1.
Germany
–
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
2.
1803
–
As of the start of 1803, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – The first edition of Alexandre Balthazar Laurent Grimod de La Reynières Almanach des gourmands, january 5 – William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat, in Scotland. January 30 – Monroe and Livingston sail for Paris to discuss, february 19 – Act of Mediation issued by Napoleon Bonaparte establishes the Swiss Confederation to replace the Helvetic Republic. Under the terms of the act, Graubünden, St. Gallen, Thurgau, february 20 – Kandy took by a British detachment. February 21 – Edward Despard and six others are hanged and beheaded for plotting to assassinate King George III of the United Kingdom, february 24 – Marbury v. Madison, The Supreme Court of the United States establishes the principle of judicial review. February 25 – A major redistribution of territorial sovereignty within the Holy Roman Empire is enacted via an act known as the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, march 1 – Ohio is admitted as the 17th U. S. state, retroactive from August 7,1953. March 9 – Aargau becomes a Swiss canton, march–April – The franc germinal is introduced in France. April 26 – The LAigle meteorite falls in Normandy, causing a shift in opinion on the origin of meteorites. April 30 – Louisiana Purchase is made by the United States from France, may – The First Consul of France Citizen Bonaparte begins making preparations to invade England. May 18 – The United Kingdom resumes war on France after France refuses to withdraw from Dutch territory, may 19 – Master Malati, a Coptic Christian leader, is beheaded by a Muslim mob in Cairo, Egypt. July 4 – The Louisiana Purchase is announced to the American people, july 5 – The convention of Artlenburg leads to the French occupation of Hanover. July 23 – Robert Emmets uprising in Ireland begins, july 26 – The wagonway between Wandsworth and Croydon is opened, being the first public railway line in England. August 3 – The British begin the Second Anglo-Maratha War against the Scindia of Gwalior, september 11 – Battle of Delhi, during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, between British troops under General Lake, and Marathas of Scindias army under General Louis Bourquin. September 20 – Irish rebel Robert Emmet is executed, september 23 – Battle of Assaye, British-led troops defeat Maratha forces. October 20 – The Senate ratifies the Louisiana Purchase Treaty, doubling the size of the United States, november 18 – Battle of Vertières, The Haitian army led by Jean-Jacques Dessalines defeats the army of Napoleon. November 30 – The Balmis Expedition starts in Spain with the aim of vaccinating millions against smallpox in Spanish America, odisha, India is occupied by the British under the British East India Company after the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Major breakthroughs in chemistry occur, with the identification of the elements rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and cerium
3.
Holy Roman Empire
–
The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
4.
Hanover
–
At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Electorate was enlarged to become a Kingdom with Hanover as its capital. From 1868 to 1946 Hanover was the capital of the Prussian Province of Hanover and it is now the capital of the Land of Lower Saxony. Since 2001 it has been part of the Hanover district, which is a body made up from the former district. With a population of 518,000, Hanover is a centre of Northern Germany. Hanover also hosts annual commercial trade fairs such as the Hanover Fair, every year Hanover hosts the Schützenfest Hannover, the worlds largest marksmens festival, and the Oktoberfest Hannover, the second largest such festival in Germany. In 2000, Hanover hosted the world fair Expo 2000, the Hanover fairground, due to numerous extensions, especially for the Expo 2000, is the largest in the world. Hanover is of importance because of its universities and medical school, its international airport. The city is also a crossing point of railway lines and highways. Hanover is the traditional English spelling, the German spelling is becoming more popular in English, recent editions of encyclopaedias prefer the German spelling, and the local government uses the German spelling on English websites. The traditional English spelling is used in historical contexts, especially when referring to the British House of Hanover. Hanover was founded in times on the east bank of the River Leine. Its original name Honovere may mean high bank, though this is debated, Hanover was a small village of ferrymen and fishermen that became a comparatively large town in the 13th century due to its position at a natural crossroads. As overland travel was difficult, its position on the upper navigable reaches of the river helped it to grow by increasing trade. In the 14th century the churches of Hanover were built. The beginning of industrialization in Germany led to trade in iron and silver from the northern Harz Mountains, in 1636 George, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, ruler of the Brunswick-Lüneburg principality of Calenberg, moved his residence to Hanover. The Dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg were elevated by the Holy Roman Emperor to the rank of Prince-Elector in 1692, thus the principality was upgraded to the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg, colloquially known as the Electorate of Hanover after Calenbergs capital. Its electors would later become monarchs of Great Britain, the first of these was George I Louis, who acceded to the British throne in 1714. The last British monarch who ruled in Hanover was William IV, semi-Salic law, which required succession by the male line if possible, forbade the accession of Queen Victoria in Hanover
5.
