1.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
2.
Holy Roman Empire
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The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
3.
Hanover
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At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Electorate was enlarged to become a Kingdom with Hanover as its capital. From 1868 to 1946 Hanover was the capital of the Prussian Province of Hanover and it is now the capital of the Land of Lower Saxony. Since 2001 it has been part of the Hanover district, which is a body made up from the former district. With a population of 518,000, Hanover is a centre of Northern Germany. Hanover also hosts annual commercial trade fairs such as the Hanover Fair, every year Hanover hosts the Schützenfest Hannover, the worlds largest marksmens festival, and the Oktoberfest Hannover, the second largest such festival in Germany. In 2000, Hanover hosted the world fair Expo 2000, the Hanover fairground, due to numerous extensions, especially for the Expo 2000, is the largest in the world. Hanover is of importance because of its universities and medical school, its international airport. The city is also a crossing point of railway lines and highways. Hanover is the traditional English spelling, the German spelling is becoming more popular in English, recent editions of encyclopaedias prefer the German spelling, and the local government uses the German spelling on English websites. The traditional English spelling is used in historical contexts, especially when referring to the British House of Hanover. Hanover was founded in times on the east bank of the River Leine. Its original name Honovere may mean high bank, though this is debated, Hanover was a small village of ferrymen and fishermen that became a comparatively large town in the 13th century due to its position at a natural crossroads. As overland travel was difficult, its position on the upper navigable reaches of the river helped it to grow by increasing trade. In the 14th century the churches of Hanover were built. The beginning of industrialization in Germany led to trade in iron and silver from the northern Harz Mountains, in 1636 George, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, ruler of the Brunswick-Lüneburg principality of Calenberg, moved his residence to Hanover. The Dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg were elevated by the Holy Roman Emperor to the rank of Prince-Elector in 1692, thus the principality was upgraded to the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg, colloquially known as the Electorate of Hanover after Calenbergs capital. Its electors would later become monarchs of Great Britain, the first of these was George I Louis, who acceded to the British throne in 1714. The last British monarch who ruled in Hanover was William IV, semi-Salic law, which required succession by the male line if possible, forbade the accession of Queen Victoria in Hanover
4.
John Sutter
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Although famous throughout California for his association with the Gold Rush, Sutter saw his business ventures fail while those of his elder son, John Augustus Sutter, Jr. were more successful. John Augustus Sutter was born Johann August Suter on February 15,1803 in Kandern, Baden, Germany, Johann went to school in Neuchâtel, Switzerland. At age 21, Johann married the daughter of a rich widow and he operated a store but he was more interested in spending money than making it. Because of family and mounting debts, Johann faced charges that would have him placed in jail, so he decided to dodge trial and ventured to America, he styled his name to Captain John Augustus Sutter. In North America, John Augustus Sutter undertook extensive travels, before he went to the U. S. he had learned Spanish and English in addition to Swiss French. Together with 35 Germans he moved from the St. Louis area to Santa Fe, New Mexico, a province of Mexico, then moved to the town of Westport, Oregon Territory. On April 1,1838, he joined a group of missionaries, led by the fur trapper Andrew Drips, and traveled the Oregon Trail to Fort Vancouver in Oregon Territory, which they reached in October. Sutter originally planned to cross the Siskiyou Mountains during the winter, Sutter was charged £21 by Douglas to arrange transportation on the British bark Columbia for himself and his eight followers. The Columbia departed Fort Vancouver on 11 November and sailed to the Kingdom of Hawaii, Sutter had missed the only ship inbound for the Alta California, and had to remain in the Kingdom for four months. The brig Clementine was eventually hired by Sutter to take provisions and general merchandise for New Archangel. Joining the crew as unpaid supercargo, Sutter,10 Native Hawaiians laborers, staying at New Archangel for a month, Sutter joined several balls hosted by Governor Kupreyanov, who likely gave help in determining the course of the Sacramento River. The Clementine then sailed for Alta California, reaching Yerba Buena on July 1,1839, which at that time was only a small seaport town. At the time of Sutters arrival in California, Alta California was a province of Mexico, and had a population of only about 1,000 Europeans and an estimated 100, 000-700,000 Native Americans. Sutter had to go to the capital at Monterey to obtain permission from the governor, Juan Bautista Alvarado, Alvarado saw Sutters plan of establishing a colony in Central Valley as useful in buttressing the frontier which he was trying to maintain against Indians, Russians, Americans and British. The governor stipulated however that for Sutter to qualify for land ownership, he had to reside in the territory for a year and become a Mexican citizen, which he did on August 29,1840. Construction was begun in August 1839 on a settlement which Sutter named New Helvetia, or New Switzerland, after his homeland. Sutter often began to identify himself as Captain Sutter of the Swiss Guard, when the settlement was completed in 1841, on 18 June, he received title to 48,827 acres on the Sacramento River. The site is now part of the California state capital of Sacramento, Sutter at first supported the establishment of an independent California Republic but when United States troops under John C
5.
