1.
Empire of Japan
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The Empire of Japan was the historical Japanese nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 to the enactment of the 1947 constitution of modern Japan. Imperial Japans rapid industrialization and militarization under the slogan Fukoku Kyōhei led to its emergence as a world power, after several large-scale military successes during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War, the Empire also gained notoriety for its war crimes against the peoples it conquered. A period of occupation by the Allies followed the surrender, Occupation and reconstruction continued well into the 1950s, eventually forming the current nation-state whose full title is the State of Japan or simply rendered Japan in English. The historical state is referred to as the Empire of Japan or the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan in English. In Japanese it is referred to as Dai Nippon Teikoku, which translates to Greater Japanese Empire and this is analogous to Großdeutsches Reich, a term that translates to Greater German Empire in English and Dai Doitsu Teikoku in Japanese. This meaning is significant in terms of geography, encompassing Japan, due to its name in kanji characters and its flag, it was also given the exonym Empire of the Sun. After two centuries, the policy, or Sakoku, under the shoguns of the Edo period came to an end when the country was forced open to trade by the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854. The following years saw increased trade and interaction, commercial treaties between the Tokugawa shogunate and Western countries were signed. In large part due to the terms of these Unequal Treaties, the Shogunate soon faced internal hostility, which materialized into a radical, xenophobic movement. In March 1863, the Emperor issued the order to expel barbarians, although the Shogunate had no intention of enforcing the order, it nevertheless inspired attacks against the Shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan. The Namamugi Incident during 1862 led to the murder of an Englishman, Charles Lennox Richardson, the British demanded reparations but were denied. While attempting to exact payment, the Royal Navy was fired on from coastal batteries near the town of Kagoshima and they responded by bombarding the port of Kagoshima in 1863. For Richardsons death, the Tokugawa government agreed to pay an indemnity, shelling of foreign shipping in Shimonoseki and attacks against foreign property led to the Bombardment of Shimonoseki by a multinational force in 1864. The Chōshū clan also launched the coup known as the Kinmon incident. The Satsuma-Chōshū alliance was established in 1866 to combine their efforts to overthrow the Tokugawa bakufu, in early 1867, Emperor Kōmei died of smallpox and was replaced by his son, Crown Prince Mutsuhito. On November 9,1867, Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned from his post and authorities to the Emperor, however, while Yoshinobus resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. On January 3,1868, Satsuma-Chōshū forces seized the palace in Kyoto. On January 17,1868, Yoshinobu declared that he would not be bound by the proclamation of the Restoration, on January 24, Yoshinobu decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces
2.
Imperial Japanese Army
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The Imperial Japanese Army or IJA, literally Army of the Greater Japanese Empire, was the official ground-based armed force of the Empire of Japan, from 1871 to 1945. Later an Inspectorate General of Military Aviation became the agency with oversight of the army. During the Meiji Restoration, the forces loyal to Emperor Meiji were samurai drawn primarily from the loyalist daimyōs of Satsuma. This central army, the Imperial Japanese Army, became even more essential after the abolition of the han system in 1871. One of the differences between the samurai and the peasant class was the right to bear arms, this ancient privilege was suddenly extended to every male in the nation. In 1878, the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office, based on the German General Staff, was established directly under the Emperor and was given broad powers for military planning and strategy. The Japanese invasion of Taiwan under Qing rule in 1874 was an expedition by Japanese military forces in response to the Mudan Incident of December 1871. The Paiwan people, who are indigenous peoples of Taiwan, murdered 54 crewmembers of a merchant vessel from the Ryukyu Kingdom on the southwestern tip of Taiwan. 12 men were rescued by the local Chinese-speaking community and were transferred to Miyako-jima in the Ryukyu Islands and it marked the first overseas deployment of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy. Not surprisingly, the new led to a series of riots from disgruntled samurai. One of the riots, led by Saigō Takamori, was the Satsuma Rebellion. Thenceforth, the military existed in an intimate and privileged relationship with the imperial institution, top-ranking military leaders were given direct access to the Emperor and the authority to transmit his pronouncements directly to the troops. The sympathetic relationship between conscripts and officers, particularly junior officers who were mostly from the peasantry, tended to draw the military closer to the people. In time, most people came to look more for guidance in matters more to military than to political leaders. By the 1890s, the Imperial Japanese Army had grown to become the most modern army in Asia, well-trained, well-equipped, however, it was basically an infantry force deficient in cavalry and artillery when compared with its European contemporaries. The Sino-Japanese War would come to symbolize the weakness of the military of the Qing dynasty and this was the result by Japans 120, 000-strong western-style conscript army of two armies and five divisions, which was well-equipped and well-trained when compared with their Qing counterparts. The Treaty of Shimonoseki made the Qing defeat official, with a shift in regional dominance in Asia from China to Japan. In 1899–1900, Boxer attacks against foreigners in China intensified eventually resulting in the siege of the legations in Beijing
3.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
4.
Okayama
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Okayama is the capital city of Okayama Prefecture in the Chūgoku region of Japan. The city was founded on June 1,1889, as of August 2010, the city has an estimated population of 705,224 and a population density of 893 persons per km². The total area is 789.88 square kilometres, the city is the site of Kōraku-en, known as one of the top three traditional gardens in Japan, and the black Okayama Castle, which is ranked among the best 100 Japanese castles. The city is famous as the setting of the Japanese fable Momotarō, before the Muromachi period, Okayama was one corner of a farm region and included a small castle built by the Kanemitsu. In the Sengoku period, Ukita Naoie attacked Okayama and attacked the castle for the transportation resources, Naoie remodeled the castle, built the old Sanyo road to the central part of the castle town, and called in craftsmen both from inside and outside of Bizen Province. Okayama became the political and economical capital of Bizen Province, in 1600, Ukita Hideie, who was the son of Naoie and the lord of Okayama, lost at the Battle of Sekigahara. The next year, Kobayakawa Hideaki came to Okayama and became the lord of Okayama Domain. Hideaki died in 1602, however, ending the Kobayakawa line, Ikeda Tadatugu, who was the feudal lord of Himeji Domain, became the next lord of Okayama. After this time, Okayama was ruled by the Ikedas until the part of the 19th century. Continuing its economic development, Okayama became one of the ten best large castle towns in Japan in the 18th century, the Korakuen Garden was developed by the fourth feudal lord, Ikeda Tsunamasa. On August 29,1871, the new Meiji government of the Empire of Japan replaced the feudal domain system with centralized government authority. Okayama became the capital of Okayama Prefecture, in 1889, Okayama City was founded. In the Meiji period, a railroad was built in Okayama city that greatly enhanced the development of the city, for example, the Sixth Higher Middle School and Okayama Medical College were established in Okayama City. Okayama became one of the most important places in western Japan for transportation and education, when World War II began, Okayama city had a Japanese Army base camp. On June 29,1945, the city was attacked by the US Army Air Forces with incendiary bombs, almost all the city was burned, and more than 1700 people were killed. Okayama suffered terrible damage in the war, losing more than 12,000 households, during Japans economic boom of the 1960s, Okayama developed rapidly as one of the most important cities in the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions. In 1972, the Sanyō Shinkansen began service between Shin-Ōsaka and Okayama stations, two years later, Shinkansen service was extended to Hakata. In 1988, the Seto-Ōhashi Bridge was opened, and connected Okayama with Shikoku directly by rail, the city became a core city in 1996 and a designated city on April 1,2009
5.
Second Sino-Japanese War
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The Second Sino-Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan from July 7,1937 to September 9,1945. The First Sino-Japanese War was fought from 1894 to 1895, China fought Japan, with some economic help from Germany, the Soviet Union and the United States. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the war merged into the conflict of World War II as a major front of what is broadly known as the Pacific War. Many scholars consider the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 to have been the beginning of World War II, the Second Sino-Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. The war was the result of a decades-long Japanese imperialist policy to expand its influence politically and militarily in order to access to raw material reserves, food. The period after World War One brought about increasing stress on the Japanese polity, leftists sought universal suffrage and greater rights for workers. Increasing textile production from Chinese mills was adversely affecting Japanese production, the Depression brought about a large slowdown in exports. All of this contributed to militant nationalism, culminating in the rise to power of a militarist fascist faction and this faction was led at its height by the Imperial Rule Assistance Associations Hideki Tojo cabinet under the edict from Emperor Shōwa. Before 1937, China and Japan fought in small, localized engagements, the last of these incidents was the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937, which is traditionally seen as the beginning of total war between the two countries. Since 2017 the Chinese Government has regarded the invasion of Manchuria by the Kwantung Army in 1931, initially the Japanese scored major victories, such as the Battle of Shanghai, and by the end of 1937 captured the Chinese capital of Nanjing. After failing to stop the Japanese in Wuhan, the Chinese central government was relocated to Chongqing in the Chinese interior, by 1939, after Chinese victories in Changsha and Guangxi, and with Japans lines of communications stretched deep into the Chinese interior, the war reached a stalemate. The Japanese were also unable to defeat the Chinese communist forces in Shaanxi, on December 7,1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, and the following day the United States declared war on Japan. The United States began to aid China via airlift matériel over the Himalayas after the Allied defeat in Burma that closed the Burma Road, in 1944 Japan launched the invasion, Operation Ichi-Go, that conquered Henan and Changsha. However, this failed to bring about the surrender of Chinese forces, in 1945, the Chinese Expeditionary Force resumed its advance in Burma and completed the Ledo Road linking India to China. At the same time, China launched large counteroffensives in South China and retook the west Hunan, the remaining Japanese occupation forces formally surrendered on September 9,1945 with the following International Military Tribunal for the Far East convened on April 29,1946. China was recognized as one of the Big Four of Allies during the war, in the Chinese language, the war is most commonly known as the War of Resistance Against Japan, and also known as the Eight Years War of Resistance, simply War of Resistance. It is also referred to as part of the Global Anti-Fascist War, which is how World War 2 is perceived by the Communist Party of China, in Japan, nowadays, the name Japan–China War is most commonly used because of its perceived objectivity. In Japan today, it is written as 日中戦争 in shinjitai, the word incident was used by Japan, as neither country had made a formal declaration of war
6.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
7.
