating in that location since 1781. Following Wells Fargos acquisition of Wachovia, Wells Fargo adopted Charter #1, the Bank of North America along with the First Bank of the United States and the Bank of New York were the first shares traded on the New York Stock Exchange
13.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
14.
Robert Morris (financier)
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From 1781 to 1784, he served as the powerful Superintendent of Finance, managing the economy of the fledgling United States. As the central civilian in the government, Morris was, next to General George Washington and his successful administration led to the sobriquet, Financier of the Revolution. At the same time he was Agent of Marine, a position he took without pay and he was one of Pennsylvanias original pair of US senators, serving from 1789 to 1795. After he left prison in 1801, he lived a quiet, Morris was born to Robert Morris, Sr. and Elizabeth Murphet in Liverpool, Lancashire, England, on January 20,1734. At the age of 13, Morris immigrated to Oxford, Maryland, to live with his father, as a youth, Morris was provided a tutor and was a quick learner. His father sent him to Philadelphia to study where he stayed with Charles Greenway, Greenway arranged for young Robert to become an apprentice at the shipping and banking firm of the Philadelphia merchant Charles Willing. A year later, Roberts father died after being wounded in an accident when hit by the wadding of a gun that was fired in his honor. When Charles Willing died in 1754, his son Thomas Willing made Morris his partner at the age 24 and they established the prominent shipping-banking firm of Willing, Morris & Co. on May 1,1757. The partnership lasted until about 1779, on March 2,1769, at age 35, Morris married 20-year-old Mary White. White was the daughter of a wealthy and prestigious Maryland landholder, together they had five sons and two daughters. White came from a prominent family in Maryland, her brother was the well-known Anglican Bishop William White, Morris worshiped in Philadelphia at St. Peters Church on Pine Street and Christ Church on 2nd Street, both of which were run by his brother-in-law, Bishop William White. Morris remained a constant worshipper and supporter at this Anglican Church for his entire life, both Morris and his brother-in-law William White are buried at Christ Church, Philadelphia in the churchyard located at Second and Market. In 1757 Morris became a partner with Thomas Willing. Their partnership was a merchant firm with interests in shipping, real estate, the partnership was forged just after the Seven Years War began, which hindered attracting the usual supply of new indentured servants to the colony. Potential immigrants were conscripted in England to fight in Europe, indentured servants could legally break their contracts to join the British forces to fight against the French and their Indian allies. At the same time, the British Crown wanted to encourage the trade which was profitable for the Kings political allies in the African Company of Merchants. While Morris was a partner and Willing was pursuing a political career. Willing, Morris & Co funded its own slave-trading voyage, the ship did not carry enough to be profitable and, during a second trip, was captured by French privateers
15.
Congress of the Confederation
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A unicameral body with legislative and executive function, it comprised delegates appointed by the legislatures of the several states. Each state delegation had one vote, the membership of the Second Continental Congress automatically carried over to the Congress of the Confederation when the latter was created by the ratification of the Articles of Confederation. It had the secretary as the Second Continental Congress, namely Charles Thomson. The Congress of the Confederation opened in the last stages of the American Revolution, combat ended in October 1781, with the surrender of the British after the Siege and Battle of Yorktown. The British, however, continued to occupy New York City, while the American delegates in Paris, named by the Congress and this formally ended the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain and the thirteen former colonies, which on July 4,1776, had declared independence. On March 1,1781, the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by delegates of Maryland at a meeting of the Second Continental Congress, as historian Edmund Burnett wrote, There was no new organization of any kind, not even the election of a new President. The Congress still called itself the Continental Congress, some modern historians would later refer to the Continental Congress after the ratification of the Articles as the Congress of the Confederation or the Confederation Congress. The Congress had little power and without the threat of a war against the British. Nonetheless the Congress still managed to pass important laws, most notably the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, the War of Independence saddled the country with an enormous debt. In 1784, the total Confederation debt was nearly $40 million, of that sum, $8 million was owed to the French and Dutch. Of the domestic debt, government bonds, known as loan-office certificates, composed $11.5 million, certificates on interest indebtedness $3.1 million, the certificates were non-interest bearing notes issued for supplies purchased or impressed, and to pay soldiers and officers. Rhode Island and Virginia rejected the 1781 impost plan while New York rejected the 1783 revised plan, without revenue, except for meager voluntary state requisitions, Congress could not even pay the interest on its outstanding debt. Meanwhile, the states failed, or refused, to meet the requisitions requested of them by Congress. The Confederation Congress itself endorsed the Call and issued one on its own further inviting the states to send delegates. After meeting in secret all summer in the Old Pennsylvania State House now having acquired the nickname and new title of Independence Hall, from the famous action here eleven years earlier. The Confederation Congress received and submitted the new Constitution document to the states, the Congress of the Confederation continued to conduct business for another month after setting the various dates. Pell oversaw the meeting and adjourned the Congress sine die, rather than having a fixed capital, the Congress of the Confederation met in numerous locations which may be considered United States capitals. The Congress of the Confederation initially met at the Old Pennsylvania State House, party Politics in the Continental Congress
16.
Mint (facility)
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A mint is an industrial facility which manufactures coins that can be used in currency. The history of mints correlates closely with the history of coins, in the beginning, hammered coinage or cast coinage were the chief means of coin minting, with resulting production runs numbering as little as the hundreds or thousands. In modern mints, coin dies are manufactured in large numbers, with the mass production of currency, the production cost is weighed when minting coins. For example, it costs the United States Mint much less than 25 cents to make a quarter, metals were well suited to represent wealth, owing to their great intrinsic value and their durability, divisibility and rarity. The first mint was established in Lydia in the 7th century BC, for coining gold, silver. The Lydian innovation of manufacturing coins under the authority of the spread to neighboring Greece. Some of the earliest Greek mints were within city-states on Greek islands such as Crete, at about the same time, coins and mints appeared independently in China and spread to Korea and Japan. The manufacture of coins in the Roman Empire, dating from about the 4th century BC, the origin of the word mint is ascribed to the manufacture of silver coin at Rome in 269 BC at the temple of Juno Moneta. This goddess became the personification of money, and her name was applied both to money and to its place of manufacture, Roman mints were spread widely across the Empire, and were sometimes used for propaganda purposes. The populace often learned of a new Roman Emperor when coins appeared with the new Emperors portrait, Ancient coins were made by casting in moulds or by striking between engraved dies. The Romans cast their larger copper coins in clay moulds carrying distinctive markings, not because they knew nothing of striking, casting is now used only by counterfeiters. The most ancient coins were cast in bulletshaped or conical moulds, the blank or unmarked piece of metal was placed on a small anvil, and the die was held in position with tongs. The reverse or lower side of the received a rectangular mark made by the sharp edges of the little anvil. Subsequently the anvil was marked in ways, and decorated with letters and figures of beasts. The spherical blanks soon gave place to lenticular-shaped ones, the blank was made red-hot and struck between cold dies. One blow was usually insufficient, and the method was similar to that used in striking medals in high relief. With the substitution of iron for bronze as the material for dies, about 300 AD, in the Middle Ages bars of metal were cast and hammered out on an anvil. Portions of the sheets were then cut out with shears
17.