John Sutter
–
Although famous throughout California for his association with the Gold Rush, Sutter saw his business ventures fail while those of his elder son, John Augustus Sutter, Jr. were more successful. John Augustus Sutter was born Johann August Suter on February 15,1803 in Kandern, Baden, Germany, Johann went to school in Neuchâtel, Switzerland. At age 21, Johann married the daughter of a rich widow and he operated a store but he was more interested in spending money than making it. Because of family and mounting debts, Johann faced charges that would have him placed in jail, so he decided to dodge trial and ventured to America, he styled his name to Captain John Augustus Sutter. In North America, John Augustus Sutter undertook extensive travels, before he went to the U. S. he had learned Spanish and English in addition to Swiss French. Together with 35 Germans he moved from the St. Louis area to Santa Fe, New Mexico, a province of Mexico, then moved to the town of Westport, Oregon Territory. On April 1,1838, he joined a group of missionaries, led by the fur trapper Andrew Drips, and traveled the Oregon Trail to Fort Vancouver in Oregon Territory, which they reached in October. Sutter originally planned to cross the Siskiyou Mountains during the winter, Sutter was charged £21 by Douglas to arrange transportation on the British bark Columbia for himself and his eight followers. The Columbia departed Fort Vancouver on 11 November and sailed to the Kingdom of Hawaii, Sutter had missed the only ship inbound for the Alta California, and had to remain in the Kingdom for four months. The brig Clementine was eventually hired by Sutter to take provisions and general merchandise for New Archangel. Joining the crew as unpaid supercargo, Sutter,10 Native Hawaiians laborers, staying at New Archangel for a month, Sutter joined several balls hosted by Governor Kupreyanov, who likely gave help in determining the course of the Sacramento River. The Clementine then sailed for Alta California, reaching Yerba Buena on July 1,1839, which at that time was only a small seaport town. At the time of Sutters arrival in California, Alta California was a province of Mexico, and had a population of only about 1,000 Europeans and an estimated 100, 000-700,000 Native Americans. Sutter had to go to the capital at Monterey to obtain permission from the governor, Juan Bautista Alvarado, Alvarado saw Sutters plan of establishing a colony in Central Valley as useful in buttressing the frontier which he was trying to maintain against Indians, Russians, Americans and British. The governor stipulated however that for Sutter to qualify for land ownership, he had to reside in the territory for a year and become a Mexican citizen, which he did on August 29,1840. Construction was begun in August 1839 on a settlement which Sutter named New Helvetia, or New Switzerland, after his homeland. Sutter often began to identify himself as Captain Sutter of the Swiss Guard, when the settlement was completed in 1841, on 18 June, he received title to 48,827 acres on the Sacramento River. The site is now part of the California state capital of Sacramento, Sutter at first supported the establishment of an independent California Republic but when United States troops under John C
6.
1880
–
As of the start of 1880, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 22 Toowong State School is founded in Queensland, Australia, february – The journal Science is first published in the United States with financial backing from Thomas Edison. February 2 The first electric streetlight is installed in Wabash, Indiana, the first successful shipment of frozen mutton from Australia arrives in London aboard the SS Strathleven. March 31 – Wabash, Indiana becomes the first electrically lit city in the world, april – The government of Cape Colony sets a deadline for the surrender of weapons by the Basuto people. Non-compliance leads to the Basuto Gun War, april 18 – William Ewart Gladstone defeats Benjamin Disraeli in the United Kingdom general election to become Prime Minister for the second time. April 19 – The Prime Minister of Sweden, Louis De Geer, resigns over the defeat of a reform bill in the countrys Riksdag. April 27 – Charter founding the Royal University of Ireland, allowing the Catholic University of Ireland to re-form as University College Dublin. May 2 – After having her lights installed by Edisons personnel, may 13 – In Menlo Park, New Jersey, Thomas Edison performs the first test of his electric railway. June – The SS Columbia sets off on her voyage around Cape Horn to Portland, Oregon. June 1 – Tinius Olsen awarded a United States Patent for the Little Giant Testing Machine, june 28 – Australian police capture bank robber Ned Kelly after a gun battle at Glenrowan, Victoria. June 29 – France annexes Tahiti, july 14 – Dorchester Penitentiary opens in Canada. July 22 – Abdur Rahman Khan becomes Emir of Afghanistan, july 27 – Battle of Maiwand August 14 – Cologne Cathedral is completed, after construction began in 1248,632 years earlier. August 24 – The SS Columbia completes her maiden voyage, arriving without incident in Portland, August 26 — Competing circus owners P. T. Barnum and James A. Bailey sign a contract in Bridgeport, Connecticut to create the Barnum & Bailey Circus. In 1907, the circus will merge forces with another competitor, september 1 — Second Anglo-Afghan War, General Frederick Roberts, commanding British forces, defeats the Afghan troops of Mohammad Ayub Khan in the Battle of Kandahar, bringing an end to the war. October – The Blizzard of 1880 begins in North America, october 1 – German company Munich Re is founded in Munich. October 6 – The University of Southern California opens its doors to 53 students and 10 faculty, october 15 – Mexican soldiers kill Victorio, one of the greatest Apache military strategists. October 28 – The first stone is laid for the Clarkson Memorial in Wisbech, november 2 – U. S. presidential election,1880, James Garfield defeats Winfield S. Hancock. November 4 – The first cash register is patented by James and John Ritty of Dayton, november 9 – A major earthquake strikes Zagreb and destroys many buildings including Zagreb Cathedral
7.
