1.
2/17th Battalion (Australia)
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The 2/17th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army. Raised in April 1940 in New South Wales, it formed part of the 20th Brigade, after completing basic training in Australia, the unit was deployed to the Middle East. In early 1941, it took part in the fighting at Tobruk, a period of garrison duties followed in Syria and Lebanon before the battalion took part in the First and Second Battles of El Alamein in mid-1942. As the focus of the Australian Armys operations shifted to the Pacific theatre to fight the Japanese, in early 1944, the battalion was withdrawn to Australia for rest and reorganisation and a long period of inactivity followed before it returned to combat. Its final campaign came late in the war when it was committed to the fighting in Borneo in June 1945, following the end of the war, the battalion was disbanded in early 1946. Formed for service during the World War II, the 2/17th Battalion was raised on 26 April 1940 from Second Australian Imperial Force volunteers at Ingleburn, after completing individual training at Ingleburn, the battalion moved on foot to Bathurst to complete collective training. Following this, the 2/17th embarked for the Middle East from Sydney on 20 October 1940, moving in convoy the Queen Mary briefly stopped in Fremantle, before continuing to Bombay in early November where the battalion was disembarked. Following a few days in camp ashore they were transferred to the Rohna for the leg of the voyage. The convoy continued, sailing via the African coast into the Gulf of Aden and then through the Suez Canal, before finally berthing at El Kantara in Egypt. Arriving in the Middle East in late November, the battalion undertook further training near Gaza in Palestine, returning to Palestine in early January they conducted a number of exercises until late February. In March 1941 the battalions of the 9th Division were sent into the desert to relieve the 6th Division that was deploying to Greece, as part of this the 2/17th garrisoned Mersa Brega, near Tripoli. On the night of 13/14 April 1941, a party of about 30 Germans broke into the Australian position and set up eight machine-guns, a couple of mortars and two field guns. Seeing this, the nearest platoon commander, Lieutenant Austin Mackell, launched a counterattack with a party of men consisting of one corporal. It was the first such award to a member of the 2nd AIF, the battalions losses during the fighting around Tobruk, including the withdrawal prior to the siege, consisted of 32 dead from all causes,127 wounded and 14 captured. Shortly afterwards, a company was detached from the battalion to guard duties in Broumane, in Syria. Relieving the 2/12th Battalion, the battalion established itself around Afrine, north of Aleppo, in March, after the 2nd New Zealand Division arrived, the battalion moved to Latakia. The 2/17th Battalion subsequently carried out an operation and then occupied a position around Tel el Eisa, from where it conducted patrols. In September, the 2/17th was relieved by the 2/15th Battalion, meanwhile, several exercises and other training was undertaken prior to the upcoming offensive
2.
Australian Army
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The Australian Army is Australias military land force. It is part of the Australian Defence Force along with the Royal Australian Navy, while the Chief of the Defence Force commands the ADF, the Army is commanded by the Chief of Army. The CA is therefore subordinate to the CDF, but is directly responsible to the Minister for Defence. Although Australian soldiers have been involved in a number of minor and major conflicts throughout its history, Australias largest peacekeeping deployment began in 1999 in East Timor, while other ongoing operations include peacekeeping on Bougainville, in the Sinai, and in the Solomon Islands. Humanitarian relief after 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake in Aceh Province, Indonesia, Operation Sumatra Assist, the 1st Division comprises a deployable headquarters, while 2nd Division under the command of Forces Command is the main home-defence formation, containing Army Reserve units. 2nd Divisions headquarters only performs administrative functions, the Australian Army has not deployed a divisional-sized formation since 1945 and does not expect to do so in the future. 1st Division carries out training activities and deploys to command large-scale ground operations. It does not have any combat units permanently assigned, Forces Command controls for administrative purposes all non-special-forces assets of the Australian Army. It is neither an operational nor a deployable command,1 Brigade – Multi-role Combat Brigade based in Darwin and Adelaide. 3 Brigade – Multi-role Combat Brigade based in Townsville,6 Brigade – Mixed brigade based in Sydney. 7 Brigade – Multi-role Combat Brigade based in Brisbane,16 Aviation Brigade – Army Aviation brigade based in Enoggera, Brisbane. 17 Combat Service Support Brigade – Logistic brigade based in Sydney, 2nd Division administers the reserve forces from its headquarters located in Sydney. 4 Brigade – based in Victoria,5 Brigade – based in New South Wales. 8 Brigade – based in New South Wales,9 Brigade – based in South Australia and Tasmania. 11 Brigade – based in Queensland,13 Brigade – based in Western Australia. Special Operations Command comprises a command formation of equal status to the commands in the ADF. It includes all of Armys special forces assets, the force will be known as the Amphibious Ready Element and will be embarked on the Navys new Canberra-class amphibious assault ships. Infantry, and some combat units of the Australian Army carry flags called the Queens Colour
3.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
4.