Justus von Liebig
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Justus Freiherr von Liebig was a German chemist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and was considered the founder of organic chemistry. As a professor at the University of Giessen, he devised the modern laboratory-oriented teaching method and he also developed a manufacturing process for beef extracts, and founded a company, Liebig Extract of Meat Company, that later trademarked the Oxo brand beef bouillon cube. Justus von Liebig was born in Darmstadt into the family of Johann Georg Liebig. His father was a drysalter and hardware merchant who compounded and sold paints, varnishes and pigments, from childhood Justus was fascinated with chemistry. At the age of 13, Liebig lived through the year without a summer, Germany was among the hardest-hit in the global famine that ensued, and the experience is said to have shaped Liebigs later work. Thanks in part to Liebigs innovations in fertilizers and agriculture, the 1816 famine became known as the last great subsistence crisis in the Western world, Liebig attended grammar school at the Ludwig-Georgs-Gymnasium in Darmstadt, from the age of 8 to 14. He worked with his father for the two years, then attended the University of Bonn, studying under Karl Wilhelm Gottlob Kastner. When Kastner moved to the University of Erlangen, Liebig followed him, Liebig left Erlangen in March 1822, in part because of his involvement with the radical Korps Rhenania but also because of his hopes for more advanced chemical studies. The circumstances are clouded by possible scandal, in late 1822 Liebig went to study in Paris on a grant obtained for him by Kastner from the Hessian government. He worked in the laboratory of Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, and was also befriended by Alexander von Humboldt. Liebigs doctorate from Erlangen was conferred on 23 June 1823, a time after he left. Kastner pleaded that the requirement of a dissertation be waived, Liebig left Paris to return to Darmstadt in April 1824. On 26 May 1824, at the age of 21 and with Humboldts recommendation, Liebigs appointment was part of an attempt to modernize the University of Giessen and attract more students. He received a stipend, without laboratory funding or access to facilities. Vogt was happy to support a reorganization in which pharmacy was taught by Liebig and became the responsibility of the faculty of arts, Zimmermann found himself competing unsuccessfully with Liebig for students and their lecture fees. He refused to allow Liebig to use existing space and equipment, the deaths of Zimmermann and a Professor Blumhof who taught technology and mining opened the way for Liebig to apply for a full professorship. Liebig was appointed to the chair in chemistry on 7 December 1825, receiving a considerably increased salary. Liebig married Henriette Jettchen Moldenhauer, the daughter of a state official and they had five children, Georg, Agnes, Hermann, Johanna and Marie
6.
Gottfried Semper
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Gottfried Semper was a German architect, art critic, and professor of architecture, who designed and built the Semper Opera House in Dresden between 1838 and 1841. In 1849 he took part in the May Uprising in Dresden and was put on the wanted list. Semper fled first to Zürich and later to London, later he returned to Germany after the 1862 amnesty granted to the revolutionaries. Semper designed works at all scales, from a baton for Richard Wagner to major urban interventions like the re-design of the Ringstraße in Vienna, Semper was born into a well-to-do industrialist family in Altona. The fifth of eight children, he attended the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums in Hamburg before starting his university education at Göttingen in 1823 and he subsequently studied architecture in 1825 at the University of Munich under Friedrich von Gärtner. In 1826, Semper travelled to Paris in order to work for the architect Franz Christian Gau, between 1830 and 1833 he travelled to Italy and Greece in order to study the architecture and designs of antiquity. In 1832 he participated for four months in archaeological research at the Acropolis in Athens, the drawn reconstructions of the painterly decorations of ancient villas he created in Athens inspired his later designs for the painted decorations in Dresden and Vienna. The flourishing growth of Dresden during this period provided the young architect with considerable creative opportunities, in 1838-40 a synagogue was built in Dresden to Sempers design, it was ever afterward called the Semper Synagogue and is noted for its Moorish Revival interior style. The Synagogues exterior was built in romanesque style so as not to call attention to itself, the interior design included not only the Moorish inspired wall decorations, but furnishings, specifically, a silver lamp of eternal light, which caught Richard Wagner and his wife Cosimas fancy. They gave a great deal of effort to have a copy of this lamp, Sempers student, Otto Simonson would construct the magnificent Moorish Revival Leipzig synagogue in 1855. Certain civic structures remain today, such as the Elbe-facing gallery of the Zwinger Palace complex and his first building for the Dresden Hoftheater burnt down, and the second, today called the Semperoper, was built in 1841. Other buildings also remain indelibly attached to his name, such as the Maternity Hospital, the Synagogue, the Oppenheim Palace, and this last construction stands as a prototype of German villa architecture. On September 1,1835 Semper married Bertha Thimmig, the marriage ultimately produced six children. A convinced Republican, Semper took a role, along with his friend Richard Wagner. He was a member of the Civic Guard and helped to erect barricades in the streets, when the rebellion collapsed, Semper was considered a leading agitator for democratic change and a ringleader against government authority and he was forced to flee the city. He was destined never to return to the city that would, ironically, the Saxon government maintained a warrant for his arrest until 1863. When the Semper-designed Hoftheater burnt down in 1869, King John, on the urging of the citizenry, Semper produced the plans, but left the actual construction to his son, Manfred. What must I have done in 48, that one persecutes me forever, one single barricade did I construct - it held, because it was practical, and as it was practical, it was beautiful, wrote Semper in dismay
7.
Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim
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Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim was a German poet, commonly associated with the Enlightenment movement. Gleim was born at the town of Ermsleben in the Principality of Halberstadt. His father, a tax collector, and his mother died early, having obtained his final degree, he worked as a tutor in Berlin, where in 1743–44 he became secretary to the Hohenzollern prince Frederick William of Brandenburg-Schwedt. Gleim accompanied his employer in the Second Silesian War and made the acquaintance of Ewald Christian von Kleist, in 1747, after again living in Berlin for a few years, he was appointed secretary of the Halberstadt Cathedral chapter. From 1756 he also served as a canon at the nearby Walbeck monastery and he became known as Father Gleim throughout all literary Germany on account of his kind-hearted though inconsiderate and undiscriminating patronage alike of the poets and poetasters of the period. He died at the age of 83 in Halberstadt, then completely blind and he was buried in his garden on the Holtemme river. Gleims Collected Works appeared in 7 volumes in the 1811–13, a reprint of the Lieder eines Grenadiers was published by A. Sauer in 1882. A good selection of Gleims poetry will be found in Franz Munckers Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische Lyriker and his correspondence with Johann Jakob Wilhelm Heinse was published in 2 volumes, with Johann Uz, in both cases edited by C. Many of his poems were set to music, C. P. E, bach, Beethoven, Joseph Haydn, Reichardt, Schubart, and Spohr all set some of his Anacreontic poems. Of higher merit are his Preussische Kriegslieder von einem Grenadier, inspired by the Prussian campaigns of King Frederick the Great in the Seven Years War, they are often distinguished by genuine feeling and vigorous force of expression. They are also noteworthy as being the first of long series of noble political songs in which later German literature is so rich. Compared to this collection, Gleims other writings, though very popular in his day, were for the most part conosidered commonplace in thought. Only recently, a revaluation of his work in the context of 18th century literary history has taken place, significant contributions of Gleim include the establishment of German as literary language and his promotion of young talents such as Heinse, Johann Heinrich Voss, Seume, or Jean Paul. After Gleims death in Halberstadt, his effects were carefully looked after by his great-nephew. Augmented by the collection of the local poet Christian Friedrich Bernhard Augustin and still in operation, two rooms he devoted to a collection of portraits of friends, which numbered more than 120 by the time of his death. Artists commissioned by Gleim included Anton Graff, various members of the Tischbein family, Bernhard Rode, the Gleim Prize for Literature, awarded for outstanding non-fiction on the subject of 18th century literature, was established in 1995. Website of the Gleimhaus Gleim Prize for Literature
8.