Karl Friedrich Schimper
–
Karl Friedrich Schimper was a German botanist, naturalist and poet. Born in Mannheim, he was a student at Heidelberg University. He pioneered research in the field of plant morphology, particularly phyllotaxis and he is perhaps best known as the originator of the theory of prehistoric hot and cold eras, and was one of the initiators of the modern theories of ice ages and climatic cycles. He was a brother of botanist Georg Wilhelm Schimper and cousin of botanist Wilhelm Philippe Schimper, however, Schimper was known to be reluctant to write and never published his ideas. He discussed them with Louis Agassiz, who went on to appropriate the idea as his own and, much to Schimpers dismay, beschreibung des Symphytum Zeyheri und seiner zwei deutschen verwandten der S. bulbosum Schimper und S. tuberosum Jacq, mit 6 Steintaf. Winter, Heidelberg 1835 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
8.
1867
–
As of the start of 1867, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – The Covington–Cincinnati Suspension Bridge opens between Cincinnati, Ohio and Covington, Kentucky in the United States, becoming the longest single-span bridge in the world and it will be renamed after its designer, John A. Roebling, in 1983. January 8 – African-American men are granted the right to vote in the District of Columbia, january 11 – Benito Juárez becomes Mexican president again. January 30 – Emperor Kōmei of Japan dies suddenly, age 36, january 31 – Maronite nationalist leader Youssef Bey Karam leaves Lebanon aboard a French ship for Algeria. February 3 – Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu abdicates, and the late Emperor Kōmeis son, Prince Mutsuhito becomes Emperor Meiji of Japan in a ceremony in Kyoto. February 7 – West Virginia University is established in Morgantown, West Virginia, February 13 – Covering of the Senne in Brussels begins. February 15 – First performance of Johann Strauss IIs waltz The Blue Danube at a concert of the Vienna Mens Choral Association, Strauss adapts it into its popular purely orchestral version for the International Exposition in Paris later this year. February 17 – The first ship passes through the Suez Canal, February 19 – Battle of Inlon River in Hubei, China. February 22 – Indiana Daily Student established February 28 – After almost 20 years, funding resumes along with relations in 1984. March – The University of Illinois at Urbana/Champaign is established, March 1 – Nebraska is admitted as the 37th U. S. state. March 5 – Fenian Rising in Ireland, March 16 – An article by Joseph Lister, outlining the discovery of antiseptic surgery, is first published in The Lancet. March 23 – William III of the Netherlands accepts an offer of 5,000,000 guilders from Napoleon III for the sale of Luxembourg, March 29 – The British North America Act receives royal assent, forming the Dominion of Canada in an event known as the Confederation. This unites the Province of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia on July 1, ottawa becomes the capital, and John A. Macdonald becomes the Dominions first prime minister. March 30 – Alaska is purchased for $7.2 million from Alexander II of Russia, about 2 cent/acre, the news media call this Sewards Folly. April 1 – The Strait Settlement of Singapore, formerly ruled from Calcutta, sorosis, the first womens fraternity founded upon the mens fraternity model, with Pi Beta Phi as its motto, is founded at Monmouth College in Monmouth, Illinois. In 1888, the motto becomes the name of the organization, may 1 – First political May Day march in Chicago May 7 – Alfred Nobel patents dynamite in the United Kingdom. May 11 Treaty of London, the powers of Europe reaffirm the neutrality of Luxembourg. The Duchy of Limburg is formally re-incorporated into the Kingdom of the Netherlands, First public performance of Cox and Box by Francis Burnand and Arthur Sullivan, at the Adelphi Theatre, London
9.
Arnold Adolph Berthold
–
Arnold Adolph Berthold or Arnold Adolf Berthold was a German physiologist and zoologist. He is known as a pioneer in endocrinology due to his experiments on the role of the gonads in the development of sexual characteristics. He published important works on reptiles and amphibians as well as on avian physiology, in the field of entomology, he authored Natürliche Familien des Tierreichs. He studied medicine in Göttingen in 1819 and wrote his thesis under the direction of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, Berthold became a private lecturer in 1825 and began to teach physiology at the University of Göttingen where he spent the rest of his career. Berthold is particularly famous for his work on endocrinology and it has been argued that Berthold, in 1849, was the first to engage in the formal study of behavioral endocrinology when he performed ground breaking experiments with chicken castration. Berthold noted that the chickens were aggressive, had pronounced comb and wattle. On the other hand, Berthold noted that the chickens were not aggressive, had no comb and wattle, did not crow. Also, Berholds experiment showed that transplanted testes became functional
10.