Coin
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A coin is a small, flat, round piece of metal or plastic used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government, Coins are usually metal or alloy, or sometimes made of synthetic materials. Coins made of metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in transactions, circulating alongside banknotes. Usually the highest value coin in circulation is less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the value of circulation coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain. Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of copper, silver, or gold, while the Eagle, Maple Leaf, and Sovereign coins have nominal face values, the Krugerrand does not. The first coins were developed independently in Iron Age Anatolia and Archaic Greece, India, Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, throughout Greece and Persia, and further to the Balkans. Standardized Roman currency was used throughout the Roman Empire, important Roman gold and silver coins were continued into the Middle Ages. Fiat money first arose in medieval China, with the paper money. Early paper money was introduced in Europe in the later Middle Ages, the penny was minted as a silver coin until the 17th century. The first circulating United States coins were cents, produced in 1793, Coins were an evolution of currency systems of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens such as knife money, were used to store and transfer value. In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made and these were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese currency, cowrie shells, so they were named Bronze Shell. According to Aristotle and Pollux, the first issuer of coins was Hermodike of Kyme The earliest coins are associated with Iron Age Anatolia. Early electrum coins were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests. The first Lydian coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of silver, most of the early Lydian coins include no writing, only an image of a symbolic animal. Anatolian Artemis was the Πὀτνια Θηρῶν, whose symbol was the stag, a small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend
18.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
19.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
20.
Gnadenhutten massacre
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The site of the village has been preserved. A reconstructed mission house and coopers house were built there, the burial mound is marked and has been maintained on the site. The village site has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places, during the American Revolution, the Munsee- and Unami-speaking Lenni Lenape bands of the Ohio Country were deeply divided over which side, if any, to take in the conflict. The Munsee were generally northern bands from around the Hudson River and upper Delaware River originally, the Unami were from the southern reaches of the Delaware. They resettled in present-day Ohio, with bands in several villages around their village of Coshocton. These villages were named Schoenbrunn, Gnadenhutten, and Salem, modern geography places Coshocton on the Muskingum River and the three smaller villages on the Tuscarawas River. Some Lenape decided to take up arms against the American colonials and moved to the northwest, closer to Fort Detroit and those Lenape sympathetic to the United States remained at Coshocton, and leaders, including White Eyes, signed the Treaty of Fort Pitt with the Americans. Through this treaty, White Eyes intended to secure the Ohio Country as a state to be inhabited exclusively by Native Americans, as part of the new United States. A third group of Lenape, many of them converted Christian Munsee and Unami, from the mid-Atlantic area, they spoke the Munsee and the Unami dialects of Delaware, an Algonquian language. White Eyes, a Lenape chief and Speaker of the Delaware Head Council, when he died in 1778, reportedly of smallpox, the treaty had not yet been ratified by Congress. United States officials never pursued it, and the Native American state was dropped, years later, George Morgan, a colonial diplomat to the Lenape and Shawnee during the American Revolution, wrote to Congress that White Eyes had been murdered by American militia in Michigan. Many Lenape at Coshocton eventually joined the war against the Americans, in response, Colonel Daniel Brodhead led an expedition out of Fort Pitt and on 19 April 1781 destroyed Coshocton. Surviving residents fled to the north, Colonel Brodhead convinced the militia to leave the Lenape at the Moravian mission villages unmolested since they were peaceful and neutral. Brodheads having to restrain the militia from attacking the Moravian villages was a reflection of the nature of frontier warfare. Violence had escalated on both sides, relations between regular Continental Army officers from the East, such as Brodhead, and western militia were frequently strained. The tensions were worsened by the American governments policy of recruiting some Indian tribes as allies in the war, in September 1781, British-allied Indians, primarily Wyandot and Lenape, forced the Christian Indians and missionaries from the Moravian villages. They took them northwest toward Lake Erie to a new village, called Captive Town, the British took the missionaries David Zeisberger and John Heckewelder under guard back to Detroit, where they tried the two men on charges of treason. The British suspected them of providing intelligence to the American garrison at Fort Pitt
21.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
22.
Battle of Little Mountain
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The Battle of Little Mountain, also known as Estills Defeat, was fought on March 22,1782, near Mount Sterling in what is now Montgomery County, Kentucky. Gathering about 40 men from nearby settlements, Estill began searching the area, while he was away, the Wyandots attacked a number of nearby settlements, including Estills Station, killing 14-year-old Jennie Glass and capturing Munk Estill, a slave who belonged to James Estill. Under interrogation, the slave was able to persuade the Wyandots to hold off their attack. After killing a number of cattle, the Wyandots fled across the river, as soon as the Indians retreated, Samuel South and Peter Hackett, both young men, were dispatched to find Captain Estill and inform him of the attacks. They found Estill near the mouth of Drowning Creek and Red River early on the morning of March 21, about half of Estills 40 men had left families at the fort. They returned to Estills Station that same day, Estill soon returned with the rest. He ordered five men to remain at Estills Station and led the others in pursuit of the Indian raiding party and he set up camp at Little Mountain, near present-day Mt. Sterling, Kentucky. Resuming the chase the next morning, Estill was forced to leave behind 10 more men whose horses were too tired to continue, finding fresh tracks, Estill and the 25 men remaining soon overtook the Wyandots at Little Mountain Creek. On the night of March 22,1782, Estill and his militiamen encountered the Wyandot raiding party, separated by Little Mountain Creek, they were a mile and a half south of Little Mountain. The two sides fought in a violent, pitched battle for two hours. The Wyandot leader, Sourehoowah, was shot by the first volley. After firing at each other across the creek for some time, when the Wyandots began fording Little River Creek, Estill countered by dividing his forces into three groups. Estill took the right flank, the left being given to Lieutenant William Miller, Miller was ordered to flank the rear of the Wyandots from the left. As he prepared to lead his men into battle, a musket ball hit his rifle. Miller allegedly shouted that it was foolhardy to stay and be shot down, with Estills left flank now open and the creek defended by only four men, the Wyandots easily rushed in, killing Estill and six others as the militiamen retreated. Estill had already been wounded three times, as he attempted to escape with his men, he was killed in hand-to-hand combat by a pursuing Wyandot warrior. Militiaman Joseph Proctor witnessed Estills death and shot the attacker dead with his rifle, only a handful of men were left on each side, and the battle ended with the Kentuckians withdrawing from the field. Those Kentuckians who had been captured later reported the Wyandots had suffered about 20 casualties, the slave Monk, who had escaped during the battle, reported that 17 Wyandots had been killed and two more wounded
23.