Hamada, Shimane
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Hamada is a city located in Shimane Prefecture, Japan. It is the third largest city in the prefecture and is located at the end of the prefecture. It is a city on the Sea of Japan and possesses beautiful white sand beaches. Although Hamada is a small city, it is conveniently located on the expressway across Chugoku to Hiroshima City with a journey time of about 1 hour 40 minutes. The city was founded on November 3,1940, on October 1,2005, the towns of Asahi, Kanagi and Misumi, and the village of Yasaka were merged into Hamada. Therefore, Naka District was dissolved as a result of this merger, as of March 2017, Hamada City has an estimated population of 57,142, with roughly 43,000 people living in the coastal urban city area. The prefectural university is located in Hamada, as is the Institute for Northeast Asian Research, Hamada is one of the few cities in the region to possess a heavy tonnage shipping port. The Hamada Commercial Port can accept vessles up to a maximum of 50,000 tonnes deadweight.1 Hamada has 26 elementary schools,9 junior high schools and 3 senior high schools throughout the city area. Currently there are 9 ALTs involved in English education in Hamada,1 at solely elementary level,6 at JHS, Hamada has a humid subtropical climate. It experiences a range in temperature between summer and winter but due to its location it is saved from the extreme winter cold in the north. In summer the temperature gets as high as 38 °C with high humidity, the coastal main city of Hamada occasionally gets snowfall in the winter. The mountainous areas of Hamada inland to the east receive high levels of snowfall and are home to some of the best ski resorts in the area, late spring/early summer is the rainy season with frequent light showers throughout the day. Spring and Autumn in Hamada provide warm, sunny weather with a comfortable temperature. Due to its location on the seaboard of Japan, Hamada is relatively free from weather extremes such as typhoons or flooding. Hamada is also not located near a line and the occurrence of strong earthquakes in Shimane is rare. Aquas is on the outskirts of the city and it is the largest aquarium in western Honshū. The Hamada Museum of Childrens Art is located one mile from the city center. Its exhibits include artwork by children from around the world and artwork of interest to children and their programs include technical art classes and art history workshops for children of all ages
8.
Tottori, Tottori
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Tottori is the capital city of Tottori Prefecture in the Chūgoku region of Japan. As of June 1,2016, the city has an population of 192,912. The total area is 765.31 km2, within Japan the city is best known for its sand dunes which are a popular tourist attraction, drawing visitors from outside of the prefecture. The sand dunes are important as a centre for research into arid agriculture. Most of Tottori is located in the part of the Sanin Kaigan Geopark. The citys main street runs north from the station and terminates at the foot of the Kyushouzan mountain, around this mountain lies the oldest part of the city. Its centre is the now ruined Tottori Castle, once the property of the Ikeda clan daimyō who ruled the Tottori Domain during the Edo period and it is open to the public, and is the site of the Castle Festival in autumn each year. In the vicinity are temples, museums, and public parks, an exceptionally big example of a Shan-shan umbrella graces the main foyer of Tottori Station. At the beginning of summer, Tottori is host to one of the biggest beach parties in the country. The event lasts a weekend and some top names on the national DJ circuit are invited to perform. Tottori was incorporated as a city on October 1,1889, most of the downtown area was destroyed by the Tottori earthquake of September 10,1943, which killed over 1000 people. The organization AFS for exchange students is relatively developed in Tottori, exchange students who come to Tottori can experience countryside life and enjoy traditional Japanese customs through the many events organized by the Tottori AFS. Redistricting of the borders in November 2004 increased its size to include a number of surrounding areas. On November 1,2004, the town of Kokufu, the village of Fukube, the towns of Aoya, Ketaka and Shikano, the towns of Kawahara and Mochigase, Ketaka District was dissolved as a result of this merger. The main campus of Tottori University, a public university, is located next to Koyama Lake on the west end of the city. The privately funded Tottori University of Environmental Studies is located in the part of Tottori city. These two universities are not to be confused with the 2-year junior college in the prefecture, Tottori College, in the citys downtown shopping district, Tottori Station offers regularly scheduled local and express train service on the JR West rail line. Travel time from Osaka is approximately 2 hours 30 minutes, Tottori Citys local and inter-city Bus Terminal is also conveniently located next to Tottori Station
9.
Division (military)
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A division is a large military unit or formation, usually consisting of between 10,000 and 20,000 soldiers. Infantry divisions during the World Wars ranged between 10,000 and 30,000 in nominal strength, in most armies, a division is composed of several regiments or brigades, in turn, several divisions typically make up a corps. In the West, the first general to think of organising an army into smaller units was Maurice de Saxe, Marshal General of France. He died at the age of 54, without having implemented his idea, victor-François de Broglie put the ideas into practice. He conducted successful practical experiments of the system in the Seven Years War. The first war in which the system was used systematically was the French Revolutionary War. It made the more flexible and easy to manoeuvre. Under Napoleon, the divisions were grouped together into corps, because of their increasing size, napoleons military success spread the divisional and corps system all over Europe, by the end of the Napoleonic Wars, all armies in Europe had adopted it. In modern times, most military forces have standardized their divisional structures, the peak use of the division as the primary combat unit occurred during World War II, when the belligerents deployed over a thousand divisions. With technological advances since then, the power of each division has increased. Divisions are often formed to organize units of a particular type together with support units to allow independent operations. In more recent times, divisions have mainly been organized as combined arms units with subordinate units representing various combat arms, in this case, the division often retains the name of a more specialized division, and may still be tasked with a primary role suited to that specialization. For the most part, large cavalry units did not remain after World War II, in general, two new types of cavalry were developed, air cavalry or airmobile, relying on helicopter mobility, and armored cavalry, based on an autonomous armored formation. The former was pioneered by the 11th Air Assault Division, formed on 1 February 1963 at Fort Benning, on 29 June 1965 the division was renamed as the 1st Cavalry Division, before its departure for the Vietnam War. After the end of the Vietnam War, the 1st Cavalry Division was reorganised and re-equipped with tanks, the development of the tank during World War I prompted some nations to experiment with forming them into division-size units. Many did this the way as they did cavalry divisions, by merely replacing cavalry with AFVs. This proved unwieldy in combat, as the units had many tanks, instead, a more balanced approach was taken by adjusting the number of tank, infantry, artillery, and support units. A panzer division was a division of the Wehrmacht and the Waffen-SS of Germany during World War II
10.
Russo-Japanese War
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The Russo-Japanese War was fought between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan over rival imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea. The major theatres of operations were the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden in Southern Manchuria and the seas around Korea, Japan, Russia sought a warm-water port on the Pacific Ocean for their navy and for maritime trade. Vladivostok was operational only during the summer, whereas Port Arthur, since the end of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895, Japan feared Russian encroachment on its sphere of influence. Russia had demonstrated an expansionist policy in the Siberian Far East from the reign of Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century, through threat of Russian expansion, Japan offered to recognize Russian dominance in Manchuria in exchange for recognition of Korea as being within the Japanese sphere of influence. Russia refused and demanded Korea north of the 39th parallel to be a buffer zone between Russia and Japan. The Japanese government perceived a Russian threat to its strategic interests, after negotiations broke down in 1904, the Japanese Navy opened hostilities by attacking the Russian Eastern Fleet at Port Arthur, China, in a surprise attack. The war concluded with the Treaty of Portsmouth, mediated by US President Theodore Roosevelt, the complete victory of the Japanese military surprised world observers. The consequences transformed the balance of power in East Asia, resulting in a reassessment of Japans recent entry onto the world stage and it was the first major military victory in the modern era of an Asian power over a European one. Scholars continue to debate the historical significance of the war, after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the Meiji government endeavored to assimilate Western ideas, technological advances and ways of warfare. By the late 19th century, Japan had transformed itself into an industrial state. The Japanese wanted to be recognized as equal with the Western powers, the Meiji restoration had always been intended to make Japan a modernized state, not a Westernized one, and Japan was always an imperialist power, looking towards overseas expansionism. By the 1890s it had extended its realm across Central Asia to Afghanistan, the Russian Empire stretched from Poland in the west to the Kamchatka Peninsula in the east. With its construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway to the port of Vladivostok, in the Tsushima incident of 1861 Russia had directly assaulted Japanese territory. Between the Meiji Restoration and its participation in World War I, the first war Japan fought was the First Sino-Japanese War, fought in 1894 and 1895. The war revolved around the issue of control and influence over Korea under the rule of the Joseon dynasty, from the 1880s onward, there had been vigorous competition for influence in Korea between China and Japan. The Korean court was prone to factionalism, and was divided by a reformist faction that was pro-Japanese. In 1884, a coup attempt was put down by Chinese troops. A peasant rebellion led by the Tonghak religious movement led to a request by the Korean government for the Qing dynasty to send in troops to stabilize the country
11.
Okayama Prefecture
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Okayama Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūgoku region on the main island of Honshu. The capital is the city of Okayama, prior to the Meiji Restoration of 1868, the area of present-day Okayama Prefecture was divided between Bitchū, Bizen and Mimasaka Provinces. Okayama Prefecture was formed and named in 1871 as part of the administrative reforms of the early Meiji period. Okayama Prefecture borders Hyōgo Prefecture, Tottori Prefecture, and Hiroshima Prefecture and it faces Kagawa Prefecture in Shikoku across the Seto Inland Sea and includes 90 islands in the sea. Okayama Prefecture is home to the town of Kurashiki. Most of the population is concentrated around Kurashiki and Okayama, the small villages in the northern mountain region are aging and declining in population - more than half of the prefectures municipalities are officially designated as depopulated. The emperors government sent Kibitsuhiko-no-mikoto to defeat Ura, the city of Okayama holds an annual Momotarō-matsuri, or Momotarō Festival. The sports teams listed below are based in Okayama, mitsubishi Motors Mizushima F. C. Morihiro Hashimoto, darts player Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. Official website Official tourism site Official accounts channel on YouTube I Love Okayama - Okayama Brand
12.