1861
–
As of the start of 1861, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 Benito Juárez captures Mexico City, First steam-powered carousel recorded, in Bolton, England. January 2 – Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia dies and is succeeded by Wilhelm I, january 3 – American Civil War, Delaware votes not to secede from the Union. January 9 – American Civil War, Mississippi becomes the state to secede from the Union. January 10 – American Civil War, Florida secedes from the Union, january 11 – American Civil War, Alabama secedes from the Union. January 12 – American Civil War, Major Robert Anderson sends dispatches to Washington, january 19 – American Civil War, Georgia secedes from the Union. January 21 – American Civil War, Jefferson Davis resigns from the United States Senate, january 26 – American Civil War, Louisiana secedes from the Union. January 29 – Kansas is admitted as the 34th U. S. state, february 1 – American Civil War, Texas secedes from the Union. February 4 – American Civil War, In Montgomery, Alabama, february 8 – American Civil War, The Confederate States of America are formed, comprising the first seven break-away States. February 9 – American Civil War, Jefferson Davis is elected the Provisional President of the Confederate States of America by the Weed Convention at Montgomery, february 11 American Civil War, The U. S. House unanimously passes a resolution guaranteeing non-interference with slavery in any state. About 850 convicts at Chatham Dockyard in England take over their prison in a riot, february 13 – Italian unification, The Siege of Gaeta, stronghold of the Neapolitan King Francis II, is ended by Piedmontese forces. February 18 – American Civil War, In Montgomery, Alabama, february 20 – In Britain, storms damage the Crystal Palace and cause the collapse of the steeple of Chichester Cathedral. February 23 – President-elect Abraham Lincoln arrives secretly in Washington, D. C. after an attempt in Baltimore. February 24 – Battle of Ky Hoa, the French and the Spanish defeat the Vietnamese, february 27 – Russian troops fire upon a crowd in Warsaw protesting Russian rule over Poland, killing 5 protesters. February 28 – Colorado is organized as a United States territory, march 2 Nevada is organized as a United States territory. American Civil War, Texas is admitted to the Confederate States of America, march 3 – Emancipation reform of 1861, Serfdom is abolished in the Russian Empire. March 4 Abraham Lincoln is sworn in as President of the United States, American Civil War, The Stars and Bars is adopted as the flag of the Confederate States of America. March 10 – El Hadj Umar Tall seizes the city of Ségou, march 11 – American Civil War, The Constitution of the Confederate States of America is adopted
11.
Justus von Liebig
–
Justus Freiherr von Liebig was a German chemist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and was considered the founder of organic chemistry. As a professor at the University of Giessen, he devised the modern laboratory-oriented teaching method and he also developed a manufacturing process for beef extracts, and founded a company, Liebig Extract of Meat Company, that later trademarked the Oxo brand beef bouillon cube. Justus von Liebig was born in Darmstadt into the family of Johann Georg Liebig. His father was a drysalter and hardware merchant who compounded and sold paints, varnishes and pigments, from childhood Justus was fascinated with chemistry. At the age of 13, Liebig lived through the year without a summer, Germany was among the hardest-hit in the global famine that ensued, and the experience is said to have shaped Liebigs later work. Thanks in part to Liebigs innovations in fertilizers and agriculture, the 1816 famine became known as the last great subsistence crisis in the Western world, Liebig attended grammar school at the Ludwig-Georgs-Gymnasium in Darmstadt, from the age of 8 to 14. He worked with his father for the two years, then attended the University of Bonn, studying under Karl Wilhelm Gottlob Kastner. When Kastner moved to the University of Erlangen, Liebig followed him, Liebig left Erlangen in March 1822, in part because of his involvement with the radical Korps Rhenania but also because of his hopes for more advanced chemical studies. The circumstances are clouded by possible scandal, in late 1822 Liebig went to study in Paris on a grant obtained for him by Kastner from the Hessian government. He worked in the laboratory of Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, and was also befriended by Alexander von Humboldt. Liebigs doctorate from Erlangen was conferred on 23 June 1823, a time after he left. Kastner pleaded that the requirement of a dissertation be waived, Liebig left Paris to return to Darmstadt in April 1824. On 26 May 1824, at the age of 21 and with Humboldts recommendation, Liebigs appointment was part of an attempt to modernize the University of Giessen and attract more students. He received a stipend, without laboratory funding or access to facilities. Vogt was happy to support a reorganization in which pharmacy was taught by Liebig and became the responsibility of the faculty of arts, Zimmermann found himself competing unsuccessfully with Liebig for students and their lecture fees. He refused to allow Liebig to use existing space and equipment, the deaths of Zimmermann and a Professor Blumhof who taught technology and mining opened the way for Liebig to apply for a full professorship. Liebig was appointed to the chair in chemistry on 7 December 1825, receiving a considerably increased salary. Liebig married Henriette Jettchen Moldenhauer, the daughter of a state official and they had five children, Georg, Agnes, Hermann, Johanna and Marie
12.
1873
–
As of the start of 1873, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 Japan adopts the Gregorian calendar, the California Penal Code goes into effect. January 17 – American Indian Wars, The First Battle of the Stronghold is fought during the Modoca War, February 11 – The Spanish Cortes deposes King Amadeus I and proclaims the First Spanish Republic. February 12 Emilio Castelar, the foreign minister, becomes prime minister of the new Spanish Republic. February 20 The University of California opens its first medical school in San Francisco, British Naval Officer John Morseby discovers the site of Port Moresby and claims the land for Britain. March 3 – Censorship, The United States Congress enacts the Comstock Law, making it illegal to send any obscene, lewd, march 4 – Ulysses S. Grant is sworn in for a second term as President of the United States. March 15 – The Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity is founded at the Massachusetts Agricultural College, march 19 – German Modernist composer Max Reger is born in Brand, Bavaria. March 22 – Emancipation Day for Puerto Rico, Slaves are freed, march 29 – The Rio Tinto Company is formed in Spain, following the February 17 purchase of the Rio Tinto mine from the Spanish government by a British investment group. April 1 – The British steamer RMS Atlantic sinks off Nova Scotia, april 4 – The Kennel Club, the worlds first kennel club, is founded in the United Kingdom. April 15–17 – American Indian Wars, The Second Battle of the Stronghold is fought, april 19 –11 perish in a train derailment due to a bridge washout in the village of Richmond Switch in Richmond, Rhode Island. May – Henry Rose exhibits barbed wire at an Illinois county fair, which is taken up by Joseph Glidden and Jacob Haish, may 5 – Battle of Eraul, Carlists under General Dorregaray defeat Republicans at Eraul, near Estella during the Third Carlist War. May 9 Der Gründerkrach, The Wiener Börse crash in Austria-Hungary ends the Gründerzeit and heralds the global Panic of 1873, the Battle of Montejurra at Navarra, Spain, is fought during the Third Carlist War. May 20 Levi Strauss and Jacob Davis receive United States patent#139121 for using copper rivets to strengthen the pockets of denim work pants, Levi Strauss & Co. begin manufacturing the famous Levis brand of jeans, using fabric from the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company in Manchester, New Hampshire. In Chipping Norton, England, rioters attempt to free the Ascott Martyrs –sixteen women sentenced to imprisonment for attempting to dissuade strikebreakers, may 23 The Canadian Parliament establishes the North-West Mounted Police. The Preakness Stakes horse race is run for the first time in Baltimore, may 27 Classical archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann discovers Priams Treasure. Laan brings order to the created by the dockworker riots of Tripoli. The city of Khiva falls to Imperial Russian forces, under the command of General Konstantin von Kaufman, june 4 – American Indian Wars, The Modoc War ends with the capture of Kintpuash. June 9 – Alexandra Palace in London is destroyed by only a fortnight after its opening
13.