Crawford expedition
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The expedition was one in a long series of raids against enemy settlements which both sides had conducted throughout the war. Crawford led about 500 volunteer militiamen, mostly from Pennsylvania, deep into American Indian territory, the Indians and their British allies from Detroit had already learned of the expedition, however, and gathered a force to oppose the Americans. After a day of fighting near the Sandusky towns, the Americans found themselves surrounded and attempted to retreat. The retreat turned into a rout, but most of the Americans managed to find their way back to Pennsylvania, about 70 Americans were killed, Indian and British losses were minimal. During the retreat, Crawford and an number of his men were captured. Crawfords murder was brutal, he was tortured for at least two hours before being burned alive. His torture and murder was publicized in the United States. When the American Revolutionary War began in 1775, the Ohio River marked a border between the American colonies and the American Indians of the Ohio Country. Ohio Indians—Shawnees, Mingos, Delawares, and Wyandots—were divided over how to respond to the war, the border war escalated in 1777 after British officials in Detroit began recruiting and arming Indian war parties to raid the frontier American settlements. An unknown number of American settlers in present Kentucky, West Virginia, the intensity of the conflict increased in November 1777, after enraged American militiamen murdered Cornstalk, the leading advocate of Shawnee neutrality. In February 1778, the Americans launched their first expedition into the Ohio Country in an attempt to neutralize British activity in the region, however, adverse weather conditions prevented the expedition from reaching its objective. On the return march, some of Hands men attacked peaceful Delaware Indians, killing one man, because only non-combatants had been killed, the expedition became derisively known as the squaw campaign. Despite the attack on his family, Captain Pipe said that he would not seek vengeance, instead, in September 1778, he was one of the signers of the Treaty of Fort Pitt between the Delawares and the United States. Eventually, Captain Pipe turned against the Americans and moved his followers west to the Sandusky River, over the next several years, Americans and Indians launched raids against each other, usually targeting settlements. In 1780, hundreds of Kentucky settlers were killed or captured in a British-Indian expedition into Kentucky, George Rogers Clark of Virginia responded in August 1780 by leading an expedition that destroyed two Shawnee towns along the Mad River, but did little damage to the Indian war effort. As most of the Delawares had by then become pro-British, American Colonel Daniel Brodhead led an expedition into the Ohio Country in April 1781, and destroyed the Delaware town of Coshocton. Clark then recruited men for an expedition against Detroit in the summer of 1781, survivors fled to the militant towns on the Sandusky River. Several villages of Christian Delawares lay between the combatants on the Sandusky River and the Americans at Fort Pitt, the villages were administered by the Moravian missionaries David Zeisberger and John Heckewelder
24.
William Crawford (soldier)
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William Crawford was an American soldier and surveyor who worked as a western land agent for George Washington. Crawford fought in the French and Indian War and the American Revolutionary War and he was tortured and burned at the stake by American Indians in retaliation for the Gnadenhutten massacre, a notorious incident near the end of the American Revolution. In 1722, Crawford was born in Orange County, Virginia, at a location which is now in Berkeley County and he was a son of William Crawford and his wife Honora Grimes, who were Scots-Irish farmers. After his fathers death in 1736, his mother married Richard Stephenson, Crawford had a younger brother, Valentine Crawford, plus five half-brothers and one half-sister from his mothers second marriage. In 1742 Crawford married one Ann Stewart and she bore him one child, apparently she died in childbirth or soon after, and on 5 January 1744 he married Hannah Vance, said to have been born in Pennsylvania in 1723. She bore him a son named John and at least two daughters, Ophelia Effie, and Sarah Major William Harrison, and 2) Lt. Col Uriah Springer }. There may also have another daughter, Nancy, born in 1767. In 1749, Col. William Crawford became acquainted with George Washington and he accompanied Washington on surveying trips and learned the trade. In 1755, Crawford served in the Braddock expedition with the rank of ensign, like Washington, he survived the disastrous Battle of the Monongahela. During the French and Indian War, he served in Washingtons Virginia Regiment, in 1758, Crawford was a member of General John Forbess army which captured Fort Duquesne, where Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania now stands. He continued to serve in the military, taking part in Pontiacs War in 1763, in 1765 Crawford built a cabin on the Braddock Road along the Youghiogheny River in what is now Connellsville, Fayette County, Pennsylvania. His wife and three children joined him there the following year, Crawford supported himself as a farmer and fur trader. When the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix with the Iroquois opened up land for settlement, Crawford worked again as a surveyor. Governor Robert Dinwiddie had promised bounty land to the men of the Washingtons Virginia Regiment for their service in the French, in 1770 Crawford and Washington travelled down the Ohio River to choose the land to be given to the regiments veterans. The area selected was near what is now Point Pleasant, West Virginia, Crawford also made a western scouting trip in 1773 with Lord Dunmore, Governor of Virginia. Washington could not accompany them because of the death of his stepdaughter. At the outbreak of Dunmores War in 1774, Crawford received a commission from Lord Dunmore. He built Fort Fincastle at present Wheeling, West Virginia and he also led an expedition which destroyed two Mingo villages in retaliation for Chief Logans raids into Virginia
25.