Wolfgang Franz von Kobell
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Wolfgang Xavier Franz Ritter von Kobell was a German mineralogist and writer of short stories and poems in Bavarian dialect. Kobell was born in Munich, Bavaria, son of the painter Wilhelm Kobell, after studying mineralogy in Landshut, he became professor of mineralogy in 1826 at the University of Munich, and in 1856 was appointed first curator of the Bavarian State collection of minerals. His greatest contributions were new methods in crystallography, in 1855 he invented the stauroscope for the study of the optical properties of crystals. The mineral kobellite is named after him, besides his work as a mineralogist, Kobell is also famous for writing many short stories and poems in the Bavarian dialect of Upper Bavaria. He was among the regular hunting companions of the Bavarian dukes and his best known work is a short story which was later used as base for the popular Bavarian stage play Der Brandner Kasper. The story is about a of a blacksmith from Tegernsee, who is visited by the grim reaper and tricks him into drinking and gambling for some further years on earth. The grim reaper has some issues with his management and convinces Kasper to stay in paradise, after he had a look into it, the play was adapted 1974 for the stage by a grand nephew of Kobell, Kurt Wilhelm. There are different television and movie adaptations, each year before All Saints Day it is being sent by the Bayerischer Rundfunk. Kobells writing shows great comic awareness and the ability to combine a sense of fantasy with realism. 1834 Kobell went for a journey to Greece during the short term kingdom of King Otto of Greece and was member of different academies. He pioneered as well early photographic and photochemistry procedures together with Carl August von Steinheil, schnadahüpfln und Sprüchln Gedichte in pfälzischer Mundart Jagd- und Weinlieder List of mineralogists Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Kobell, Wolfgang Xaver Franz, Baron von. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Gilman. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds, luise von Kobell, Franz von Kobell. Das Portrait, Franz Ritter von Kobell
9.
Adrian Ludwig Richter
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He was the most popular, and in many ways the most typical German illustrator of the middle of the 19th century. His work is as typically German and homely as are the fairy-tales of Grimm, richter visited Italy from 1823–1826, and his Thunderstorm in the Sabine Mountains at the Staedel Museum in Frankfurt is one of the rare Italian subjects from his brush. In 1828 he worked as designer for the Meissen factory, and in 1841 he became professor, the Dresden Gallery owns one of his best and most characteristic paintings, Bridal Procession in a Spring Landscape. An eye disease put a stop to the practice of his art in 1874, he was pensioned in 1877, the interest of his uneventful life centres within the circle of his art. One of his most notable protégés was Hermann Lungkwitz, among his 240 etchings are about 140 views in Saxony, others of Salzburg, Rome, and the Campagna. His individuality is most completely revealed in his 3000 or more drawingsvers
10.
Johann Gottfried Herder
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Johann Gottfried Herder was a German philosopher, theologian, poet, and literary critic. He is associated with the periods of Enlightenment, Sturm und Drang, born in Mohrungen in the Kingdom of Prussia, Herder grew up in a poor household, educating himself from his fathers Bible and songbook. In 1762, a youth of seventeen, he enrolled at the local University of Königsberg. At the same time, Herder became an intellectual protégé of Johann Georg Hamann, although himself an unsociable person, Herder influenced his contemporaries greatly. One friend wrote to him in 1785, hailing his works as inspired by God, a varied field of theorists were later to find inspiration in Herders tantalisingly incomplete ideas. In 1764, now a clergyman, Herder went to Riga to teach and it was during this period that he produced his first major works, which were literary criticism. In 1769 Herder traveled by ship to the French port of Nantes and this resulted in both an account of his travels as well as a shift of his own self-conception as an author. By 1770 Herder went to Strasbourg, where he met the young Goethe and this event proved to be a key juncture in the history of German literature, as Goethe was inspired by Herders literary criticism to develop his own style. This can be seen as the beginning of the Sturm und Drang movement, in 1771 Herder took a position as head pastor and court preacher at Bückeburg under Count Wilhelm von Schaumburg-Lippe. By the mid-1770s, Goethe was an author, and used his influence at the court of Weimar to secure Herder a position as General Superintendent. Herder moved there in 1776, where his outlook shifted again towards classicism, towards the end of his career, Herder endorsed the French Revolution, which earned him the enmity of many of his colleagues. At the same time, he and Goethe experienced a personal split, another reason for his isolation in later years was due to his unpopular attacks on Kantian philosophy. In 1802 Herder was ennobled by the Elector-Prince of Bavaria, which added the von to his last name. He died in Weimar in 1803 at age 59, in 1772 Herder published Treatise on the Origin of Language and went further in this promotion of language than his earlier injunction to spew out the ugly slime of the Seine. Herder now had established the foundations of comparative philology within the new currents of political outlook, Herder wrote that A poet is the creator of the nation around him, he gives them a world to see and has their souls in his hand to lead them to that world. After becoming General Superintendent in 1776, Herders philosophy shifted again towards classicism, Herder was at his best during this period, and produced works such as his unfinished Outline of a Philosophical History of Humanity which largely originated the school of historical thought. The historian should be the contemporary of the past. Herder gave Germans new pride in their origins, modifying that dominance of regard allotted to Greek art extolled among others by Johann Joachim Winckelmann, Herder equated the German with the Gothic and favoured Dürer and everything Gothic
11.
Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock
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Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock was a German poet. His best known work is his epic poem Der Messias, one of his major contributions to German literature was to open it up to exploration outside of French models. Klopstock was born at Quedlinburg, the eldest son of a lawyer, both in his birthplace and on the estate of Friedeburg on the Saale, which his father later rented, he spent a happy childhood. Having been given attention to his physical than to his mental development, he grew up strong. In his thirteenth year, he returned to Quedlinburg and attended the gymnasium there, here he soon became adept in Greek and Latin versification, and wrote some meritorious idylls and odes in German. While still at school, he had drafted the plan of Der Messias on which most of his fame rests. Finding life at that university not to his liking, he transferred in the spring of 1746 to Leipzig, in this periodical the first three cantos of Der Messias were published anonymously in hexameter verse in 1748. A new era in German literature had commenced, and the identity of the author became known. In Leipzig he also wrote a number of odes, the best known of which is An meine Freunde and he left the university in 1748 and became a private tutor in the family of a relative at Langensalza, where unrequited love for a cousin disturbed his peace of mind. Bodmer, however, was disappointed to find in the poet of the Messias a man of strong worldly interests. On his way to the Danish capital, Klopstock met in Hamburg the woman who later in 1754 became his wife, Margareta Möller and she was the daughter of a Hamburg merchant and an enthusiastic admirer of his poetry. His happiness was short, as she died in 1758, leaving him broken-hearted and his grief at her loss finds pathetic expression in the fifteenth canto of the Messias. The poet subsequently published his wifes writings, Hinterlassene Werke von Margareta Klopstock, see also Memoirs of Frederick and Margaret Klopstock and her correspondence with Samuel Richardson, published 1818. Klopstock now relapsed into melancholy, new ideas failed him, in 1770, when King Christian VII dismissed Count Bernstorff from office, he retired with the latter to Hamburg but retained his pension, together with the rank of councillor of legation. In 1773 were published the last five cantos of the Messias, in the following year he published a scheme for the regeneration of German letters, Die Gelehrtenrepublik. In 1775 he traveled south, and making the acquaintance of Goethe on the way, however, he was enthusiastic about the American War of Independence and the French Revolution. The French Republic sent him a diploma of citizenship, but, horrified at the terrible scenes the Revolution had enacted in the name of liberty. At the age of 67 he undertook a second marriage, to Johanna Elisabeth von Winthem, a widow and a niece of his late wife, who for many years had been one of his most intimate friends
12.
Julius Mosen
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Julius Mosen was a German poet and author of Jewish descent, associated with the Young Germany movement, and now remembered principally for his patriotic poem the Andreas-Hofer-Lied. Julius Mosen was born at Marieney in the Saxon Vogtland, the son of Johannes Gottlob Moses and he studied at the Gymnasium in Plauen from 1817 to 1822, and afterwards studied law at the University of Jena. During a two-year-long visit to Italy, he received the inspiration that resulted several years later in his major works, on his return, he finished his law studies at Leipzig, where he then worked as a lawyer. From 1835 to 1844 he was an independent advocate in Dresden and he had meanwhile shown great literary promise in his Lied vom Ritter Wahn. This was followed by the more philosophical Ahasvar, and by a volume of poems, Gedichte, among which Andreas Hofer and he also wrote the historical plays Heinrich der Fünfte, Cola Rienzi, Die Bräute von Florenz, Wendelin und Helene and Kaiser Otto III. His tragedies were very well received and were performed at the Dresden court theatre, for his services to German theatre the faculty of Philosophy at the University of Jena awarded him an honorary doctorate. In addition he tried his hand at fiction, in his novel, the politico-historical Der Kongress von Verona. In the same year he had his name changed from Moses to Mosen by Dresden ministerial decree. In 1846 he was stricken with paralysis as the result of a rheumatic illness and he was buried in the churchyard of St. Gertrudes Chapel in Oldenburg. Of his later works may be mentioned Die Dresdner Gemäldegallerie, a collection of his works, Sämtliche Werke, appeared in 8 volumes in 1863. His best-known poem is the text of the Andreas-Hofer-Lied, the present anthem of the Austrian Bundesland of the Tyrol, robert Schumann wrote a lied using as lyrics his poem Der Nussbaum. There are three themes in Mosens life and work, love of the home country, the battle for freedom. The Vogtländer for him are the Saxon Tyrolese, only pleasanter, livelier, more persistent in the pursuit of their goal, ein Beitrag zur Literaturgeschichte der Romantik und des Jungen Deutschland. Stapf, F. F.2001, Julius Mosen, lappersdorf, Kerschensteiner Julius Mosen in the German National Library catalogue Julius Mosen, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie,22, Leipzig, Duncker & Humblot,1885, pp. article name needed
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