Gottfried Semper
–
Gottfried Semper was a German architect, art critic, and professor of architecture, who designed and built the Semper Opera House in Dresden between 1838 and 1841. In 1849 he took part in the May Uprising in Dresden and was put on the wanted list. Semper fled first to Zürich and later to London, later he returned to Germany after the 1862 amnesty granted to the revolutionaries. Semper designed works at all scales, from a baton for Richard Wagner to major urban interventions like the re-design of the Ringstraße in Vienna, Semper was born into a well-to-do industrialist family in Altona. The fifth of eight children, he attended the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums in Hamburg before starting his university education at Göttingen in 1823 and he subsequently studied architecture in 1825 at the University of Munich under Friedrich von Gärtner. In 1826, Semper travelled to Paris in order to work for the architect Franz Christian Gau, between 1830 and 1833 he travelled to Italy and Greece in order to study the architecture and designs of antiquity. In 1832 he participated for four months in archaeological research at the Acropolis in Athens, the drawn reconstructions of the painterly decorations of ancient villas he created in Athens inspired his later designs for the painted decorations in Dresden and Vienna. The flourishing growth of Dresden during this period provided the young architect with considerable creative opportunities, in 1838-40 a synagogue was built in Dresden to Sempers design, it was ever afterward called the Semper Synagogue and is noted for its Moorish Revival interior style. The Synagogues exterior was built in romanesque style so as not to call attention to itself, the interior design included not only the Moorish inspired wall decorations, but furnishings, specifically, a silver lamp of eternal light, which caught Richard Wagner and his wife Cosimas fancy. They gave a great deal of effort to have a copy of this lamp, Sempers student, Otto Simonson would construct the magnificent Moorish Revival Leipzig synagogue in 1855. Certain civic structures remain today, such as the Elbe-facing gallery of the Zwinger Palace complex and his first building for the Dresden Hoftheater burnt down, and the second, today called the Semperoper, was built in 1841. Other buildings also remain indelibly attached to his name, such as the Maternity Hospital, the Synagogue, the Oppenheim Palace, and this last construction stands as a prototype of German villa architecture. On September 1,1835 Semper married Bertha Thimmig, the marriage ultimately produced six children. A convinced Republican, Semper took a role, along with his friend Richard Wagner. He was a member of the Civic Guard and helped to erect barricades in the streets, when the rebellion collapsed, Semper was considered a leading agitator for democratic change and a ringleader against government authority and he was forced to flee the city. He was destined never to return to the city that would, ironically, the Saxon government maintained a warrant for his arrest until 1863. When the Semper-designed Hoftheater burnt down in 1869, King John, on the urging of the citizenry, Semper produced the plans, but left the actual construction to his son, Manfred. What must I have done in 48, that one persecutes me forever, one single barricade did I construct - it held, because it was practical, and as it was practical, it was beautiful, wrote Semper in dismay
14.