Hiroshima Prefecture
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Hiroshima Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūgoku region on Honshu island. The capital is the city of Hiroshima and it has a population of around 2.8 million. The area around Hiroshima was formerly divided into Bingo Province and Aki Province and this location has been a center of trade and culture since the beginning of Japans recorded history. Hiroshima is a center of the Chūgoku region and was the seat of the Mōri clan until the Battle of Sekigahara. Hiroshima prefecture lies in the middle of Chūgoku, most of the prefecture consists of mountains leading towards Shimane Prefecture, and rivers produce rich plains near the coast. The province faces Shikoku across the Seto Inland Sea, Hiroshima Bay opens on the Inland Sea. The prefecture also includes small islands. The sheltered nature of the Inland Sea makes Hiroshimas climate very mild, fourteen cities are located in Hiroshima Prefecture, These are the towns in each district, Hiroshimas main industries include automobiles and shipbuilding. ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5, OCLC58053128 Official Hiroshima Prefecture homepage Life in Hiroshima, Hiroshima map National Archives of Japan, Itsukushima kakei, illustrated scroll describing Itsukushima, text by Kaibara Ekiken
13.
Shimane Prefecture
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Shimane Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūgoku region on the main Honshu island. It is the second least populous prefecture in Japan, after its eastern neighbor Tottori, the prefecture has an area elongated from east to west facing the Chūgoku Mountain Range on the south side and to the Sea of Japan on the north side. It is divided into the Izumo Region in the East, the Iwami Region in the West and the Oki Region, most of the cities are near the shoreline of the Sea of Japan. Izumo Taisha in Izumo City is one of the oldest Shinto shrines in Japan, the Oki Islands in the Sea of Japan are also part of Shimane Prefecture, which also claims to have jurisdiction over the South Korea-controlled island of Liancourt Rocks. The history of Shimane starts with Japanese mythology, the Shinto god Ōkuninushi was believed to live in Izumo, an old province in Shimane. Izumo Shrine, which is in the city of Izumo, honors the god. At that time and that lasted until the abolition of the han system took place in 1871. During the Nara period, Kakinomoto no Hitomaro read a poem on Shimanes nature when he was sent as the Royal governor, later on in the Kamakura period, Kamakura Shogunate forced emperors Gotoba and Godaigo into exile in Oki. Emperor Godaigo later escaped away from Oki and began rallying supporters against the shogunate, during the Muromachi period, Izumo and Oki were controlled by the Kyogoku clan. However, after the Ōnin War, the Amago clan expanded power based in Gassantoda Castle, the Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine was located between Amago territory and Masuda territory, so there were many battles between these clans for the silver. However, in 1566 Mori Motonari conquered Izumo, Iwami, after over 30 years of Mori control, in 1600 Horio Yoshiharu entered Izumo and Oki as the result of Battle of Sekigahara, which Mori lost. Following the change, Horio Yoshiharu decided to move to build Matsue Castle instead of Gassan-Toda, later in 1638, the grandson of Tokugawa Ieyasu, Matsudaira Naomasa became the ruler because the Horio clan had no heir, and his family ruled until the abolition of the han system. The Iwami area was split into three regions, the district, under the direct control of the Shogunate, the Hamada clan region. The Iwami Ginzan, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site produced silver and was one of the nations largest silver mine by the early 17th century, the Hamada clan was on the shogunates side in the Meiji Restoration, and the castle was burned down. The Tsuwano clan, despite then being ruled by the Matsudaira, was on the side in the restoration. In 1871, the abolition of the han system placed the old Shimane, later that year, Oki became part of Tottori. In 1876, Hamada Prefecture was merged into the Shimane Prefecture, also, Tottori Prefecture was added in the same year. However, five years later, in 1881, the current portion of Tottori Prefecture was separated, Shimane Prefecture is situated on the Sea of Japan side of the Chugoku region. Because of its mountainous landscape, rice farming is mostly in the Izumo plain where the city of Izumo is located
14.
Ichinohe Hyoe
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Ichinohe Hyōe was a general of the Imperial Japanese Army. A meticulous planner, the casualty rate of his command was far fewer than that of his officers while achieving the same objectives. Ichinohe was born as the eldest son of a retainer in Tsugaru Domain. Ichinohe enlisted in the fledgling Imperial Japanese Army and was commissioned in 1876 as a lieutenant in the 2nd Infantry Regiment. Serving with distinction during the Satsuma Rebellion between February–September 1877, Ichinohe was wounded in battle and later awarded the rank of lieutenant in May of that year. In February 1878, he was transferred to the 1st Infantry Regiment, in 1897, Ichinohe was promoted to colonel and was given command of the 4th Guards Regiment. The following year, he was promoted to Chief of Staff of the IJA 6th Division, Ichinohe was promoted to major general in May 1901, and appointed commander of the IJA 6th Division. During the Russo-Japanese War, he served on the staff of the IJA 3rd Army, after the war, Ichinohe became commander of the prestigious IJA 1st Division and was promoted to lieutenant general in November 1907. He was subsequently transferred to command the new IJA 17th Division, in September 1911, he was transferred to the IJA 4th Division and in January 1912, he returned to the IJA 1st Division. Ichinohe was appointed to the Supreme War Council in February 1915, Ichinohe was subsequently Principal of the Gakushuin Peers’ School from May 1920, and became a Shinto priest at Meiji Shrine from August 1924. In February 1926, he accepted the honorary post of President of the Japan Veterans Association. His grave is at the Tama Cemetery, in Fuchū, Tokyo, the War of the Rising Sun and the Tumbling Bear - A Military History of the Russo-Japanese War 1904-5. Dupuy, Trevor N. Encyclopedia of Military Biography, japans First Modern War, Army and Society in the Conflict with China, 1894-1895
15.
Liaoyang
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It is approximately one hour south of Shenyang, the provincial capital, by car. Liaoyang is home to Liaoning Universitys College of Foreign Studies and a number of vocational colleges, the city hosts a limited number of professional basketball and volleyball games in a modern sports facility. Liaoyang is one of the oldest continuously-inhabited cities in northeast China, dating back to before the Spring, during the Chinese Tang dynasty, Liaoyang was part of the northern edge of the Goguryeo kingdom. Remains of Yodong and Baegam cities, the old Goguryeo cities and this was the site of a major battle between the Tang and Goguryeo in 645 AD. Goguryeo ruled the area from the early 5th to the mid-7th century, Liaoyang rose to prominence during the Liao dynasty. Several buildings in the city date to this period, among these is the White Pagoda, which dates back to 1189 in the Liao Dynasty with additions during the Yuan dynasty. The Liaoyang White Pagoda sits in Baita Park within Baita district in the centre of the city, next to the park is Guangyou Temple, one of the oldest and largest temple complexes in the north east of China covering some 60,000 square metres. Under the Jurchen Jin dynasty, the city served as their empires eastern capital under the name Dongjing, in the 17th century, the Manchu people rose up against the Ming dynasty of China. Liaoyang was one of the first Ming cities to fall and Nurhaci and he also moved the tombs of several family members to Liaoyang and they can still be seen in Dongjingling, just east of the city. As the Manchu expanded, they moved the capital to Shenyang in 1625. After this Dongjing faded in importance, today, remains of the city walls can still be see and a small museum stands within the reconstructed south gate. The year 1900 saw the Boxer Rebellion in China, Russian troops camped in Liaoyang city, burning the ancient Guangyou temple. On the August 24 September 1904, the Battle of Liaoyang took place and this was a major battle of the Russo-Japanese war. Liaoyang was one of the centres of the Manchurian revival, a Protestant Christian revival which took place in Mukden. The city was the site of labor protests in March 2002 that were sparked by the bankruptcy and subsequent liquidation of the Liaoyang Ferroalloy Factory. The protesters were workers from at least seven different factories, including failing textile, chemical, piston, instruments, leather and their grievances involved local government corruption and widespread worker layoffs coupled with arrearage in employee wages, pensions and unemployment benefits. The activists demanded compensation for what they were owed, an investigation into the bankruptcy of Liaotie, the protests were eventually dispersed after several days by the government after declaring a curfew under martial law. Two of the representatives, Xiao Yunliang and Yao Fuxin, were given prison terms of four and seven years
16.
Manchuria
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Manchuria is a modern name, first created by the Japanese, given to a large geographic region in Northeast Asia. Depending on the context, Manchuria can either refer to a region that falls entirely within the Peoples Republic of China, the definition of Manchuria can be any one of several regions of various size. These are, from smallest to largest, Northeast China, consisting of Heilongjiang, Jilin and this is the area referred to as Manchuria in the World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions. Inner Manchuria, the above, plus parts of modern Inner Mongolia, The above, plus Outer Manchuria, the area from the Amur and Ussuri rivers to the Stanovoy Mountains, in Russian administrative terms, Ussuri krai, southern Harbin oblast, Primorskiy kray. The above, plus Sakhalin Island, which is included on Qing dynasty maps as part of Outer Manchuria even though it is not explicitly mentioned in the Treaty of Nerchinsk. The island was included in Manchuria on maps made by the Japanese Shogunate. Despite of lines on maps and empiress political claims, the island was inhabited by Ainu people until the Soviet Union enforced a policy after 1945. Three centuries and a half must now pass away before entering upon the act of the Manchu drama. During the ensuing two hundred years the Nü-chêns were scarcely heard of, the House of Ming being busily occupied in other directions and it may be noted here that Manchuria is unknown to the Chinese or to the Manchus themselves as a geographical expression. The present extensive home of the Manchus is usually spoken of as the Three Eastern Provinces, namely, Shêngking, or Liao-tung, or Kuan-tung, Kirin, and Heilungchiang or Tsitsihar. — Herbert A. Giles, China and the Manchus,1912 Manchuria is a translation of the Japanese word Manshū, the Manchu and Chinese languages had no such word as Manchuria and the word has imperialist connotations. According to Bill Sewell, it was Europeans who first started using the name Manchuria to refer to the location, the historian Gavan McCormack agreed with Robert H. G. The Japanese had their own motive for deliberately spreading the usage of the term Manchuria, the historian Norman Smith wrote that The term Manchuria is controversial. Professor Mariko Asano Tamanoi said that she should use the term in quotation marks when referring to Manchuria, in his 2012 dissertation on the Jurchen people to obtain a Doctor of Philosophy degree in History from the University of Washington, Professor Chad D. In the 18th-century Europe, the later known as Manchuria was most commonly referred to as Tartary. However, the term Manchuria started appearing by the end of the century, in current Chinese parlance, an inhabitant of the Northeast, or Northeast China, is a Northeasterner. In China, the term Manchuria is rarely used today, and this usage is seen in the expression Chuǎng Guāndōng referring to the mass migration of Han Chinese to Manchuria in the 19th and 20th centuries. The name Guandong later came to be used more narrowly for the area of the Kwantung Leased Territory on the Liaodong Peninsula and it is not to be confused with the southern province of Guangdong
17.