Unit Colour Patch
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Unit Colour Patches are currently worn on the slouch hat in the Australian Army to identify the wearers unit. Unit colour patches are approximately 40 millimetres x 40 millimetres in size and have a variety of colours. While some are recent creations many date back to World War I and it was an extension of an order allowing the posting of distinctive colour flags to denote HQ and unit lines, and these flags were used as the basic design for 1st Division colour patches. These were worn on the sleeve,1 inch below the shoulder seam, Divisional Order 81 decreed a rectangular patch 1.25 inches by 2. Each Infantry Brigade within each Division was assigned a colour and the Brigade HQ colour patches were the Divisional shape in the Brigade colour. Each Battalion in each Brigade was then assigned a colour, and the patch was split horizontally with the Battalion colour across the top of the field, light Horse, Artillery, Engineer and Medical units were also allocated colour patches. Light Horse patches were divided diagonally, in total over 300 individual patches were authorized during the war. Military Order 206/21 in 1921 authorised the use of Unit Colour Patches for the Citizen Military Forces, which was raised in May,1921. As this new organisation was based on the AIF, this order granted authority to the Citizen Military Forces to wear Regimental Colour Patches similar to those worn by corresponding units of the AIF. It also allowed for ex-members of the AIF serving in Citizen Military Forces to wear a miniature colour patch of the last AIF unit in which they served, with the raising of the Second AIF in World War II, the unit colour patch was continued. A grey background of the shape as the divisional patch was then included to denote a unit of the Second AIF. New shapes were used, for example with the T-shaped patches instituted by the units of the 9th Division in 1943 representing their key role in the Siege of Tobruk, over 800 separate patches were authorised during the war. At right is the patch of the 2/17th Battalion. As a unit within 9th Division of the 2nd AIF, 17th Battalion has a T-shaped colour patch representing the Siege of Tobruk, with the grey background of the 2nd AIF. The original series of patches was discontinued in 1949. The Series I range are known as the Heritage patches and are the pre-1949 patches maintained in a register with the Series I Extended, both are used in the Australian Army due to some units tracing their lineage to the First AIF units. The register also includes the patches for the Royal Australian Air Force, Colour Patches of the Australian Forces. The Australian Imperial Force in France,1916, official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918
5.
St Leonards, New South Wales
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St Leonards is a suburb on the lower North Shore of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. St Leonards was named after English statesman Thomas Townshend, 1st Viscount Sydney of St Leonards, originally, St Leonards applied to the whole area from the present suburb of North Sydney to Gore Hill. The township of St Leonards in 1883 is now North Sydney, the oldest railway station on the North Shore line opened in 1890 in St Leonards and originally only ran to Hornsby. The Gore Hill cemetery was established on the Pacific Highway in 1868 and was the burial site for the area until its closure in 1975. It is still maintained as a site by the Department of Local Government and Lands, Willoughby Municipal Council. St Leonards has a centre that complements the role of Chatswood, Lane Cove. The NSW Department of Education and Training host their Information Technology Directorate in Herbert Street, Gore Hill Technology Park is the site of current Fox Sports television studios. The suburbs tallest building is the Forum Tower, with 483 apartments including many with views of the city skyline. Forum West is the second of the two buildings within the Forum Plaza, standing 25 stories tall with 290 apartments. Forum Tower was completed in August 1999 and Forum West 3 years later, both buildings boast a concierge, pool, spa, gym and private & public car parking facilities each. The Plaza also contains offices for Cisco Systems, Verizon Business, Getty Images and Carnival Cruise Lines, St Leonards railway station is on the North Shore, Northern & Western Line of the Sydney Trains network. The Pacific Highway is the road through the suburb. A major landuse in the suburb is the Royal North Shore Hospital which is the largest hospital north of Port Jackson in Sydney, the Northern Suburbs Rugby Club has its clubhouse in St. Leonards, featuring the Cabana Bar and Lounge. Gore Hill Oval is the ground of Australian Rules football club. Willoughby City Council Naremburn/St Leonards - community profile
6.