1879
–
As of the start of 1879, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January – The current constitution of the State of California in the United States is ratified, January 1 – The Specie Resumption Act takes effect. The United States Note is valued the same as gold for the first time since the American Civil War, January 11 – Anglo-Zulu War begins. January 22 – Battle of Isandlwana, the first major encounter in the Anglo-Zulu War between the British Empire and the Zulu Kingdom, a force of 1,200 British soldiers was wiped out by the 20, 000+ Zulu warriors. January 23 – Battle of Rorkes Drift – following the days defeat. February 8 – At a meeting of the Royal Canadian Institute, engineer, march 11 – The Ryukyu Domain is incorporated into the Okinawa Prefecture of Japan and the last ruler, Shō Tai, is exiled to Tokyo. March 28 – Anglo-Zulu War – Battle of Hlobane, British forces suffer a defeat, march 29 – Anglo-Zulu War – Battle of Kambula, British forces defeat 20,000 Zulus. April – Postman Ferdinand Cheval begins to build his Palais Idéal at Hauterives in France, april 5 – War of the Pacific, Chile formally declares war on Bolivia and Peru. April 26 – The National Park, later renamed the Royal National Park, is declared in New South Wales, Australia, may 2 – The Spanish Socialist Workers Party is founded clandestinely at the Casa Labra pub in Madrid by printer Pablo Iglesias. May 10 – The Archaeological Institute of America is formed, may 12 – The English Catholic convert John Henry Newman is elevated to Cardinal. May 14 – The first group of 463 Indian indentured labourers arrive in Fiji aboard the Leonidas, may 26 – Russia and the United Kingdom sign the Treaty of Gandamak, establishing an Afghan state. May 30 – New York Citys Gilmores Garden is renamed Madison Square Garden by William Henry Vanderbilt, and is opened to the public at 26th Street and Madison Avenue. June 1 – Napoléon, Prince Imperial, great-nephew of Napoléon Bonaparte, june 4 – Yasukuni Shrine, officially renamed from Tokyo Shokonsha Shrine in Japan. June 6 – William Denny and Brothers launch the worlds first ocean-going steamer to be built of mild steel, the SS Rotomahana, on the River Clyde in Scotland. On October 2 they launch the first transatlantic steamer of the same material, june 14 – Sidney Faithorn Green, a priest in the Church of England, is tried and convicted for using Ritualist practices. June 21 – German company Linde is founded by Carl von Linde, july 4 – Anglo-Zulu War, The Anglo-Zulu War effectively ends with British victory at the Battle of Ulundi. August 16 – Fulham F. C. is founded in London as a soccer team. August 21 – Claimed apparition to local people at Knock, County Mayo, Ireland of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Saint Joseph, Saint John the Evangelist, september – Henry George self-publishes his major work Progress and Poverty
15.
Heinrich Wilhelm Dove
–
Heinrich Wilhelm Dove was a Prussian physicist and meteorologist. Dove was born in Liegnitz in the Kingdom of Prussia, Dove studied history, philosophy, and the natural sciences at the University of Breslau from 1821 until 1824. In 1824 he continued his education at the University of Berlin, in 1826, he became a Privatdozent and in 1828 a Professor extraordinarius at the University of Königsberg. In 1829, he moved to Berlin and taught at the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium, in 1845 he became a Professor ordinarius at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin, where he was elected rector in 1858–1859, and again in 1871–1872. In 1849 he also became the director of the Prussian Meteorological Institute, during his career he published more than 300 papers, some of which delved into experimental physics. In 1828, Dove observed that tropical cyclones rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, the crater Dove on the Moon is named after him. In Optics, the Dove prism is named for him, an 1857 photographic portrait of H. W. Dove as a middle-aged man A photographic portrait of H. W. Dove as an older man
16.
Johann Carl Fuhlrott
–
Prof. Dr. Johann Carl Fuhlrott was an early German paleoanthropologist. He is famous for recognizing the significance of the bones of Neanderthal 1, originally disregarded, Fuhlrott, to his eternal credit, had the insight to recognize them for what they were, the remains of a previously unknown type of human. His parents were the innkeeper Johannes Philipp Fuhlrott and his wife Maria Magdalena and his parents had died by the time he was ten and he was raised by his uncle, the Catholic priest Carl Bernhard Fuhlrott in Seulingen. In 1835 he married Josepha Amalia Kellner, with whom he had six children, after studying mathematics and natural sciences at the University of Bonn, Fuhlrott became a teacher at the Gymnasium in Elberfeld. In 1856, workers in a quarry in the nearby canyon called Gesteins or Neandertal showed him bones they had found in a cave. Fuhlrott identified them as human and thought them to be very old and he recognized them to be different from the usual bones of humans and showed them to the Professor of Anatomy at the University of Bonn, Hermann Schaaffhausen. Together they announced the discovery publicly in 1857, in their view the bones represented the remnants of an ancient human race, different from contemporary humans. Their views were not readily accepted as it contradicted literal interpretations of the Bible, List of fossil sites List of hominina fossils Media related to Johann Carl Fuhlrott at Wikimedia Commons Fuhlrott Museum Neanderthal Museum
17.