Ugaki Kazushige
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Kazushige Ugaki was a general in the Imperial Japanese Army, the 5th principal of Takushoku University, and twice Governor-General of Korea. Ugaki was born to a family in Seto-town, Bizen Province. He graduated from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in 1891, Ugaki was sent as military attaché to Germany from 1902–1904 and again from 1906-1907. In 1923, Ugaki became Vice Minister of the Army, from 1924-1927, Ugaki served as Minister of War in the Kiyoura, Katō Takaaki and First Wakatsuki Cabinets. Ugakis plans called for an Army of 50 divisions and he was also forced to shorten the period of time conscripts served with the remaining divisions. This made Ugaki an extremely unpopular figure within the Army, in 1929, Ugaki was promoted to full general. He became Minister of War once again under the Hamaguchi cabinet, having lost the support of his fellow officers, Ugaki resigned from the military and once again accepted a posting as Governor-General of Korea. After the February 26 Incident in 1936, the Japanese military had obtained a restoration of the requirement that the Army, as a consequence, although officially appointed, Ugaki could never take office. The post of prime minister went to Senjūrō Hayashi, another ex-general. In May 1938, Ugaki became Foreign Minister under the 1st Konoe administration, simultaneously holding the portfolio of Minister of Colonial Affairs, in 1944, Ugaki left politics and accepted the post of president of Takushoku University, which he held throughout the remainder of the war years. After World War II, along with all members of the Japanese government, Ugaki was purged from public service. However, he was never charged with any war crimes, and was soon released, in 1953, Ugaki ran for public office on a national ticket and was elected to the House of Councillors in the post-war Diet of Japan with an overwhelming vote. Ugaki died in 1956 at his villa in Izunokuni, Shizuoka. His grave is at Tama Cemetery, in Fuchū, Tokyo, bix, Herbert P. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. The Way of the Heavenly Sword, The Japanese Army in the 1920s, everlasting Flower, A History of Korea. The Rising Sun, The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, signs of The Times Publishing House. Japanese Times on Ugakis bid for Prime Minister
18.
13th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)
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The 13th Division was an infantry division in the Imperial Japanese Army. Its tsūshōgō code name was the Mirror Division, and its symbol was 13D. The 13th Division was initially raised in Takada city in now Jōetsu, as a result of its successful operation, Japan was awarded southern Karafuto during the Portsmouth Treaty, one of Japan’s few territorial gains during the war. The division returned on 6 November 1908 to its divisional headquarters located in Takada. Future Chinese premier Chiang Kai-shek served in the artillery battalion of the 13th Division while it was based at Takada. Under the 13th Division in early 1913, after a brief period on garrison duty in Korea, the 13th Division was one of the divisions selected to participate in the Japanese intervention in Siberia in 1920. The 13th division of what period has specialized in winter warfare, however, on 1 May 1925, it was dissolved by Minister of War Ugaki Kazushige as part of a cost-saving measure during the Kato Takaaki administration, together with the 15th, 17th and 18th divisions. In July 1937, open hostilities broke out against China and the Second Sino-Japanese War commenced and it was also part of Operation Ichi-Go. In the final stages of the campaign 1 November 1944, the 13th division has captured two airstrips at Guilin airbase, later it was used to secure the front on the west of Liuzhou, between 3rd division to the south and 58th division to the north-east. 18 April 1945, it was assigned to directly to the China Expeditionary Army together with 3rd division and was retreating toward Nanjing, the capitulation of Japan 15 August 1945 has happened while the 13th division was in Changsha, Hunan Province. Although there were plans to send the 13th Division to Guam in September 1943 to counter the threat posed by the United States in the Pacific War, list of Japanese Infantry Divisions Kowner, Rotem. Historical Dictionary of the Russo-Japanese War, Japanese Armed Forces Order of Battle, 1937-1945 Allentown, PA,1981 This article incorporates material from the Japanese Wikipedia page 第13師団, accessed 16 February 2016
19.
15th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)
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The 15th Division was an infantry division in the Imperial Japanese Army. Its tsūshōgō code name was the Festival Division, and its symbol was 15D. The 15th Division was one of four new infantry divisions raised by the Imperial Japanese Army in the stages of the Russo-Japanese War. With Japans limited resources towards the end of conflict, the entire IJA was committed to combat in Manchuria. The 15th Division was initially raised from men in the area surrounding Nagoya under the command of Lieutenant General Okihara Kofu, the Treaty of Portsmouth was concluded before the 15th division could be deployed to Manchuria, and it was sent instead to Korea as a garrison force. 24 March 1907, the battalion was transferred to the military school in Ushigome. The division was re-assembled 15 November 1908 in its original headquarters located in Toyohashi, Aichi prefecture. However, on 1 May 1925, it was dissolved by Minister of War Ugaki Kazushige as part of a measure during the Kato Takaaki administration. In July 1937, open hostilities broke out against China and the Second Sino-Japanese War commenced, the 15th Division was re-established in Kyoto on 4 April 1938 as a triangular division, from the reserve forces of the IJA 16th Division. Under the command of Lieutenant General Yoshio Iwamatsu, it was assigned to the Chinese mainland as a force around Nanjing. On 17 June 1943 the 15th division was reassigned to the IJA 15th Army in Burma as part of an offensive against British India. The division was delayed with road-building in Thailand for several months, arriving in Burma, the division took part in the attack on Imphal as part of the Operation U-Go along with the IJA 31st and 33rd Divisions, followed by the Battle of Meiktila and Mandalay. Operation U-Go was planned to start in the beginning of March 1944, the 15th Division formed the central position of the three attacking divisions, and its primary objective was to cut the road between Imphal and Kohima at Kangpokpi. On the map this was the shortest and most direct route towards Imphal, because of the difficult terrain, the division’s field artillery was replaced with mountain guns and the anti-tank equipment was left behind. Of the division’s nine battalions, one had been detached to the dealing with the second Chindits operation. Thus, the 15th Division started the campaign with 6 battalions,18 guns and a commander, Lieutenant-General Masafumi Yamauchi, the 60th Regiment arrived soon after, but was not allowed to take part in the final assault 27 March. The 15th Division cut the Imphal-Kohima road at Kangpokpi on 3 April, soon the division occupied Nunshigum Ridge, which overlooked Imphal. From here the Japanese could threaten the headquarters of the IV Corps, the British counterattack on this ridge included M3 Lee tanks, which came as a shock to the Japanese as they had considered the terrain to be completely impassable to armored vehicles
20.
18th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)
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The 18th Division was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its tsūshōgō code name was the Chrysanthemum Division, the division received its colors on 13 November 1907. Its original headquarters was in a suburb of the city of Kurume in Fukuoka Prefecture, notably, an aircraft from divisional air force has become the first airplane ever downed in the air-to-air combat. The 18th Division was resurrected in September 1938 as a division as a part of general military build-up following the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Japanese 18th division subsequently participated in the Battle of Nanjing, the division remained in China through the 1939–40 Winter Offensive under the command of Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake. From 6 November 1941 the division came under the command of Lieutenant-General Renya Mutaguchi and was reassigned to the IJA 25th Army and it participated in the invasion of Malaya and Singapore. The 124th Infantry Regiment and some units of the 18th Division took part in the Battle of Borneo from 16 December 1941 on. The supply situation was so bad that some elements of the division stole rations and weapons from the stores of 53rd division, in 1942, the divisions Kawaguchi Detachment was detached and sent to Sarawak, the Philippines and finally to Guadalcanal. There, it took heavy losses in the battles of Edsons Ridge, after the detachment, the main body of the division was converted to the triangular division format in 1943, while the detachment became the 31st division. Late in 1943, Mutaguchi was promoted, and replaced as commander of the division by Lieutenant-General Shinichi Tanaka, although suffering heavy losses, the division nevertheless inflicted many casualties and imposed severe delays on the Allies. Especially hit was the 114th infantry regiment which suffered about 2000 combat casualties while holding an important rail, in the 1945 campaigning season, the division once again lost many thousands of men in the Battle of Central Burma, particularly at Meiktila, south of Mandalay. During the battle, the division was reinforced by 119th infantry regiment from the 53rd division in attempts to recapture Meiktila from the Allies, the 18th division ended the war in southern Burma. Of the 31,444 men of the division sent to Burma, list of Japanese Infantry Divisions Madej, W. Victor, Japanese Armed Forces Order of Battle, 1937-1945, Allentown, PA,1981 Latimer. Jon Burma, The Forgotten War, London, John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-6576-6 Tsingtao Campaign by Colin Denis Hough, Frank O. historical Division, Division of Public Information, Headquarters U. S. Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 24 December 2006, miller, John, Jr. CARTWHEEL, The Reduction of Rabaul. United States Army in World War II, The War in the Pacific, office of the Chief of Military History, U. S. Department of the Army. Japanese Armed Forces Order of Battle, 1937-1945 Allentown, PA,1981 This article incorporates material from the Japanese Wikipedia page 第18師団, accessed 3 March 2016
21.