Military history of Australia
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The relationship between war and Australian society has also been shaped by the enduring themes of Australian strategic culture and its unique security dilemma. In total, nearly 103,000 Australians died during the course of these conflicts, the Gallipoli campaign was one of the first international events that saw Australians taking part as Australians and has been seen as a key event in forging a sense of national identity. The relationship between war and Australian society has been shaped by two of the enduring themes of Australian strategic culture, bandwagoning with a powerful ally. Indeed, Australian defence policy was linked to Britain until the Japanese crisis of 1942. Likewise, multilateralism, collective security and defence self-reliance have also been important themes, to be sure, during threats to the core Australia has often found itself defending the periphery and perhaps as a result, it has frequently become involved in foreign wars. Throughout these conflicts Australian soldiers—known colloquially as Diggers—have often been noted, somewhat paradoxically, from 1788 until 1870 the defence of the Australian colonies was mostly provided by British Army regular forces. The New South Wales Corps subsequently was involved in putting down a rebellion of Irish convicts at Castle Hill in 1804, soon however shortcomings in the corps convinced the War Office of the need for a more reliable garrison in New South Wales and Van Diemens Land. Chief of these shortcomings was the Rum Rebellion, a coup mounted by its officers in 1808, as a result, in January 1810 the 73rd Regiment of Foot arrived in Australia. By 1870,25 British infantry regiments had served in Australia, as had a number of artillery. Although the primary role of the British Army was to protect the colonies against external attack, notably British soldiers were involved in the battle at the Eureka Stockade in 1854 on the Victorian goldfields. Members of British regiments stationed in Australia also saw action in India, Afghanistan, New Zealand, during the early years of settlement the naval defence of Australia was provided by detached Royal Navy units of the East Indies Station, based in Sydney. However, in 1859 Australia was established as a squadron under the command of a commodore. European diseases decimated Aboriginal populations, and the occupation or destruction of lands, at times, however, the frontier wars did see the involvement of British soldiers and later mounted police units. Not all Aboriginal groups resisted white encroachment on their lands, while many Aborigines served in mounted units and were involved in attacks on other tribes. Fighting between Aborigines and Europeans was localised as the Aborigines did not form confederations capable of sustained resistance, as a result, there was not a single war, but rather a series of violent engagements and massacres across the continent. Organised or disorganised however, a pattern of frontier warfare emerged with Aboriginal resistance beginning in the 18th century and this warfare contradicts the popular and at times academic myth of peaceful settlement in Australia. Faced with Aboriginal resistance settlers often reacted with violence, resulting in a number of indiscriminate massacres, among the most famous is the Battle of Pinjarra in Western Australia in 1834. Such incidents were not officially sanctioned however, and after the Myall Creek massacre in New South Wales in 1838 seven Europeans were hanged for their part in the killings
7.