Great Seal of the United States
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The Great Seal of the United States is used to authenticate certain documents issued by the U. S. federal government. The phrase is used both for the seal itself, and more generally for the design impressed upon it. The Great Seal was first used publicly in 1782, the obverse of the great seal is used as the national coat of arms of the United States. It is officially used on such as United States passports, military insignia, embassy placards. As a coat of arms, the design has official colors, since 1935, both sides of the Great Seal have appeared on the reverse of the one-dollar bill. The Seal of the President of the United States is directly based on the Great Seal, the design on the obverse of the seal is the coat of arms of the United States. The shield, though sometimes drawn incorrectly, has two differences from the American flag. First, it has no stars on the blue chief, second, unlike the American flag, the outermost stripes are white, not red, so as not to violate the heraldic rule of tincture. The supporter of the shield is an eagle with its wings outstretched. Although not specified by law, the branch is usually depicted with 13 leaves and 13 olives. The eagle has its head turned towards the branch, on its right side. In its beak, the eagle clutches a scroll with the motto E pluribus unum, over its head there appears a glory with 13 mullets on a blue field. In the current dies of the seal, the 13 stars above the eagle are arranged in rows of 1-4-3-4-1. The 1782 resolution of Congress adopting the arms, still in force, legally blazoned the shield as Paleways of 13 pieces, argent and gules, a more technically proper blazon would have been argent, six pallets gules. But the phrase used was chosen to preserve the reference to the 13 original states, the 1782 resolution adopting the seal blazons the image on the reverse as A pyramid unfinished. In the zenith an eye in a triangle, surrounded by a glory, the pyramid is conventionally shown as consisting of 13 layers to refer to the 13 original states. The adopting resolution provides that it is inscribed on its base with the date MDCCLXXVI in Roman numerals, where the top of the pyramid should be, the Eye of Providence watches over it. Two mottos appear, Annuit cœptis signifies that Providence has approved of undertakings, Novus ordo seclorum, freely taken from Virgil, is Latin for a new order of the ages
26.
Charles Thomson
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Charles Thomson was an Irish-born Patriot leader in Philadelphia during the American Revolution and the secretary of the Continental Congress throughout its existence. Thomson was born in Gorteade townland, Maghera parish, County Londonderry, Ireland, after the death of his mother in 1739, his father emigrated to the British colonies in America with Charles and two or three brothers. The father died at sea, and the boys were separated in America. Charles was cared for by a blacksmith in New Castle, Delaware, in 1750 he became a tutor in Latin at the Philadelphia Academy. During the French and Indian War, Thomson was an opponent of the Pennsylvania proprietors American Indian policies and he was allied with Benjamin Franklin, the leader of the anti-proprietary party, but the two men parted politically during the Stamp Act crisis in 1765. Thomson became a leader of Philadelphias Sons of Liberty and he was married to the sister of Benjamin Harrison V, another signer, as delegate, of the Declaration of Independence. Thomson was a leader in the crisis of the early 1770s. John Adams called him the Samuel Adams of Philadelphia, Thomson served as the secretary of the Continental Congress through its entirety. Through those 15 years, the Congress saw many delegates come and go, along with John Hancock, president of the Congress, Thomsons name appeared on the first published version of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776. Thomsons role as secretary to Congress was not limited to clerical duties, according to biographer Boyd Schlenther, Thomson took a direct role in the conduct of foreign affairs. Fred S. Rolater has suggested that Charles Thomson was essentially the Prime Minister of the United States, Thomson is also noted for designing, with William Barton, the Great Seal of the United States. The Great Seal played a prominent role in the January 14,1784, britains representatives in Paris initially disputed the placement of the Great Seal and Congressional President Thomas Mifflins signature, until mollified by Benjamin Franklin. But Thomsons service was not without its critics, such brawls on the floor were not uncommon, and many of them were promoted by argument over Thomsons recordings. Political disagreements prevented Thomson from getting a position in the new government created by the United States Constitution, Thomson resigned as secretary of Congress in July 1789 and handed over the Great Seal, bringing an end to the Continental Congress. He spent his years at Harriton House in Bryn Mawr. He also published a synopsis of the four evangelists in 1815, in retirement, Thomson also pursued his interests in agricultural science and beekeeping. According to Thomas Jefferson, writing to John Adams, Thomson became senile in his old age and it is at most but the life of a cabbage, surely not worth a wish. In 1853 JW Randolph and Company republished the work incorporating various materials from the Estate provided by Jeffersons literary executor Thomas Jefferson Randolph
27.
Bald eagle
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The bald eagle is a bird of prey found in North America. A sea eagle, it has two subspecies and forms a species pair with the white-tailed eagle. Its range includes most of Canada and Alaska, all of the contiguous United States and it is found near large bodies of open water with an abundant food supply and old-growth trees for nesting. The bald eagle is a feeder which subsists mainly on fish. It builds the largest nest of any North American bird and the largest tree nests ever recorded for any species, up to 4 m deep,2.5 m wide. Sexual maturity is attained at the age of four to five years, Bald eagles are not actually bald, the name derives from an older meaning of the word, white headed. The adult is brown with a white head and tail. The sexes are identical in plumage, but females are about 25 percent larger than males, the beak is large and hooked. The plumage of the immature is brown, the bald eagle is both the national bird and national animal of the United States of America. The bald eagle appears on its seal, in the late 20th century it was on the brink of extirpation in the contiguous United States. Populations have since recovered and the species was removed from the U. S. governments list of endangered species on July 12,1995 and it was removed from the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife in the Lower 48 States on June 28,2007. The plumage of an bald eagle is evenly dark brown with a white head. The tail is long and slightly wedge-shaped. Males and females are identical in coloration, but sexual dimorphism is evident in the species. The beak, feet and irises are bright yellow, the legs are feather-free, and the toes are short and powerful with large talons. The highly developed talon of the toe is used to pierce the vital areas of prey while it is held immobile by the front toes. The beak is large and hooked, with a yellow cere, the adult bald eagle is unmistakable in its native range. The closely related African fish eagle also has a body, white head and tail
28.
John Trumbull
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John Trumbull was an American artist during the period of the American Revolutionary War and was notable for his historical paintings. His Declaration of Independence was used on the reverse of the two-dollar bill, Trumbull was born in Lebanon, Connecticut, in 1756, to Jonathan Trumbull and his wife Faith Trumbull. His father served as Governor of Connecticut from 1769 to 1784, both sides of his family were descended from early Puritan settlers in the state. The young Trumbull entered the 1771 junior class at Harvard College at age fifteen, due to a childhood accident, Trumbull lost use of one eye, which may have influenced his detailed painting style. As a soldier in the American Revolutionary War, Trumbull rendered a service at Boston by sketching plans of the British works. He witnessed the Battle of Bunker Hill and he was appointed second personal aide to General George Washington, and in June 1776, deputy adjutant-general to General Horatio Gates. He resigned from the army in 1777 after a dispute over the dating of his officer commission, in 1780 he traveled to London, where he studied under Benjamin West. At Wests suggestion, Trumbull painted small pictures of the War of Independence and he painted about 250 in his lifetime. On September 23,1780, British agent Major John André was captured by Continental troops in North America, after news reached Great Britain, outrage flared and Trumbull was arrested, as having been an officer in the Continental Army of similar rank to André. He was imprisoned for seven months in Londons Tothill Fields Bridewell, after being released, Trumbull returned to the United States. In 1784, following the British recognition of the United States independence, while working in his studio, Trumbull painted Battle of Bunker Hill and Death of General Montgomery in the Attack on Quebec. Both works are now in the Yale University Art Gallery, in 1785 Trumbull went to Paris, where he made portrait sketches of French officers for the Surrender of Lord Cornwallis. With the assistance of Thomas Jefferson, serving there as the US minister, while in Paris, Trumbull is credited with having introduced Jefferson to the Italian painter Maria Cosway, they became lifelong intimate friends. Trumbulls painting became widely known due to an engraving of it by Asher Brown Durand. All now hang in rotunda of the United States Capitol, congress reportedly authorized only funds sufficient to purchase these four paintings. Trumbulls The Sortie Made by the Garrison of Gibraltar,1789, in 1831 Trumbull sold a series of 28 paintings and 60 miniature portraits to Yale University for an annuity of $1,000. This is by far the largest single collection of his works, the collection was originally housed in a neoclassical art gallery designed by Trumbull on Yales Old Campus, along with portraits by other artists. His portraits include full lengths of General Washington and George Clinton, New York also bought his full-length paintings of Alexander Hamilton and John Jay
29.