Triangular division
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A triangular division is a designation given to the way military divisions are organized. In a triangular organization, the main body is composed of three regimental maneuver elements. These regiments may be controlled by a headquarters or directly subordinated to the division commander. By contrast, in a division, there were typically two brigades of two regiments. United States Army divisions were square divisions until the beginning of World War II, during that war, infantry divisions were typically triangular, with the division controlling three infantry regiments. Armored divisions were also triangular, but typically organized into combined arms combat commands, after World War II, this structure was retained until the Pentomic Era described above. In the 1960s, United States Army divisions were reorganized as triangular divisions, Combined arms doctrine has all but eliminated regimental purpose, and regiments generally exist only as traditional designations. Most European armies reorganized their divisions as triangular divisions during World War I, many European armies now place greater emphasis on the brigade and in some cases, such as the Portuguese and the Belgian armies, have eliminated the division entirely as a tactical unit. Soviet Army divisions during World War II were generally triangular, with three subordinate regiments, post-war reforms led to a four-regiment division, with three regiments of one arm and the fourth of the other arm. In combat operations, however, the regiment could be divided among the other three to create three combined arms formations essentially the same as a brigade. This structure has for the most part retained in the Russian Army. See, for example, the organization of the 2nd Guards Tamanskaya Motor Rifle Division, imperial Japanese Army and National Revolutionary Army Divisions were organized as square divisions prior to 1938 when they began to form triangular divisions during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Square division Toward Combined Arms Warfare, A Survey of 20th-Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization
22.
10th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)
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The 10th Division was an infantry division in the Imperial Japanese Army. Its tsūshōgō code name was the Iron Division, the 10th Division was one of six new infantry divisions raised by the Imperial Japanese Army in the aftermath of the First Sino-Japanese War,1 October 1898. Its troops were recruited primarily from communities in the three prefectures of Hyōgo, Okayama and Tottori, plus a portion of Shimane and it was originally headquartered in the city of Himeji, and its first commander was Lieutenant General Prince Fushimi Sadanaru. From 15 January 1905, it came under the command of Lieutenant General Andō Teibi and participated at the Battle of Sandepu, from July 1937, with the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the 10th Division returned to China under the command of Lieutenant General Rensuke Isogai. It was in combat during the Beiping–Hankou Railway Operation, Tianjin–Pukou Railway Operation and Battle of Xuzhou and it was also in the northern pincer of the Japanese offensive in the Battle of Wuhan. It was withdrawn back to Japan in October 1939 and reorganized at that time into a triangular division, in August 1940, the reorganized division was sent to Jiamusi, northern Manchukuo under the command of Lieutenant General Tōichi Sasaki, and placed under the control of the Kwantung Army. For the next few years, it served as a garrison force. However, in 1944, as the situation in the Pacific War grew increasing desperate for Japan, initially earmarked for a transfer to Taiwan, the 10th Division was sent instead to Luzon in the Philippines, coming under the command of the Japanese Fourteenth Area Army. List of Japanese Infantry Divisions Kowner, Rotem, historical Dictionary of the Russo-Japanese War. Japanese Armed Forces Order of Battle, 1937–1945 Allentown, PA,1981 This page incorporates material from the Japanese Wikipedia page 第10師団, accessed 29 January 2016
23.
Battle of Wuhan
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The Battle of Wuhan, popularly known to the Chinese as the Defense of Wuhan, and to the Japanese as the Capture of Wuhan, was a large-scale battle of the Second Sino-Japanese War. More than one million National Revolutionary Army troops were gathered, with Chiang Kai-shek personally in command, engagements were in both the northern and southern shores of the Yangtze River, spreading across vast areas of the Anhui, Henan, Jiangxi and Hubei provinces. On 7 July 1937, the Imperial Japanese Army launched an invasion of China. With the onset of the war, Beijing and Tianjin fell to the Japanese in less one month. On 12 November, the Japanese Army captured Shanghai, Nanjing was at risk of being besieged, and the Chinese government was forced to transfer its capital to Chongqing. However, the Chinese government did not transfer its elite troops, assistance from the USSR provided additional military and technical resources, including a small band of Soviet Air Force volunteers. Wuhan, located halfway up the Yangtze River, was the second largest city at the time with a population of two million, the city was divided by the Yangtze River and Hanshui into three regions, Wuchang, Hankou and Hanyang. Wuchang was the center, Hankou was a commercial district while Hanyang was the industrial estate. After the completion of the Yuehan Railway, the importance of Wuhan as a transportation hub in inland China was further established. When Japan captured Nanjing on 13 December, the Chinese shifted structures and industries to Wuhan, the Chinese war effort was focused on protecting Wuhan from being occupied by the Japanese. The Japanese government and the headquarters of the China Expeditionary Force thereby expected that the fall of Wuhan would lead to the end of Chinese resistance, the Battle of Wuhan was preceded by a Japanese air strike on 28 February 1938. It was known as the 2.28 Air battle and the Chinese were able to repel the attack, on 24 March, the Diet of Japan passed the National Mobilization Law that authorized unlimited funding of war. As part of the law, the National Service Draft Ordinance also allowed the conscription of civilians, on 29 April, the Japanese air force launched major air strikes on Wuhan to celebrate Emperor Hirohitos birthday. The Chinese, knowing this beforehand, were well prepared and this battle was known as the 4.29 Air battle, one of the most intense air battles of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The ROCAF shot down 21 Japanese planes at a loss of 12, after the fall of Xuzhou in May 1938, the Japanese planned an extensive invasion of Hankou and the takeover of Wuhan, intending to destroy the main force of the National Revolutionary Army. The Chinese, on the hand, were preparing for the defense of Wuhan. They managed to gather up more than one million troops, around 300 planes and 50 naval ships. In an attempt to buy time for the preparation of the defense of Wuhan
24.
Xuzhou
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Xuzhou, known as Pengcheng in ancient times, is a major city in and the fourth largest prefecture-level city of Jiangsu Province, China. Its population was 8,577,225 at the 2010 census whom 2,623,066 lived in the area made of Quanshan, Gulou, Yunlong. Before the adoption of Hanyu Pinyin, the name was typically romanized as Suchow or Süchow, though it also appeared as Siu Tcheou, Hsu-chou, Hsuchow. Several Neolithic remains were discovered in Xuzhou, during 1960s and 1970s, the discovery at Dadunzi site in Sihu, Pizhou, whose relics, especially some painted potteries strongly prove the area belonged to Dawenkou culture. Besides, Gaohuangmiao site, Tongshan and Liulin site, Pizhou were also important contemporary remains, in the end of 1950s, remains of sacrificial activities to the God of Land at the Qiuwan site in Maocun, Tongshan was discovered. The archaeologists inferred that the date back to the Shang dynasty. Peng was once a chiefdom dominated the area of Xuzhou nowadays. Peng Zu, a legendary long-lived figure, is believed to be the first chief, Pengcheng, the ancient name of Xuzhou, was origins from the state of Peng, the word cheng means city in Chinese. Thus Pengcheng is the city of Peng or Peng city literally, during the Western Zhou, the people who were resident in the Huai River valley, northern Jiangsu and northern Anhui today, were two chiefdoms called Xuyi and Huaiyi at that time. Despite the relation between them and their origins are not quite clear for historians, there is no doubt that they were great threaten to the ancient states around them. Xuyi, namely Xu, made an alliance with Huaiyi, they battled with Zhous troop at irregular intervals, since the original territory was occupied by Lu, people of Xu migrated to the southern, while the capital at one time moved to the area of Xuzhou. The state of Song controlled Xuzhou along with Xus declining, then Pengcheng, in 573 BC, Chu and Zheng invaded Song and captured Pengcheng. As Jin was Songs ally, Duke Dao of Jin convened several leaders of states to fight against Chu. In the spring of 572 BC, Song recaptured Pengcheng, Song eventually exterminated by the State of Qi in 286 BC. Then Qi, Chu and Wei carved the former territory of Song up, Chu got the part in the north of the Huai River. Before that, Chu gradually expanded influence around Xuzhou after absorbing the nearby State of Cai in 447 BC, by the Warring States period, Xuzhou was firmly in the cultural and administrative sphere of Chu. The State of Chu moved to area in 278 BC after the Qin army captured its old capital, Ying, in modern Jingzhou. There were also two ancient states besides Song controlled the area of Xuzhou nowadays, Pi and Zhongwu
25.
Pacific War
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The Pacific War, sometimes called the Asia-Pacific War, was the theater of World War II that was fought in the Pacific and East Asia. It was fought over a vast area that included the Pacific Ocean and islands, the South West Pacific, South-East Asia, and in China. The Pacific War saw the Allied powers pitted against the Empire of Japan, the formal and official surrender of Japan took place aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945. In Allied countries during the war, The Pacific War was not usually distinguished from World War II in general, or was known simply as the War against Japan. Japan used the name Greater East Asia War, as chosen by a decision on 10 December 1941. Japanese officials integrated what they called the Japan–China Incident into the Greater East Asia War, in Japan, the Fifteen Years War is also used, referring to the period from the Mukden Incident of 1931 through 1945. The Phayap Army sent troops to invade and occupy northeastern Burma, also involved were the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo and Mengjiang, and the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime. The official policy of the U. S. Government is that Thailand was not an ally of the Axis, Japan conscripted many soldiers from its colonies of Korea and Formosa. To a small extent, some Vichy French, Indian National Army, Germany and Italy both had limited involvement in the Pacific War. The German and the Italian navies operated submarines and raiding ships in the Indian, the Italians had access to concession territory naval bases in China, while the Germans did not. After Japans attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declarations of war, mexico, Free France and many other countries also took part, especially forces from other British colonies. Between 1942 and 1945, there were four main areas of conflict in the Pacific War, China, the Central Pacific, South East Asia, U. S. sources refer to two theaters within the Pacific War, the Pacific theater and the China Burma India Theater. However these were not operational commands, in the Pacific, the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands, known as Pacific Ocean Areas and Southwest Pacific Area. In 1945, for a period just before the Japanese surrender. By 1937, Japan controlled Manchuria and was ready to move deeper into China, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident on 7 July 1937 provoked full-scale war between China and Japan. In August 1937, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to fight about 300,000 Japanese troops in Shanghai, the Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 and committed which was known as Nanking Massacre. In March 1938, Nationalist forces won their first victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May. In June 1938, Japan deployed about 350,000 troops to invade Wuhan, the Japanese achieved major military victories, but world opinion—in particular in the United States—condemned Japan, especially after the Panay incident
26.