Second Boer War
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The Second Boer War, usually known as the Boer War and also at the time as the South African War, started on 11 October 1899 and ended on 31 May 1902. Great Britain defeated two Boer states in South Africa, the South African Republic and the Orange Free State, Britain was aided by its Cape Colony, Colony of Natal and some native African allies. The British war effort was supported by volunteers from the British Empire, including Southern Africa, the Australian colonies, Canada, India. All other nations were neutral, but public opinion in them was largely hostile to Britain, inside Britain and its Empire there also was significant opposition to the Second Boer War. The British were overconfident and under-prepared, the Boers were very well armed and struck first, besieging Ladysmith, Kimberley, and Mafeking in early 1900, and winning important battles at Colenso, Magersfontein and Stormberg. Staggered, the British brought in numbers of soldiers and fought back. General Redvers Buller was replaced by Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener and they relieved the three besieged cities, and invaded the two Boer republics in late 1900. The onward marches of the British Army were so overwhelming that the Boers did not fight staged battles in defense of their homeland, the British quickly seized control of all of the Orange Free State and Transvaal, as the civilian leadership went into hiding or exile. In conventional terms, the war was over, Britain officially annexed the two countries in 1900, and called a khaki election to give the government another six years of power in London. However, the Boers refused to surrender and they reverted to guerrilla warfare under new generals Louis Botha, Jan Smuts, Christiaan de Wet and Koos de la Rey. Two more years of attacks and quick escapes followed. As guerrillas without uniforms, the Boer fighters easily blended into the farmlands, which provided hiding places, supplies, the British solution was to set up complex nets of block houses, strong points, and barbed wire fences, partitioning off the entire conquered territory. The civilian farmers were relocated into concentration camps, where very large proportions died of disease, especially the children, then the British mounted infantry units systematically tracked down the highly mobile Boer guerrilla units. The battles at this stage were small operations with few combat casualties The war ended in surrender, the British successfully won over the Boer leaders, who now gave full support to the new political system. Both former republics were incorporated into the Union of South Africa in 1910, the conflict is commonly referred to as simply the Boer War, since the First Boer War is much less well known. Boer was the term for Afrikaans-speaking white South Africans descended from the Dutch East India Companys original settlers at the Cape of Good Hope. It is officially called the South African War and it is known as the Anglo-Boer War among some South Africans. In Afrikaans it may be called the Anglo-Boereoorlog, Tweede Boereoorlog, in South Africa it is officially called the South African War
8.
First Australian Imperial Force
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The First Australian Imperial Force was the main expeditionary force of the Australian Army during World War I. It was formed on 15 August 1914, following Britains declaration of war on Germany, initially with a strength of one infantry division and one light horse brigade. The infantry division fought at Gallipoli between April and December 1915, being reinforced by a second division which was later raised. After being evacuated to Egypt the AIF was expanded to five infantry divisions, a sixth infantry division was partially raised in 1917 in the United Kingdom, but was broken up and used as reinforcements following heavy casualties on the Western Front. Meanwhile, two mounted divisions remained in the Middle East to fight against Turkish forces in the Sinai and Palestine. An all volunteer force, by the end of the war the AIF had gained a reputation as being a well-trained and highly effective military force, however, this reputation came at a heavy cost with a casualty rate among the highest of any belligerent for the war. After the war, the AFC evolved into the Royal Australian Air Force, after the war the achievements of the AIF and its soldiers, known colloquially as Diggers, became central to the national mythology of the Anzac legend. Generally known at the time as the AIF, it is referred to as the 1st AIF to it distinguish from the Second Australian Imperial Force raised during World War II. At the start of the war, Australias military forces were focused upon the part-time Militia, the small number of regular personnel were mostly artillerymen or engineers, and were generally assigned to the task of coastal defence. The Australian government pledged to supply 20,000 men organised as one division and one light horse brigade plus supporting units. Officially coming into being on 15 August 1914, the word imperial was chosen to reflect the duty of Australians to both nation and empire, the AIF was initially intended for service in Europe. Meanwhile, a separate 2, 000-man force—known as the Australian Naval, in addition, small military forces were maintained in Australia to defend the country from attack. Upon formation, the AIF consisted of one infantry division, the 1st Division. The 1st Light Horse Brigade was commanded by Colonel Harry Chauvel, the initial response for recruits was so good that in September 1914 the decision was made to raise the 4th Infantry Brigade and 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades. The 4th Infantry Brigade was commanded by Colonel John Monash, a prominent Melbourne civil engineer, the AIF continued to grow through the war, eventually numbering five infantry divisions, two mounted divisions and a mixture of other units. As the AIF operated within the British war effort, its units were organised along the same lines as comparable British Army formations. However, there were small differences between the structures of British and Australian units, especially in regards to the AIF infantry divisions support units. Hastily deployed, the first contingent of AIF was essentially untrained and suffered from widespread equipment shortages, in early 1915 the AIF was largely an inexperienced force, with only a small percentage of its members having previous combat experience
9.