Privateer
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A privateer was a private person or ship that engaged in maritime warfare under a commission of war. Captured ships were subject to condemnation and sale under prize law, a percentage share usually went to the issuer of the commission. Since robbery under arms was common to trade, all merchant ships were already armed. During war, naval resources were auxiliary to operations on land so privateering was a way of subsidizing state power by mobilizing armed ships, the letter of marque of a privateer would typically limit activity to one particular ship, and specified officers. Typically, the owners or captain would be required to post a performance bond, in the United Kingdom, letters of marque were revoked for various offences. Some crews were treated as harshly as naval crews of the time, some crews were made up of professional merchant seamen, others of pirates, debtors, and convicts. Some privateers ended up becoming pirates, not just in the eyes of their enemies, william Kidd, for instance, began as a legitimate British privateer but was later hanged for piracy. The investors would arm the vessels and recruit large crews, much larger than a merchantman or a vessel would carry. Privateers generally cruised independently, but it was not unknown for them to form squadrons, a number of privateers were part of the English fleet that opposed the Spanish Armada in 1588. Privateers generally avoided encounters with warships, as such encounters would be at best unprofitable, for instance, in 1815 Chasseur encountered HMS St Lawrence, herself a former American privateer, mistaking her for a merchantman until too late, in this instance, however, the privateer prevailed. The United States used mixed squadrons of frigates and privateers in the American Revolutionary War, the practice dated to at least the 13th century but the word itself was coined sometime in the mid-17th century. England, and later the United Kingdom, used privateers to great effect and these privately owned merchant ships, licensed by the crown, could legitimately take vessels that were deemed pirates. The increase in competition for crews on armed merchant vessels and privateers was due, in a large part, because of the chance for a considerable payoff. Whereas a seaman who shipped on a vessel was paid a wage and provided with victuals. This proved to be a far more attractive prospect and privateering flourished as a result, during Queen Elizabeths reign, she encouraged the development of this supplementary navy. Over the course of her rule, she had allowed Anglo-Spanish relations to deteriorate to the point where one could argue that a war with the Spanish was inevitable. By using privateers, if the Spanish were to take offense at the plundering of their ships, some of the most famous privateers that later fought in the Anglo-Spanish War included the Sea Dogs. In the late 16th century, English ships cruised in the Caribbean and off the coast of Spain, at this early stage the idea of a regular navy was not present, so there is little to distinguish the activity of English privateers from regular naval warfare
30.
Lunenburg, Nova Scotia
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Lunenburg is a port town in Lunenburg County, Nova Scotia, Canada. Situated on the provinces South Shore, Lunenburg is located on the Fairhaven Peninsula at the side of Mahone Bay. The town is approximately 90 kilometres southwest of the county boundary with the Halifax Regional Municipality, the town was established by the three founding fathers, Patrick Sutherland, Dettlieb Christopher Jessen and John Creighton during Father Le Loutres War, four years after Halifax. The town was one of the first British attempts to settle Protestants in Nova Scotia intended to displace Mikmaq, British settlement posed a lasting, grave and certain threat to Mikmaw hegenomy over their traditional territory. The historic town was designated a United Nations Educational, Scientific and this designation ensures protection for much of Lunenburgs unique architecture and civic design, being the best example of planned British colonial settlement in Canada. The historic core of the town is also a National Historic Site of Canada, originally a Mikmaq encampment and clam harvesting site known as āseedĭk, the site became a Mi’kmaq and Acadian village named Mirliguèche for over a hundred years. Mirliguèche is believed to mean milky surf or milky bay, referring to the appearance in a storm. Acadians under the command of Isaac de Razilly established kinship and trade relations with the local Mikmaq, a 1688 census indicates there were 21 at Mirliguèche, in one house and two wigwams, with half an acre under cultivation. In 1745 there were reported to be only eight settlers in the village, four years later, Cornwallis reported that there were a number of families that lived in comfortable wooden houses. Despite the British Conquest of Acadia in 1710, Nova Scotia remained primarily occupied by Catholic Acadians, Father Le Loutres War began when Governor Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports on June 21,1749. By unilaterally establishing Halifax the British were violating earlier treaties with the Mikmaq, upon the outbreak of Father Le Loutres War, on October 5,1749, Governor Edward Cornwallis sent Commander White with troops in the 20-gun sloop Sphinx to Mirligueche and had the village destroyed. By 1753 there still was one family in the area – a Mikmaq man named Old Labrador. After establishing Halifax, the British quickly began to other settlements. To guard against Mikmaq, Acadian and French attacks on the new Protestant settlements, British fortifications were erected in Halifax, Bedford, Dartmouth, Lunenburg, the Natives and Acadians raided the Lunenburg peninsula nine times in the first six years of its establishment. Dissatisfied with the English colonists sent to Halifax in 1749, Cornwallis appealed to the Committee of Privy Council for Trade and Foreign Plantations in London to recruit more Germans, over 2,700 Foreign Protestants signed up for the passage and emigrated to Nova Scotia. Most came from the Upper Rhine area of present-day Germany, from the French and German-speaking Swiss cantons and they stayed in Halifax under British protection while working on the fortifications to pay off the cost of their passage. In 1753, three years into Father Le Loutres War, John Creighton led the group of Foreign Protestants stationed in Halifax to resettle Mirliguèche naming the new British colony Lunenburg. The town was named in honour of the King of Great Britain and Ireland, like Halifax, the British established Lunenburg unilaterally, that is, without negotiating with the Mikmaq whose sovereign territory it had always been
31.