Johann Gottfried Herder
–
Johann Gottfried Herder was a German philosopher, theologian, poet, and literary critic. He is associated with the periods of Enlightenment, Sturm und Drang, born in Mohrungen in the Kingdom of Prussia, Herder grew up in a poor household, educating himself from his fathers Bible and songbook. In 1762, a youth of seventeen, he enrolled at the local University of Königsberg. At the same time, Herder became an intellectual protégé of Johann Georg Hamann, although himself an unsociable person, Herder influenced his contemporaries greatly. One friend wrote to him in 1785, hailing his works as inspired by God, a varied field of theorists were later to find inspiration in Herders tantalisingly incomplete ideas. In 1764, now a clergyman, Herder went to Riga to teach and it was during this period that he produced his first major works, which were literary criticism. In 1769 Herder traveled by ship to the French port of Nantes and this resulted in both an account of his travels as well as a shift of his own self-conception as an author. By 1770 Herder went to Strasbourg, where he met the young Goethe and this event proved to be a key juncture in the history of German literature, as Goethe was inspired by Herders literary criticism to develop his own style. This can be seen as the beginning of the Sturm und Drang movement, in 1771 Herder took a position as head pastor and court preacher at Bückeburg under Count Wilhelm von Schaumburg-Lippe. By the mid-1770s, Goethe was an author, and used his influence at the court of Weimar to secure Herder a position as General Superintendent. Herder moved there in 1776, where his outlook shifted again towards classicism, towards the end of his career, Herder endorsed the French Revolution, which earned him the enmity of many of his colleagues. At the same time, he and Goethe experienced a personal split, another reason for his isolation in later years was due to his unpopular attacks on Kantian philosophy. In 1802 Herder was ennobled by the Elector-Prince of Bavaria, which added the von to his last name. He died in Weimar in 1803 at age 59, in 1772 Herder published Treatise on the Origin of Language and went further in this promotion of language than his earlier injunction to spew out the ugly slime of the Seine. Herder now had established the foundations of comparative philology within the new currents of political outlook, Herder wrote that A poet is the creator of the nation around him, he gives them a world to see and has their souls in his hand to lead them to that world. After becoming General Superintendent in 1776, Herders philosophy shifted again towards classicism, Herder was at his best during this period, and produced works such as his unfinished Outline of a Philosophical History of Humanity which largely originated the school of historical thought. The historian should be the contemporary of the past. Herder gave Germans new pride in their origins, modifying that dominance of regard allotted to Greek art extolled among others by Johann Joachim Winckelmann, Herder equated the German with the Gothic and favoured Dürer and everything Gothic
18.
Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim
–
Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim was a German poet, commonly associated with the Enlightenment movement. Gleim was born at the town of Ermsleben in the Principality of Halberstadt. His father, a tax collector, and his mother died early, having obtained his final degree, he worked as a tutor in Berlin, where in 1743–44 he became secretary to the Hohenzollern prince Frederick William of Brandenburg-Schwedt. Gleim accompanied his employer in the Second Silesian War and made the acquaintance of Ewald Christian von Kleist, in 1747, after again living in Berlin for a few years, he was appointed secretary of the Halberstadt Cathedral chapter. From 1756 he also served as a canon at the nearby Walbeck monastery and he became known as Father Gleim throughout all literary Germany on account of his kind-hearted though inconsiderate and undiscriminating patronage alike of the poets and poetasters of the period. He died at the age of 83 in Halberstadt, then completely blind and he was buried in his garden on the Holtemme river. Gleims Collected Works appeared in 7 volumes in the 1811–13, a reprint of the Lieder eines Grenadiers was published by A. Sauer in 1882. A good selection of Gleims poetry will be found in Franz Munckers Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische Lyriker and his correspondence with Johann Jakob Wilhelm Heinse was published in 2 volumes, with Johann Uz, in both cases edited by C. Many of his poems were set to music, C. P. E, bach, Beethoven, Joseph Haydn, Reichardt, Schubart, and Spohr all set some of his Anacreontic poems. Of higher merit are his Preussische Kriegslieder von einem Grenadier, inspired by the Prussian campaigns of King Frederick the Great in the Seven Years War, they are often distinguished by genuine feeling and vigorous force of expression. They are also noteworthy as being the first of long series of noble political songs in which later German literature is so rich. Compared to this collection, Gleims other writings, though very popular in his day, were for the most part conosidered commonplace in thought. Only recently, a revaluation of his work in the context of 18th century literary history has taken place, significant contributions of Gleim include the establishment of German as literary language and his promotion of young talents such as Heinse, Johann Heinrich Voss, Seume, or Jean Paul. After Gleims death in Halberstadt, his effects were carefully looked after by his great-nephew. Augmented by the collection of the local poet Christian Friedrich Bernhard Augustin and still in operation, two rooms he devoted to a collection of portraits of friends, which numbered more than 120 by the time of his death. Artists commissioned by Gleim included Anton Graff, various members of the Tischbein family, Bernhard Rode, the Gleim Prize for Literature, awarded for outstanding non-fiction on the subject of 18th century literature, was established in 1995. Website of the Gleimhaus Gleim Prize for Literature
19.
1719
–
As of the start of 1719, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 23 The Principality of Liechtenstein is created within the Holy Roman Empire, the Riksdag of the Estates recognizes Ulrika Eleonoras claim to the Swedish throne, after she has agreed to sign a new Swedish constitution. Thus, she is recognized as Queen regnant of Sweden, february 20 – The first Treaty of Stockholm is signed. April 19 – In Louisiana, Bienvilles brother Serigny arrives on a French man-of-war, april 25 – Daniel Defoe publishes Robinson Crusoe. April – French army under James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick invades the Basque provinces of Spain. May 14 – In Louisiana, at war with Spain, Bienville, from Mobile, captures Pensacola, but Pensacola is later recaptured by the Spanish, june 4 – Battle of Ösel Island, A Russian naval force defeats the Swedish fleet. June 10 – Battle of Glen Shiel, British forces defeat the Jacobites, june 20 – Austrians are defeated in the Battle of Francavilla. December 22 – Andrew Bradford publishes the American Weekly Mercury, Pennsylvanias first newspaper, prussia conducts Europes first systematic census. Miners in Falun, Sweden find the apparently petrified body of Fet-Mats Israelsson in a part of the copper mine. Raines Foundation School, Bethnal Green, opens in Wapping, thomas Elfe, born in 1719 was a successful colonial period furniture craftsman in Charleston, South Carolina. Father of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Maria Anna Mozart
20.
Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock
–
Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock was a German poet. His best known work is his epic poem Der Messias, one of his major contributions to German literature was to open it up to exploration outside of French models. Klopstock was born at Quedlinburg, the eldest son of a lawyer, both in his birthplace and on the estate of Friedeburg on the Saale, which his father later rented, he spent a happy childhood. Having been given attention to his physical than to his mental development, he grew up strong. In his thirteenth year, he returned to Quedlinburg and attended the gymnasium there, here he soon became adept in Greek and Latin versification, and wrote some meritorious idylls and odes in German. While still at school, he had drafted the plan of Der Messias on which most of his fame rests. Finding life at that university not to his liking, he transferred in the spring of 1746 to Leipzig, in this periodical the first three cantos of Der Messias were published anonymously in hexameter verse in 1748. A new era in German literature had commenced, and the identity of the author became known. In Leipzig he also wrote a number of odes, the best known of which is An meine Freunde and he left the university in 1748 and became a private tutor in the family of a relative at Langensalza, where unrequited love for a cousin disturbed his peace of mind. Bodmer, however, was disappointed to find in the poet of the Messias a man of strong worldly interests. On his way to the Danish capital, Klopstock met in Hamburg the woman who later in 1754 became his wife, Margareta Möller and she was the daughter of a Hamburg merchant and an enthusiastic admirer of his poetry. His happiness was short, as she died in 1758, leaving him broken-hearted and his grief at her loss finds pathetic expression in the fifteenth canto of the Messias. The poet subsequently published his wifes writings, Hinterlassene Werke von Margareta Klopstock, see also Memoirs of Frederick and Margaret Klopstock and her correspondence with Samuel Richardson, published 1818. Klopstock now relapsed into melancholy, new ideas failed him, in 1770, when King Christian VII dismissed Count Bernstorff from office, he retired with the latter to Hamburg but retained his pension, together with the rank of councillor of legation. In 1773 were published the last five cantos of the Messias, in the following year he published a scheme for the regeneration of German letters, Die Gelehrtenrepublik. In 1775 he traveled south, and making the acquaintance of Goethe on the way, however, he was enthusiastic about the American War of Independence and the French Revolution. The French Republic sent him a diploma of citizenship, but, horrified at the terrible scenes the Revolution had enacted in the name of liberty. At the age of 67 he undertook a second marriage, to Johanna Elisabeth von Winthem, a widow and a niece of his late wife, who for many years had been one of his most intimate friends
21.
1724
–
As of the start of 1724, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 14 – King Philip V of Spain abdicates the throne in favour of his 16-year-old son Louis I, january 28 – Saint Petersburg State University is established. February 8 – Catherine I of Russia is officially named czarina by her husband, february 20 – The premiere of Giulio Cesare, an Italian opera by George Frideric Handel, takes place in London. April 7 – Premiere performance of the St John Passion of Johann Sebastian Bach at St. Nicholas Church, may 29 – Pope Benedict XIII, born Pierro Orsini, succeeds Pope Innocent XIII as the 245th pope. June 23 – Treaty of Constantinople is signed, partitioning Persia between the Ottoman Empire and Russia, july 27 – Peter the Wild Boy is captured near Helpensen in Hanover. August 31 – Louis I of Spain dies of smallpox aged 17 after a reign of 7 months, november 11 – Joseph Blake, highwayman, is hanged in London. November 16 Jack Sheppard, highwayman and partner of crime of Blueskin, is hanged in London, willem Mons, lover of Catherine I of Russia, is executed and his head preserved in alcohol. Blenheim Palace construction is completed in England and it is presented as a gift from the nation to the Duke of Marlborough for his involvement in the Battle of Blenheim in 1704. The Austrian Netherlands agree to the Pragmatic Sanction, shah Mahmud Hotaki of Afghanistan goes insane. Longman, the oldest surviving publishing house in England, is founded
22.
1744
–
As of the start of 1744, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 24 – The Dagohoy Rebellion in the Philippines begins with the killing of Father Giuseppe Lamberti, february – Violent storms frustrated planned French Invasion of Britain. February 22–23 – The British fleet is defeated by a joint Franco-Spanish fleet in the Battle of Toulon, March 1 – The Great Comet of 1744, one of the brightest ever seen, reaches perihelion March 15 – France declares war on Great Britain. April – The Female Spectator is founded by Eliza Haywood in England, april 2– First Rules of Golf drawn up at Leith for first golf competition. April 20 – Battle of Villafranca, A joint French and Spanish force defeats Britain, june 28 – Catherine the Great is received into the Russian Orthodox Church. July 19 – Battle of Casteldelfino, France defeats the Kingdom of Sardinia, july 29 – Nader Shah lays siege to the Ottoman citadel of Kars. August 12 – Battle of Velletri in the Kingdom of Naples, september 16 – Prague surrenders to the Prussians commanded by Frederick the Great. September 30 – Battle of Madonna dellOlmo, France and Spain defeat the Kingdom of Sardinia, the third French and Indian War, known as King Georges War, breaks out at Port Royal, Nova Scotia. The First Saudi State is founded by Mohammed Ibn Saud, Tommy Thumbs Pretty Song Book, sequel to Tommy Thumbs Song Book, containing the oldest version of many well-known and popular rhymes, is published in London
.svg)