2nd Division (Australia)
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The 2nd Division commands all the reserve brigades in Australia. These are the 4th in Victoria, the 5th and 8th in New South Wales, the 9th in South Australia and Tasmania, the 11th in Queensland, the division is also responsible for the security of Australias northern borders through its Regional Force Surveillance Units. The division was first formed in 1915 during World War I as part of the First Australian Imperial Force, apart from a period from 1960 to 1965, the division has existed in one form or another. The Australian 2nd Division was formed from training in Egypt on 10 July 1915 as part of the Australian Imperial Force to fight in World War I. It fought at Gallipoli during the stages of the campaign. After the war ended and the AIF was demobilised, the 2nd Division name was revived and assigned to a Citizens Military Forces unit. The Australian 2nd Division was formed in July 1915 from a collection of brigades that had been raised independently in Australia, the 2nd Division held a quiet stretch of the original line, and only a part of the Division saw serious fighting during around Hill 60 on 22 August. The 2nd Division was evacuated from the peninsula in December, returning to Egypt, the 2nd Division started to arrive in France in March 1916, and was initially sent to a quiet sector south of Armentières to acclimatise to the Western Front conditions. Due to the casualties sustained by the Australian 1st Divisions attack at Pozières on 23 July, continuing the attack started by the 1st Division, the 2nd Division attacked on 29 July. However, due to the preparation, the division sustained approximately 3,500 casualties for little gain. The 2nd Division attacked again on 4 August, capturing the OG2 trench line, alarmed by the loss of the defences, the Germans initiated a severe, sustained artillery bombardment. The position of the Australian salient, meant that the soldiers were receive artillery fire from the rear – from German batteries near Thiepval. After 12 days on the front line and sustaining 6,846 casualties, after a brief rest – during which the division was built up to two-thirds strength – the 2nd Division again relieved the Australian 1st Division from its position beyond Pozières on 22 August. These counterattacks succeeded in forcing the 2nd Division back from Mouquet Farm, after sustaining another 1,268 casualties, the 2nd Division was relieved by the Australian 4th Division on 26 August. On 5 September, I Anzac was withdrawn from the Somme, the division anticipated spending winter quarters in Flanders but was recalled to the Somme for the final stages of the British offensive. This time they joined the British Fourth Army, holding a sector south of Pozières near the village of Flers, while part of the German trenches were captured and held, the exhausted soldiers were ejected from their gains a few days later. The 7th Brigade attacked again on 14 November, but were partially successful in capturing parts of the Gird and Gird Support trenches immediately to the north of The Maze. However, a German counterattack on 16 November succeeded in recapturing all of the trenches captured by the 2nd Division, in January, Legge fell ill and was replaced by Brigadier-General Nevill Maskelyne Smyth VC
10.
Gallipoli Campaign
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The peninsula forms the northern bank of the Dardanelles, a strait that provided a sea route to the Russian Empire, one of the Allied powers during the war. Intending to secure it, Russias allies Britain and France launched an attack followed by an amphibious landing on the peninsula. The naval attack was repelled and after eight months fighting, with casualties on both sides, the land campaign was abandoned and the invasion force was withdrawn to Egypt. The campaign was one of the greatest Ottoman victories during the war, in Turkey, it is regarded as a defining moment in the nations history, a final surge in the defence of the motherland as the Ottoman Empire crumbled. In 1908, a group of officers, known as the Young Turks. The new régime implemented a program of reform to modernise the political and economic system. An enthusiastic supporter, Germany provided significant investment, German diplomats subsequently found increasing influence, despite Britain previously being the predominant power in the region, while German officers assisted in training and re-equipping the army. Despite this support, the resources of the Ottoman Empire were depleted by the cost of the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. In December 1913, the Germans sent a mission to Constantinople. The geographical position of the Ottoman Empire meant that Russia and her allies France, during the Sarajevo Crisis in 1914, German diplomats offered Turkey an anti-Russian alliance and territorial gains in Caucasia, north-west Iran and Trans-Caspia. The pro-British faction in the Cabinet was isolated due to the British ambassador taking leave until 18 August, as the crisis deepened in Europe, Ottoman policy was to obtain a guarantee of territorial integrity and potential advantages, unaware that the British might enter a European war. This action strained diplomatic relations between the two empires and the German government offered SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau to the Ottoman navy as replacements, by allowing the German ships to enter the Dardanelles, the Ottomans confirmed their links to Germany. In September, the British naval mission to the Ottomans, which had established in 1912 under Admiral Arthur Limpus, was recalled due to increasing concern that Turkey would soon enter the war. Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon of the Imperial German Navy took over command of the Ottoman navy, the German naval presence and the success of German armies on all fronts, gave the pro-German faction in the Ottoman government enough influence to declare war on Russia. On 27 October, Goeben and Breslau, having been renamed Yavûz Sultân Selîm and Midilli, sortied into the Black Sea, bombarded the Russian port of Odessa and sank several Russian ships. The Ottomans refused an Allied demand that they expel the German missions and on 31 October 1914, Russia declared war on Turkey on 2 November. The next day, the British ambassador left Constantinople and a British naval squadron off the Dardanelles bombarded the outer defensive forts at Kum Kale, a shell hit a magazine, knocked the guns off their mounts and killed 86 soldiers. Fighting also began in Mesopotamia, following a British landing to occupy the oil facilities in the Persian Gulf, the Ottomans prepared to attack Egypt in early 1915, aiming to occupy the Suez Canal and cut the Mediterranean route to India and the Far East
11.