Nova Scotia
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Nova Scotia is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces, and one of the four provinces which form Atlantic Canada. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province, with an area of 55,284 square kilometres, including Cape Breton, as of 2016, the population was 923,598. Nova Scotia is the second most-densely populated province in Canada with 17.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, Nova Scotia means New Scotland in Latin and is the recognized English language name for the province. In Scottish Gaelic, the province is called Alba Nuadh, which simply means New Scotland. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province in area after Prince Edward Island, the provinces mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km from the ocean, Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are rich on the Bay of Fundys shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundys shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous age fossils, wassons Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic and Jurassic age fossils. Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone, since the province is almost surrounded by the sea, the climate is closer to maritime than to continental climate. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental – still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotia climate is in ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe. This is in spite of Nova Scotia being some fifteen parallels south, areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows a little colder. The province includes regions of the Mikmaq nation of Mikmaki, the Mikmaq people inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada at Port Royal, the British conquest of Acadia took place in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this and returned Cape Breton Island to the French, present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. The British changed the name of the capital from Port Royal to Annapolis Royal, in 1749, the capital of Nova Scotia moved from Annapolis Royal to the newly established Halifax. In 1755 the vast majority of the French population were removed in the Expulsion of the Acadians
32.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
33.
Badge of Military Merit
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The Badge of Military Merit is considered the first military award of the United States Armed Forces. Although the Fidelity Medallion is older, after being issued to three soldiers for an event in 1780 it was never awarded again, so the Badge of Military Merit is often considered the oldest. The Purple Heart is the official decoration of the Badge of Military Merit. The Badge of Military Merit was first announced in General George Washingtons general orders to the Continental Army issued on August 7,1782 at the Headquarters in Newburgh. The writings of General Washington indicate that three badges, two Honorary Badges of Distinction and a Badge of Military Merit, were created on August 7,1782 and this is thought to be the first time in modern history that military awards had been presented to common soldiers. The practice in Europe was to honor high-ranking officers who had achieved victory, but in America, as General Washington said, the road to glory in a patriot army and a free country is…open to all. Not only instances of gallantry, but also of extraordinary fidelity. Men who have merited this last distinction to be suffered to pass all guards, the road to glory in a patriot army and a free country is thus open to all. This order is also to have retrospect to the earliest stages of the war, Browns badge was found in a Deerfield, New Hampshire barn in the 1920s. There is disagreement in published sources about what became of Browns badge after that, a badge on display at the American Independence Museum in Exeter, New Hampshire on behalf of the Society of the Cincinnati, New Hampshire Branch is stated to be Browns. Other sources say that Browns badge was reported lost in 1924 while in the possession of Bishop Paul Matthews, as of 2015, Churchills badge was owned by the National Temple Hill Association and on display at the New Windsor Cantonment State Historic Site. Churchills badge was rediscovered when H. E. Johnson, a Michigan farmer and one of Churchills descendants, bissells badge was reportedly lost when his house burned in July 1813. After the Revolutionary War, the Badge of Military Merit fell into disuse although it was never officially abolished, in 1932, the United States War Department authorized the new Purple Heart Medal for soldiers who had previously received either a Wound Chevron or the Army Wound Ribbon. At that time, it was determined that the Purple Heart Medal would be considered the official successor decoration to the Badge of Military Merit
34.
Purple Heart
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The Purple Heart is a United States military decoration awarded in the name of the President to those wounded or killed while serving, on or after April 5,1917, with the U. S. military. The National Purple Heart Hall of Honor is located in New Windsor, the Badge of Military Merit was only awarded to three Revolutionary War soldiers by Gen. George Washington himself. General Washington authorized his subordinate officers to issue Badges of Merit as appropriate, from then on, as its legend grew, so did its appearance. Although never abolished, the award of the badge was not proposed again officially until after World War I, on October 10,1927, Army Chief of Staff General Charles Pelot Summerall directed that a draft bill be sent to Congress to revive the Badge of Military Merit. The bill was withdrawn and action on the case ceased January 3,1928, a number of private interests sought to have the medal re-instituted in the Army, this included the board of directors of the Fort Ticonderoga Museum in Ticonderoga, New York. On January 7,1931, Summerall’s successor, General Douglas MacArthur, confidentially reopened work on a new design, involving the Washington Commission of Fine Arts. Elizabeth Will, an Army heraldic specialist in the Office of the Quartermaster General, was named to redesign the newly revived medal, using general specifications provided to her, Will created the design sketch for the present medal of the Purple Heart. The new design, which exhibits a bust and profile of George Washington, was issued on the bicentennial of Washingtons birth, wills obituary, in the edition of February 8,1975 of The Washington Post newspaper, reflects her many contributions to military heraldry. The Commission of Fine Arts solicited plaster models from three leading sculptors for the medal, selecting that of John R. Sinnock of the Philadelphia Mint in May 1931, the first Purple Heart was awarded to MacArthur. During the early period of American involvement in World War II, with the establishment of the Legion of Merit, by an Act of Congress, the practice of awarding the Purple Heart for meritorious service was discontinued. By Executive Order 9277, dated December 3,1942, the decoration was applied to all services and this executive order also authorized the award only for wounds received. Subject to approval of the Secretary of Defense, Executive Order 10409, dated February 12,1952, dated April 25,1962, Executive Order 11016, included provisions for posthumous award of the Purple Heart. Dated February 23,1984, Executive Order 12464, authorized award of the Purple Heart as a result of terrorist attacks, or while serving as part of a peacekeeping force, public Law 99-145 authorized the award for wounds received as a result of friendly fire. Public Law 104-106 expanded the eligibility date, authorizing award of the Purple Heart to a prisoner of war who was wounded after April 25,1962. This change was effective May 18,1998, during World War II, nearly 500,000 Purple Heart medals were manufactured in anticipation of the estimated casualties resulting from the planned Allied invasion of Japan. To the present date, total combined American military casualties of the seventy years following the end of World War II—including the Korean, in 2003, there remained 120,000 Purple Heart medals in stock. The existing surplus allowed combat units in Iraq and Afghanistan to keep Purple Hearts on-hand for immediate award to soldiers wounded in the field, the History section of the November 2009 edition of National Geographic estimated the number of Purple Hearts given. Above the estimates, the reads, Any tally of Purple Hearts is an estimate
35.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
36.