Southern Expeditionary Army Group
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The Southern Expeditionary Army was an army group of the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II. It was responsible for all operations in South East Asian. Plans for an invasion of the Philippines were finalized on November 13–15, by Lt General Masaharu Homma, Lt General Hideyoshi Obata, Vice Admiral Ibō Takahashi and Vice Admiral Nishizo Tsukahara. These plans called for air attacks against the Philippines, beginning on X-Day, by the 5th Army Air Force Division and the 11th Naval Air Fleet. At this time, Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy units were to land on Batan Island, Luzon, and at Davao, Mindanao, and to seize airfields. Following the elimination of American air support, the body of the IJA 14th Army was to land at Lingayen Gulf. These forces were then to attack Manila in a pincer attack, after this, the islands of Manila Bay were to be taken. In the resulting Battle of the Philippines, Japanese forces accomplished their primary objectives, on July 22,1941, Japanese forces invaded Vichy French Indochina and occupied its naval and air bases. On January 18,1942, the commander of 16th Army Lt. General Hitoshi Imamura arrived at Takao and he received an order to hasten the invasion preparation toward Java. But due to shipping shortages, he had to adjust the plans, on January 21, he arrived at Manila to inspect the IJA 48th Division and to have discussion with the commander of the IJN 3rd Fleet. The Netherlands East Indies was invaded in an attack by using 3 groups, western, center. The IJA 2nd Division of the IJA 16th Army, which was assembled in Taiwan, was ordered on January 25 to move in to Cam Ranh Bay, at Cam Ranh Bay, the troops were trained for the tropical jungle warfare. On the 30th, the order was announced. The western group was carried aboard 56 transport ships and left for Java on February 18, by midnight on February 28, the ships landed at Merak and Bantam Bay on Java island. Following the surrender of Hong Kong, the 228th, 229th and 230th Infantry Regiments from the IJA 38th Division were also deployed to Netherlands East Indies separately, on February 13, the 229th and 230th assaulted Palembang on Sumatra and then joined the main force. On February 28 midnight the 230th Infantry Regiment landed on Eretan Wetan on Java, the center group was composed of IJA 48th Division, left for Java on February 8,1942 from Lingayen Gulf, in the Philippines. On February 25, the arrived at Balikpapan and the Sakaguchi detachment joined the force. They landed at Kragan on Java by midnight February 28, earlier on January 11, the Sakaguchi detachment and 2nd Kure Special Naval Landing Force occupied Tarakan
27.
New Britain
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New Britain is the largest island in the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea. It is separated from the island of New Guinea by the Dampier and Vitiaz Straits, the main towns of New Britain are Rabaul/Kokopo and Kimbe. The island is roughly the size of Taiwan, while the island was part of German New Guinea, it was named Neupommern. New Britain extends from 148°1831 to 152°2357 E longitude and from 4°0825 to 6°1831 S latitude and it is crescent-shaped, approximately 520 km along its southeastern coastline, and from 29 to 146 km wide, not including a small central peninsula. The air-line distance from west to east is 477 km, the island is the 38th largest in the world, with an area of 36,520 km2. Steep cliffs form some sections of the coastline, in others the mountains are further inland, the highest point, at 2,438 m, is Mount Sinewit in the Baining range in the east. Most of the terrain is covered with tropical rainforest and several rivers are fed by the high rainfall. A major eruption of Tavurvur in 1994 destroyed the East New Britain provincial capital of Rabaul, most of the town still lies under metres of ash, and the capital has been moved to nearby Kokopo. New Britain forms part of the Islands Region, one of four regions of Papua New Guinea, New Britain became part of German New Guinea. In 1909, the population was estimated at about 190,000. The expatriate population was confined to the northeastern Gazelle Peninsula. At the time 5,448 hectares had been converted to plantations, primarily growing copra, cotton, coffee, westerners avoided exploring the interior initially, believing that the indigenous peoples were warlike and would fiercely resist intrusions. On 11 September 1914, New Britain became the site of one of the earliest battles of World War I when the Australian Naval and they quickly overwhelmed the German forces and occupied the island for the duration of the war. After World War I the Treaty of Versailles was signed in June 1919, in 1920 the League of Nations included New Britain along with the former German colony on New Guinea in the Territory of New Guinea, a mandated territory of Australia. During World War II the Japanese attacked New Britain soon after the outbreak of hostilities in the Pacific Ocean, strategic bases at Rabaul and Kavieng were defended by a small Australian detachment, Lark Force. During January 1942, the Japanese heavily bombed Rabaul, on 23 January, Japanese marines landed by the thousands, starting the Battle of Rabaul. The Japanese used Rabaul as a key base until 1944, it served as the key point for the invasion of Port Moresby. New Britain was invaded by the U. S, 1st Marine Division in the Cape Gloucester area of the very western end of the island, and also by U. S. Army soldiers at some other coastal points
28.
Solomon Islands
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The countrys capital, Honiara, is located on the island of Guadalcanal. The islands have been inhabited for thousands of years, in 1568, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to visit them, naming them the Islas Salomón. Britain defined its area of interest in the Solomon Islands archipelago in June 1893, during World War II, the Solomon Islands campaign saw fierce fighting between the United States and the Empire of Japan, such as in the Battle of Guadalcanal. The official name of the then British overseas territory was changed from the British Solomon Islands Protectorate to Solomon Islands in 1975, self-government was achieved in 1976, independence was obtained two years later. Today, Solomon Islands is a monarchy with the Queen of Solomon Islands, currently Queen Elizabeth II. Manasseh Sogavare is the current prime minister, in 1568, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to visit the Solomon Islands archipelago, naming it Islas Salomón after the wealthy biblical King Solomon. It is said that they were given name in the mistaken assumption that they contained great riches. During most of the period of British rule the territory was named the British Solomon Islands Protectorate. On 22 June 1975 the territory was renamed Solomon Islands, when Solomon Islands became independent in 1978 they retained the name. The definite article, the, is not part of the official name but is sometimes used. It is believed that Papuan-speaking settlers began to arrive around 30,000 BC, austronesian speakers arrived c.4000 BC also bringing cultural elements such as the outrigger canoe. Between 1200 and 800 BC the ancestors of the Polynesians, the Lapita people, the first European to visit the islands was the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira, coming from Peru in 1568. The people of Solomon Islands were notorious for headhunting and cannibalism before the arrival of the Europeans, missionaries began visiting the Solomons in the mid-19th century. They made little progress at first, because blackbirding led to a series of reprisals, the evils of the labour trade prompted the United Kingdom to declare a protectorate over the southern Solomons in June 1893. Traditional trade and social intercourse between the western Solomon Islands of Mono and Alu and the societies in the south of Bougainville, however. Missionaries settled in the Solomons under the protectorate, converting most of the population to Christianity, in the early 20th century several British and Australian firms began large-scale coconut planting. Economic growth was slow, however, and the islanders benefited little, journalist Joe Melvin visited in 1892, as part of his undercover investigation into blackbirding. In 1908 the islands were visited by Jack London, who was cruising the Pacific on his boat, with the outbreak of the Second World War most planters and traders were evacuated to Australia and most cultivation ceased
29.
Japanese Eighth Area Army
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The Japanese Eighth Area Army was a field army of the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II. It had its headquarters at Rabaul, New Britain and saw combat in the Solomon Islands campaign, Bougainville campaign. The Solomons Campaigns, 1942-1943, From Guadalcanal to Bougainville--Pacific War Turning Point, Japanese Armed Forces Order of Battle, 1937-1945. The Pacific War Companion, From Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima, War in the Pacific, Pearl Harbor to Tokyo Bay, The Story of the Bitter Struggle in the Pacific Theater of World War II. Japanese Army in World War II, Conquest of the Pacific 1941-42, Japanese Army in World War II, The South Pacific and New Guinea, 1942-43
30.
Rabaul
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Rabaul is a township in East New Britain province, on the island of New Britain, in the country of Papua New Guinea. New Britain is an island about 60 kilometres to the east of the island of New Guinea, Rabaul was the provincial capital and most important settlement in the province until it was destroyed in 1994 by falling ash of a volcanic eruption. During the eruption, ash was sent thousands of metres into the air, after the eruption the capital was moved to Kokopo, about 20 kilometres away. Rabaul is continually threatened by volcanic activity because it is on the edge of Rabaul caldera, Rabaul was planned and built around the harbor area known as Simpsonhafen during the German New Guinea administration which controlled the region between 1884 and formally through 1919. From 1910 Rabaul was the headquarters of German New Guinea until captured by the British Empire during the days of World War I. It became the capital of the Australian mandated Territory of New Guinea until 1937 when it was first destroyed by a volcano. During World War II it was captured by the Japanese in 1942, tourism is a major industry in Rabaul and East New Britain generally. Rabauls proximity to its volcanoes has always been a source of concern, in 1878 before it was established as a town, an eruption formed a volcano in the harbour. That settlement was thus substantially enlarged with official buildings and housing and renamed Rabaul, following Germanys defeat at the end of the war, the occupied territory was delegated in 1920 to Australia as a League of Nations Mandate. Rabaul became the capital of the Territory of New Guinea, visits to and stays in Rabaul during this period were amply described in books by many authors, including Margaret Mead. Gunantambu, the house of “Queen” Emma Forsayth and her husband, contained furniture previously owned by Robert Louis Stevenson. Destroyed in the 1937 volcano eruption, its remains became a tourist attraction after World War II, Rabaul volcano is one of the most active and most dangerous volcanoes in Papua New Guinea. Having erupted and entirely destroyed Rabaul in 1937, five years before the occupation by Japan, Rabaul exploded violently in 1994, since then, the young cone Tavurvur located inside the caldera has been the site of near persistent activity in form of strombolian to vulcanian ash eruptions. The caldera has a form and is surrounded by a steep volcanic ridge several hundred meters high. Under the Australian administration, Rabaul developed into a regional base, then in 1937, catastrophic volcanic eruptions destroyed the town after the two volcanoes, Tavurvur and Vulcan, exploded. 507 people were killed, and there was widespread damage, following this, the Australian administration for the Territory of New Guinea decided to move the territorial headquarters to the safer location of Lae. All long-term steps to re-establish the territorial headquarters at Rabaul were forestalled during World War II, by the time the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor it was apparent they would soon attack Rabaul. So, by December 1941, women and children were evacuated, in January 1942 Rabaul was heavily bombed, on 23 January the Battle of Rabaul began and Rabaul was captured shortly thereafter with the landing of thousands of Japanese naval landing forces
31.