Western Front (World War I)
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The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. This line remained unchanged for most of the war. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front, the attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire, as a result, no significant advances were made. In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of new technology, including poison gas, aircraft. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored, the German Armys Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front. In spite of the stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, belgiums neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London, this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914, Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August, Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August, for their part, the French had five armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities, on 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine, in keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back
12.
Federation of Australia
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Fiji and New Zealand were originally part of this process, but they decided not to join the federation. When the Constitution of Australia came into force, on 1 January 1901, the efforts to bring about federation in the mid-19th century were dogged by the lack of popular support for the movement. A number of conventions were held during the 1890s to develop a constitution for the Commonwealth, Sir Henry Parkes, Premier of New South Wales, was instrumental in this process. The election returned Barton as prime minister, though without a majority and this period has lent its name to an architectural style prevalent in Australia at that time, known as Federation architecture, or Federation style. A serious movement for Federation of the colonies arose in the late 1880s, a time there was increasing nationalism amongst Australians. The idea of being Australian began to be celebrated in songs and this was fostered by improvements in transport and communications, such as the establishment of a telegraph system between the colonies in 1872. The Australian colonies were influenced by other federations which had emerged around the world, notably in Argentina, Canada, Switzerland. Sir Henry Parkes, then Colonial Secretary of New South Wales, the Federation had the potential to ensure that throughout the continent, trade, and interstate commerce would be unaffected by protectionism and measurement and transport would be standardised. The final push for the Federal Council came at a conference in 1883, called to debate the strategies needed to counter the activities of the German and French in New Guinea, Sir Samuel Griffith, the Premier of Queensland, drafted a bill to constitute the Federal Council. The conference successfully petitioned the Imperial Parliament to enact the bill as the Federal Council of Australasia Act 1885, as a result, a Federal Council of Australasia was formed, to represent the affairs of the colonies in their relations with the South Pacific islands. New South Wales and New Zealand did not join, the self-governing colonies of Queensland, Tasmania and Victoria, as well as the Crown Colonies of Western Australia and Fiji, became involved. South Australia was briefly a member between 1888 and 1890, furthermore, the absence of the powerful colony of New South Wales weakened its representative value. Nevertheless, it was the first major form of inter-colonial co-operation and it provided an opportunity for Federalists from around the country to meet and exchange ideas. The means by which the Council was established endorsed the continuing role that the Imperial Parliament would have in the development of Australias constitutional structure, the individual colonies, Victoria excepted, were somewhat wary of Federation. Queensland, for its part, worried that the advent of national legislation would restrict the importing of kanaka labourers and these were not the only concerns of those resistant to federation. Smaller colonies also worried about the abolition of tariffs, which would deprive them of a proportion of their revenue. New South Wales, traditionally free-trade in its outlook, wanted to be satisfied that the federations tariff policy would not be protectionist, Victorian Premier James Service described fiscal union as the lion in the way of federation. A further fundamental issue was how to distribute the excess customs duties from the government to the states
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