Bryan Station
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Bryan Station was an early fortified settlement in Lexington, Kentucky. It was located on present-day Bryan Station Road, about three miles north of New Circle Road, on the bank of Elkhorn Creek near Briar Hill Road. The settlement was established circa 1775–76 by brothers Morgan, James, William, the occupants of this parallelogram of some forty log cabins withstood several American Indian attacks. Bryan Station was located a distance from a spring that the camp used for drinking water. The reason this was done was in order to prevent any change in habit that could signal that the defenders were aware of the presence of the force preparing to besiege them. The suggestion was full of hope, but all the same the savages were known to be creatures of impulse, hard to control. At the time of the siege the militia did not realize just how many Indians were waiting for them outside of the fort or that these Indians had some support from the British and this attack was a surprise attack and the militia in the fort were unprepared for this attack. The attackers lifted the siege after Indian scouts reported that a force of Kentucky militia was on the way, the militiamen pursued Caldwells force but were defeated three days later at the Battle of Blue Licks, about 60 miles northeast. The pioneer women, led by Mary Polly Hawkins Craig, fetched water from the spring to defend against the use of burning arrows by the attackers, if the fort had burned, the attackers could have reached the women and children sheltering there. Located a couple of miles south of the site, Bryan Station High School was named in its honor. The athletic teams compete under the name Defenders, durrett, Bryants Station and the Memorial Proceedings. George W. Ranck, The Story of Bryans Station, As Told in the Historical Address Delivered at Bryans Station, Fayette County, Kentucky, August 18th,1896
37.
Battle of Blue Licks
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The Battle of Blue Licks, fought on August 19,1782, was one of the last battles of the American Revolutionary War. The battle occurred ten months after Lord Cornwalliss famous surrender at Yorktown and it was the last victory for the Loyalists and Natives during the frontier war. Although the main British army under Lord Cornwallis had surrendered at Yorktown in October 1781, virtually ending the war in the east, aided by the British garrison at Fort Detroit, Indians north of the Ohio River redoubled their efforts to drive the American settlers out of western Virginia. This was one of the largest forces sent against American settlements during the war, Caldwells army returned to the Mad River to oppose the invasion, but the attack never came. In fact, Clark did have an armed boat patrolling the Ohio River. Most of the Indian warriors returned to their homes, caldwell and about 50 Loyalists, supported by 300 Indians, crossed the Ohio River into Kentucky. They meant to surprise and destroy the settlement of Bryan Station, caldwell had lost five Indians killed and two wounded during his short siege. The militia arrived at Bryan Station on August 18, the force included about 47 men from Fayette County and another 135 from Lincoln County. The highest-ranking officer, Colonel John Todd of Fayette County, was in command, assisted by Lieutenant Colonel Daniel Boone. Lieutenant Colonel Stephen Trigg and Major Hugh McGary led the Lincoln County contingent, Benjamin Logan, colonel of the Lincoln militia, was gathering men and had not yet arrived. The militiamen could pursue the raiders immediately, to them from escaping. Daniel Boone advised waiting for Logan, who was only a day away, Boone felt compelled to go along. The Kentuckians set out on horseback over an old buffalo trail before making camp at sunset, on the morning of August 19, the Kentuckians reached the Licking River, near a spring and salt lick known as the Lower Blue Licks. A few Indian scouts were watching them from across the river. Behind the scouts was a hill around which the river looped, Todd called a council and asked Daniel Boone, the most experienced woodsman, what he thought. Boone said he had been growing increasingly suspicious because of the trail the Indians left. He felt the Indians were trying to lead them into an ambush, Hugh McGary, known as both a fierce Indian fighter and an unstable hothead, urged immediate attack. When no one listened, he mounted his horse and rode across the ford, calling out, Them that aint cowards, the men immediately followed McGary, as did the officers, who hoped to restore order
38.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
39.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
40.
Treaty of Paris (1783)
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The treaty set the boundaries between the British Empire and the United States, on lines exceedingly generous to the latter. Details included fishing rights and restoration of property and prisoners of war, only Article 1 of the treaty, which is the legal underpinning of United States existence as a sovereign country, remains in force. Peace negotiations began in April 1782, and continued through the summer, representing the United States were Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, Henry Laurens, and John Adams. David Hartley and Richard Oswald represented Great Britain, the treaty was signed at the Hotel dYork in Paris on September 3,1783, by Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Hartley. Regarding the American Treaty, the key episodes came in September,1782, France was exhausted by the war, and everyone wanted peace except Spain, which insisted on continuing the war until it could capture Gibraltar from the British. Vergennes came up with the deal that Spain would accept instead of Gibraltar, the United States would gain its independence but be confined to the area east of the Appalachian Mountains. Britain would take the north of the Ohio River. In the area south of that would be set up an independent Indian state under Spanish control and it would be an Indian barrier state. However, the Americans realized that they could get a deal directly from London. John Jay promptly told the British that he was willing to negotiate directly with them, cutting off France, the British Prime Minister Lord Shelburne agreed. He was in charge of the British negotiations and he now saw a chance to split the United States away from France. The western terms were that the United States would gain all of the area east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, the northern boundary would be almost the same as today. The United States would gain fishing rights off Canadian coasts, and it was a highly favorable treaty for the United States, and deliberately so from the British point of view. Prime Minister Shelburne foresaw highly profitable trade between Britain and the rapidly growing United States, as indeed came to pass. Great Britain also signed agreements with France and Spain. In the treaty with Spain, the territories of East and West Florida were ceded to Spain, Spain also received the island of Minorca, the Bahama Islands, Grenada, and Montserrat, captured by the French and Spanish, were returned to Britain. The treaty with France was mostly about exchanges of captured territory, the United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14,1784. Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the parties involved
41.