Shanghai
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Shanghai is the most populous city proper in the world, with a population of more than 24 million as of 2014. As one of the four direct-controlled municipalities of the Peoples Republic of China, it is a financial centre and transport hub. Located in the Yangtze River Delta in East China, Shanghai sits on the edge of the mouth of the Yangtze in the middle portion of the eastern Chinese coast. The municipality borders the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the north, south and west, as a major administrative, shipping and trading city, Shanghai grew in importance in the 19th century due to trade and recognition of its favourable port location and economic potential. The city was one of five treaty ports forced open to foreign trade following the British victory over China in the First Opium War, the subsequent 1842 Treaty of Nanking and 1844 Treaty of Whampoa allowed the establishment of the Shanghai International Settlement and the French Concession. The city then flourished as a center of commerce between China and other parts of the world, and became the financial hub of the Asia-Pacific region in the 1930s. However, with the Communist Party takeover of the mainland in 1949, trade was limited to other socialist countries, and the citys global influence declined. In the 1990s, the reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping resulted in an intense re-development of the city, aiding the return of finance. The two Chinese characters in the name are 上 and 海, together meaning Upon-the-Sea. The earliest occurrence of this dates from the 11th-century Song Dynasty, at which time there was already a river confluence. There are disputes as to exactly how the name should be understood, Shanghai is officially abbreviated 沪 in Chinese, a contraction of 沪渎, a 4th- or 5th-century Jin name for the mouth of Suzhou Creek when it was the main conduit into the ocean. This character appears on all motor vehicle license plates issued in the municipality today, another alternative name for Shanghai is Shēn or Shēnchéng, from Lord Chunshen, a third-century BC nobleman and prime minister of the state of Chu, whose fief included modern Shanghai. Sports teams and newspapers in Shanghai often use Shen in their names, such as Shanghai Shenhua F. C. Huating was another early name for Shanghai. In AD751, during the dynasty, Huating County was established at modern-day Songjiang. Today, Huating appears as the name of a hotel in the city. The city also has various nicknames in English, including Pearl of the Orient, during the Spring and Autumn period, the Shanghai area belonged to the Kingdom of Wu, which was conquered by the Kingdom of Yue, which in turn was conquered by the Kingdom of Chu. During the Warring States period, Shanghai was part of the fief of Lord Chunshen of Chu and he ordered the excavation of the Huangpu River. Its former or poetic name, the Chunshen River, gave Shanghai its nickname of Shen, two important events helped promote Shanghais development in the Ming dynasty
32.
USS Grayback (SS-208)
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USS Grayback, a Tambor-class submarine, was the first ship of the United States Navy to be named for the lake herring. Her keel was laid down by the Electric Boat Company in Groton, attached to the Atlantic Fleet Grayback conducted her shakedown cruise in Long Island Sound out of Newport, New London, and New York City. With the United Statess entry into the war, Grayback sailed for Pearl Harbor, Graybacks first war patrol from 15 February to 10 April took her along the coast of Saipan and Guam. There she had an encounter with an enemy submarine, the enemy U-boat fired two torpedoes at Grayback on the morning of 22 February, then continued to trail her across the Pacific. Grayback spotted the conning tower a couple of times, and the Japanese ship broached once. After four days, Grayback shook the other sub and continued on patrol, on 17 March she sank her first ship, a 3291-ton cargo ship off Port Lloyd. Graybacks second war patrol met with a dearth of targets although she took the unusual. On 22 June she arrived at Fremantle, Australia, which was to remain her home base for most of the war. On her third and fourth war patrols, in the South China Sea and St. Georges Passage, Grayback was hampered by bright moonlight, shallow and treacherous water, despite these hazards, she damaged several freighters and an enemy submarine. The fifth war patrol began as Grayback sailed from Australia on 7 December 1942, only a week out of port, Pharmacists Mate Harry B. Roby was called upon to perform an appendectomy, the second to be done on a patrolling submarine. With Grayback running a hundred feet beneath the surface, the untutored Roby successfully removed the infected appendix, then, on 25 December, Grayback surfaced to sink four landing barges with her deck guns. Four days later she was fired on by an enemy submarine. On 3 January 1943 sank I-18, one of 25 Japanese submarines destroyed by submarines during the war. On 5 January Grayback served as beacon ship for the bombardment of Munda Bay, lying off Munda early in the morning of 5 January, she received word that six survivors of a crashed B-26 Marauder bomber were holed up on the island. Grayback sent ashore two men, then submerged at dawn to avoid enemy aircraft, the submariners located the downed aviators, three of whom were injured, and hid out with them in the jungle. As night fell, Grayback surfaced offshore and by coded light signals directed the boat home safe with the rescued aviators. For this action skipper Edward C, stephan received the Navy Cross as well as a Silver Star from the US Army
33.
Armed merchantman
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Armed merchantman is a term that has come to mean a merchant ship equipped with guns, usually for defensive purposes, either by design or after the fact. In the days of sail, piracy and privateers, many merchantmen would be armed, especially those engaging in long distance. In more modern times, auxiliary cruisers were used offensively to disrupt trade chiefly during both World War I and World War II, particularly by Germany, while armed merchantmen are clearly inferior to regular warships, sometimes they have scored successes in combat against them. East Indiamen of various European countries were heavily armed for their journeys to the Far East. In particularly dangerous times, such as when the countries were at war. However, many East Indiamen also travelled on their own, and therefore were heavily armed in order to defend themselves against pirates and they also defended themselves against warships, scoring signal victories at the Battle of Pulo Aura and the Action of 4 August 1800. The British Royal Navy purchased several that it converted to ships of the line, in 1856, privateering lost international sanction under the Declaration of Paris. From 1861–65 European countries built high speed ships to run the Union Blockade during the American Civil War, some of these were armed and served as Confederate States Navy raiders. Russia purchased three ships in 1878 of 6,000 long tons armed with 6-inch guns for use as auxiliary cruisers for a Russian Volunteer Fleet. Germany and the United Kingdom responded to the precedent by asking their shipping companies to design fast steamers with provision for mounting guns in time of war, in 1892 Russia likewise built two more auxiliary cruisers. In both World Wars, both Germany and the United Kingdom used auxiliary cruisers, while the British used armed passenger liners defensively for protecting their shipping, the German approach was to use them offensively to attack enemy shipping. The armed merchant cruisers of the British Royal Navy were employed for protection against enemy warships. They ultimately proved to have limited value and many, particularly ocean liners, were converted into troopships. Documentary evidence quoted by the BBC researched from the stages of the First World War suggests that the express liners had greater speed than most warships. The downside proved to be their high consumption, and that using them in a purely AMC role would have burned through the Admiralty reserve supplies of steam coal in less than three months. The ships were vulnerable to fire, because they lacked warship armour and they used local control of guns, rather than director fire-control systems. By coincidence, Cap Trafalgar was disguised as Carmania, in World War II, HMS Jervis Bay — the sole escort for convoy HX84 in November 1940 — stood off the pocket battleship Admiral Scheer, when the German ship attacked the convoy. Though she was sunk alonside 5 vessels, this enabled the rest of the convoy to escape and her master, Acting Captain Edward Fegen was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions
34.
Bougainville Island
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Bougainville Island is the main island of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville of Papua New Guinea. This region is known as Bougainville Province or the North Solomons. Its land area is 9,300 km2, the population of the province is 175,160, which includes the adjacent island of Buka and assorted outlying islands including the Carterets. Mount Balbi at 2,700 m is the highest point, although Bougainville Island is geographically part of the Solomon Islands archipelago, it is not a part of the state of Solomon Islands. Bougainville was first settled some 28,000 years ago, Three to four thousand years ago, Austronesian people arrived, bringing with them domesticated pigs, chickens, dogs and obsidian tools. The first European contact with Bougainville was in 1768, when the French explorer Louis de Bougainville arrived and named the island for himself. Germany laid claim to Bougainville in 1899, annexing it into German New Guinea, Christian missionaries arrived on the island in 1902. During World War I, Australia occupied German New Guinea, including Bougainville and it became part of the Australian Territory of New Guinea under a League of Nations mandate in 1920. In 1942, during World War II, Japan invaded the island, following the war, the Territory of New Guinea, including Bougainville, returned to Australian control. On 9 September 1975, the Parliament of Australia passed the Papua New Guinea Independence Act 1975, the Act set 16 September 1975 as date of independence and terminated all remaining sovereign and legislative powers of Australia over the territory. Bougainville was to part of an independent Papua New Guinea, however, on 11 September 1975, in a failed bid for self-determination. The republic failed to any international recognition, and a settlement was reached in August 1976. Bougainville was then absorbed politically into Papua New Guinea with increased self-governance powers, between 1988 and 1998, civil war on the island claimed over 15,000 lives. The Peace talks brokered by New Zealand began in 1997, leading to autonomy for the island, a multinational Peace Monitoring Group under Australian leadership was deployed. In 2001, a agreement was signed including promise of a referendum on independence from PNG. Bougainville is the largest island in the Solomon Islands archipelago and it is part of the Solomon Islands rain forests ecoregion. Bougainville and the island of Buka are a single landmass separated by a deep 300-metre-wide strait. The island is 9000 square kilometres, and there are several active, mount Bagana in the north central part of Bougainville is conspicuously active, spewing out smoke that is visible many kilometres distant
35.
Battle of Cape Gloucester
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The battle was a major part of Operation Cartwheel, the main Allied strategy in the South West Pacific Area and Pacific Ocean Areas during 1943–44, and was the second World War II landing of the U. S. The main objective of the American and Australian allies was the capture and this was to contribute to the increased isolation and harassment of the major Japanese base at Rabaul. A secondary goal was to ensure free Allied sea passage through the straits separating New Britain from New Guinea and these attacks and an aerial smoke screen were followed by the landing of the U. S. 1st Marine Division, at Yellow Beach 1 &2 and Green Beach, the Marines faced swampy terrain and thick jungle, but met only rear-echelon Japanese troops. After the operation, the body of the Matsuda Force continued to resist Allied offensives on mainland New Guinea. Hough, Frank O. and John A. Crown, historical Division, Division of Public Information, Headquarters U. S. Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 24 December 2006, miller, John, Jr. CARTWHEEL, The Reduction of Rabaul. United States Army in World War II, The War in the Pacific, office of the Chief of Military History, U. S. Department of the Army. History of U. S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II, archived from the original on 20 November 2006. The fighting conditions during the Cape Gloucester campaign as remembered by Marine Sidney Phillips, archived from the original on 10 April 2010
36.
New Britain campaign
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The island has an area of 37,800 square kilometers. There were more than 100,000 Japanese military and civilian personnel on New Britain and a smaller nearby island, New Ireland. These were centred on the headquarters of the Eighth Area Army, the 17th Division, the 38th Division, the 39th Brigade, the 65th Brigade, the 14th Regiment, the 34th Regiment and the 35th Regiment. By the end of the war, these Japanese forces were restricted to Rabaul, united States, Australian and New Guinean forces, assisted by local civilians, were always a division-level command or smaller, the U. S. Director Task Force and the 1st Marine Division handed over to the 40th Infantry Division, the main objective of the overall operation was the isolation of Rabaul. Part of this called for the Allies to secure beachheads on New Britain, within which air bases could be constructed. Miller, John, Jr. CARTWHEEL, The Reduction of Rabaul, united States Army in World War II, The War in the Pacific. Office of the Chief of Military History, U. S. Department of the Army, the Pacific, Guadalcanal to Saipan August 1942 to July 1944 The Final Campaigns Air War Against Japan, 1943–1945 Hough, Frank O. and John A. Crown. Historical Division, Division of Public Information, Headquarters U. S. Marine Corps, History of U. S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II
37.
Allies of World War II
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The Allies of World War II, called the United Nations from the 1 January 1942 declaration, were the countries that together opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War. The Allies promoted the alliance as seeking to stop German, Japanese, at the start of the war on 1 September 1939, the Allies consisted of France, Poland and the United Kingdom, and dependent states, such as the British India. Within days they were joined by the independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Poland was a minor factor after its defeat in 1939, France was a minor factor after its defeat in 1940. China had already been into a war with Japan since the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937. The alliance was formalised by the Declaration by United Nations, from 1 January 1942, however, the name United Nations was rarely used to describe the Allies during the war. The leaders of the Big Three – the UK, the Soviet Union, in 1945, the Allied nations became the basis of the United Nations. The origins of the Allied powers stem from the Allies of World War I, Germany resented signing Treaty of Versailles. The new Weimar republics legitimacy became shaken, by the early 1930s, the Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler became the dominant revanchist movement in Germany and Hitler and the Nazis gained power in 1933. The Nazi regime demanded the cancellation of the Treaty of Versailles and made claims to German-populated Austria. The likelihood of war was high, and the question was whether it could be avoided through strategies such as appeasement, in Asia, when Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, the League of Nations condemned it for aggression against China. Japan responded by leaving the League of Nations in March 1933, after four quiet years, the Sino-Japanese War erupted in 1937 with Japanese forces invading China. The League of Nations condemned Japans actions and initiated sanctions on Japan, the United States, in particular, was angered at Japan and sought to support China. In March 1939, Germany took over Czechoslovakia, violating the Munich Agreement signed six months before, Britain and France decided that Hitler had no intention to uphold diplomatic agreements and responded by preparing for war. On 31 March 1939, Britain formed the Anglo-Polish military alliance in an effort to avert a German attack on the country, also, the French had a long-standing alliance with Poland since 1921. The Soviet Union sought an alliance with the powers. The agreement secretly divided the independent nations of eastern Europe between the two powers and assured adequate oil supplies for the German war machine, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland, two days later Britain and France declared war on Germany. Then, on 17 September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, a Polish government-in-exile was set up and it continued to be one of the Allies, a model followed by other occupied countries. After a quiet winter, Germany in April 1940 invaded and quickly defeated Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Britain and its Empire stood alone against Hitler and Mussolini
38.
Surrender of Japan
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The surrender of Imperial Japan was announced on August 15 and formally signed on September 2,1945, bringing the hostilities of World War II to a close. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy was incapable of conducting major operations, on August 6,1945, at 8,15 AM local time, the United States detonated an atomic bomb over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Sixteen hours later, American President Harry S. Truman called again for Japans surrender, warning them to expect a rain of ruin from the air, later in the day, the United States dropped a second atomic bomb, this time on the Japanese city of Nagasaki. After several more days of negotiations and a failed coup détat. In the radio address, called the Jewel Voice Broadcast, he announced the surrender of Japan to the Allies, on August 28, the occupation of Japan by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers began. The role of the bombings in Japans unconditional surrender. The state of war ended when the Treaty of San Francisco came into force on April 28,1952. Four more years passed before Japan and the Soviet Union signed the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, by 1945, the Japanese had suffered an unbroken string of defeats for nearly two years in the South West Pacific, the Marianas campaign, and the Philippines campaign. In July 1944, following the loss of Saipan, General Hideki Tōjō was replaced as minister by General Kuniaki Koiso. After the Japanese loss of the Philippines, Koiso in turn was replaced by Admiral Kantarō Suzuki, the Allies captured the nearby islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa in the first half of 1945. Okinawa was to be an area for Operation Downfall, the American invasion of the Japanese Home Islands. The Allied submarine campaign and the mining of Japanese coastal waters had largely destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet, the destruction of the Japanese merchant fleet, combined with the strategic bombing of Japanese industry, had wrecked Japans war economy. Production of coal, iron, steel, rubber, and other vital supplies was only a fraction of that before the war, as a result of the losses it had suffered, the Imperial Japanese Navy had ceased to be an effective fighting force. Although 19 destroyers and 38 submarines were still operational, their use was limited by the lack of fuel, the only course left is for Japans one hundred million people to sacrifice their lives by charging the enemy to make them lose the will to fight. As a final attempt to stop the Allied advances, the Japanese Imperial High Command planned an all-out defense of Kyūshū codenamed Operation Ketsugō and this was to be a radical departure from the defense in depth plans used in the invasions of Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. Instead, everything was staked on the beachhead, more than 3,000 kamikazes would be sent to attack the transports before troops. The strategy of making a last stand at Kyūshū was based on the assumption of continued Soviet neutrality, a set of caves were excavated near Nagano on Honshu, the largest of the Japanese islands. In the event of invasion, these caves, the Matsushiro Underground Imperial Headquarters, were to be used by the army to direct the war and to house the Emperor and his family
39.
Office of the Chief of Military History
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The United States Army Center of Military History is a directorate within the Office of the Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Army. The center is responsible for the use of history and military records throughout the United States Army. Traditionally, this mission has meant recording the history of the army in both peace and war, while advising the army staff on historical matters. CMH is the organization leading the Army Historical Program. The center traces its lineage back to historians under the Secretary of War who compiled the Official Records of the Rebellion, a similar work on World War I was prepared by the Historical Section of the Army War College. They began publication of the United States Army in World War II series, since then, the Center has produced detailed series on the Armys role in the Korean and Vietnam Wars and has begun a series on the U. S. Army in the Cold War. These works are supplemented by monographs and other publications on a mix of topics and it has expanded its role in the areas of military history education, the management of the armys museum system, and the introduction of automated data-retrieval systems. The centers work with army schools ensures that the study of history is a part of the training of officers, much of this educational work is performed at field historical offices and in army museums. Under the direction of the chief of military history and his principal adviser and those works under way and projected are described in the Army Historical Program, an annual report to the Chief of Staff on the Army’s historical activities. All center publications are listed in the catalog Publications of the United States Army Center of Military History, CMH also serves as a clearinghouse for the oral history programs in the army at all levels of command. It also conducts and preserves its own oral history collections, including those from the Vietnam War, Desert Storm, in addition, the center’s end-of-tour interviews within the Army Secretariat and Staff provide a basis for its annual histories of the Department of the Army. As tangible representations of the mission, military artifacts and art enhance the soldier’s understanding of the profession of arms. CMH manages a system of more than 120 army museums and their holdings, current projects include the establishment of a National Army Museum at Fort Belvoir, Virginia, and a complementary Army Heritage and Educational Center at Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. The Chief of Military History is responsible for ensuring the use of military history in the teaching of strategy, tactics, logistics. This mission includes a requirement that military leaders at all levels be aware of the value of history in advancing military professionalism, in this effort, the chief of military history is assisted by a historical advisory committee that includes leading academic historians and representatives of the army school system. Staff rides enable military leaders to retrace the course of a battle on the ground, as one of the army’s major teaching devices, staff rides are particularly dependent on a careful knowledge of military history. Center historians lead rides directed by the Secretary of the Army and it administers the army’s Command History Program, to provide historical support to army organizations worldwide. To stimulate interest in history in the army and the nation