Action of 12 December 1782
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The Action of 12 December 1782 was a naval engagement fought off the coast of Spain near Ferrol, in which the British 40-gun fifth rate HMS Mediator successfully attacked a convoy of five armed ships. Mediator succeeded in capturing one American privateer, the Alexander, the convoy was part of Pierre Beaumarchaiss supply chain to the American colonists. The Frenchman Pierre Beaumarchais founded an enterprise, Roderigue Hortalez and Co. supported by France. The French and Spanish supplied the American rebels with weapons, munitions, clothes, Beaumarchais contracted for the transport of the supplies in convoys. Even so, the Royal Navy captured many of the transport vessels, baumarchais assembled one convoy in December 1782. He met his captains in Bordeaux and then supervised the loading of his vessels, the plan was to sail for Port-au-Prince, Saint Domingue and then on to America to supply the American colonists. The convoy consisted of five ships, Alexander was a corvette that Beaumarchais purchased in 1781 a Bordeaux. She was under the command of Commander Stephen Gregory, who had an American privateer commission issued in France and sailed under a French ensign and she had a mixed American and French crew of 102 men and was armed with twenty-four long 9-pounder guns. She was of about 500 tons burthen and carried a cargo of stores, Aimable Eugénie, which was named after Beaumarchais daughter, was under the command of Nicolas Baudin. She mounted 36 guns and had a crew of 130 men, Beaumarchais had bought her at Nantes in March 1782 for £t300,000. Ménagère, which was under the command of François Jérome Foligné-Deschalonges, had a burthen of 600 tons and was a two decked vessel, launched in 1775 or 76. She was a former 64-gun ship of the line, and now armed en flûte, with twenty-six 12-pounders on her deck and four 6-pounders on her forecastle. She had a crew of 212 men and carried 100 tons of gunpowder plus naval stores, Dauphin Royal was under the command of Antoine Chambert. She was a transport purchased and armed at Bordeaux for the Marine Royale and she was of 300 tons burthen, armed with twenty-eight guns and carried a crew of 120 men. The convoy also included an unknown American privateer brig with 14 guns, on 9 December 1782 the convoy sailed from the mouth of the Gironde for the West Indies and from there America. On 12 December, at 7, 00am, HMS Mediator, at 8, 00am the convoy formed in line of battle. Notwithstanding this formidable array, Captain Luttrell continued bearing down and at 10, Luttrell saw that the shot came from the upper deck only and rightly concluded that the French vessel had no lower-deck guns. Mediator bore up in order to bring the ship to action
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Ferrol, Galicia
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Ferrol, is a city in the Province of A Coruña in Galicia, located on the Atlantic coast in north-western Spain. According to the 2014 census, the city has a population of 70,389 making it the 5th largest settlement in Galicia. With Eume to the south and Ortegal the north, Ferrol forms the Ferrolterra conurbation, the city has been a major naval shipbuilding centre for most of its history, being the capital of the Spanish Navys Maritime Department of the North since the time of the early Bourbons. Before that, in the 17th century, Ferrol was the most important arsenal in Europe, today, the city is also known as the home of the shipbuilding yards of Navantia. The city was the birthplace of the Spanish General and dictator Francisco Franco in 1892 and it was also the birthplace of the founder of the Spanish Socialist Workers Party, Pablo Iglesias, in 1850. In 1982 the government of Spain adopted officially Ferrol in consonance with its long history, the origin of the name comes from the legend of a Breton saint, Ferreol, who arrived here on a ship, amid a chorus of seven siren. Another tradition says that Ferrol proceeds from farol, alluding to the figure that appears on the coat of arms of the city. The existence of human settlements in this Galician city is backed up by the abundance of burial chambers, megalithic monuments as well as Petroglyphs. In Roman times, in the 1st century BC, a port existed in the bay of Ferrol. In 1568 a fire reduced to rubble the old medieval town, as a naval base, at that time the town was considered more important as a Royal Arsenal than as a safe harbour. With the arrival of the Bourbons in the 18th century, Ferrol became a leading naval centre, Ferrol was made Capital of the Maritime Department of the North, formed under Ferdinand VI and Charles III for the defence of the Spanish Colonial Empire in America. The Royal Dockyards of A Graña and Ferrol, built between 1726–1783, produced ships protected with copper sheets from the mills of Xubia. In 1772, The Spanish Royal Academy of Naval Engineers of Ferrol, Ferrol was virtually impossible to blockade in the age of sail, as strong westerly winds would take any blockading force away along the treacherous north coast of Spain where they had no safe haven. The geography of Ferrol meant that an entire Spanish fleet could slip out on a single tide, by the time the British were able to resume the blockade, the Spanish would be safely away and out to sea. The alliance with the United Kingdom during the Peninsular War of 1808–14 failed to prevent the deterioration in the town’s fortunes, the arsenals and fortresses were abandoned and they were easily occupied by the French in 1809. Under Ferdinand VII, Ferrol lost its title of capital, the second half of the 19th century brought to the Royal Dockyards of Ferrol not just plenty of work but social and political tensions which ended up in the failed republican uprising of 1872. Such was the case of the Cleopatra, carrying one of the two Cleopatra Needles, the one standing today on the Thames Embankment in London, UK and it arrived in Ferrol on 19 October 1877 after tragedy and almost sinking off the West coast of France five days earlier. There is a plaque commemorating the event and those who died to be seen at the base of the Needle in London, the arrival of the British coincided with the construction of a local electric-powered trolley streetcars line
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HMS Mediator (1782)
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HMS Mediator was a Roebuck-class 44-gun fifth rate of the Royal Navy. She was built and served during the American War of Independence and she spent the French Revolutionary and part of the Napoleonic Wars in this capacity before being broken up in 1810. Built as the revival of a design that had fallen out of favour as naval architecture developed, resisting an attempt by his prisoners to seize his ship, Luttrell returned home to public applause and praise from King George III. Mediators next commander, Cuthbert Collingwood, was a friend of Horatio Nelson. There he helped Nelson to enforce the Navigation Acts, causing controversy with the local civil, in 1788 she left front-line service for good, and was converted into a storeship, being renamed Camel. Camel saw important service in the French Revolutionary Wars, making voyages to the fleets in the Mediterranean. She also made trips further afield, returning to the West Indies on occasion, while making one such trip, she was attacked at anchor by a powerful French frigate. Her crew, together with that of a sloop also anchored in the bay, mounted a strong defence and she spent her last days making voyages to the various hotspots around the globe, before being finally withdrawn from service and broken up in 1810. Mediator was ordered from the commercial shipbuilder Thomas Raymond, of Northam and she was laid down there in July 1780 and was launched on 30 March 1782. Mediator was then taken into Portsmouth Dockyard on 7 April that year for fitting out and she was commissioned in April under the command of Captain James Luttrell. On 12 December Luttrell was cruising off Ferrol when a convoy of five sails was sighted, together the five ships had nearly 600 men and considerably more guns than the Mediator. Luttrell closed the ships, and exchanged fire with them, eventually breaking their line, Luttrell then cut off the Alexander and forced her to surrender, before pursuing the remaining ships. By the evening he had caught up with the Ménagère and after an exchange of fire and he had taken 340 prisoners, and only had 190 men to guard them. Six men had killed and four wounded on Alexander, while Ménagère had four killed. There were no casualties on Mediator, their opponents having been aiming at their masts, the captured prisoners made an attempt to seize the Mediator during the voyage to Britain, but prompt action by the ships officers quashed the rising without bloodshed. Captain Gregory was shown to be the instigator of the plot. Luttrell was later praised by King George III, who wrote to Lord Keppel, the First Lord of the Admiralty, marine artists Thomas Luny and Dominic Serres created depictions of Mediator attacking the convoy. Luttrell remained in command towards the end of the American War of Independence, Collingwood spent the next three years as Mediators captain
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Media related to 1782 in the United States at Wikimedia Commons
