1.
1841 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1841. January – Poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning is given her golden cocker spaniel Flush by writer Mary Russell Mitford, april 10 – Horace Greeley begins publication of the New-York Tribune. April 20 – Edgar Allan Poes short story The Murders in the Rue Morgue is published in Grahams Magazine, the story will be recognized as the first significant work of detective fiction. July 17 – Punch magazine is founded in London by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells, edited by Mayhew, London publisher Edward Moxon is convicted of blasphemous libel for issuing an edition of Shelleys poem Queen Mab with its atheistic passages restored. Anthony Panizzi and his staff at the British Museum Library in London devise the Ninety-One Cataloguing Rules, London Library founded in Pall Mall, London on the initiative of Thomas Carlyle. Khachatur Abovian – Wounds of Armenia W. Harrison Ainsworth – Old St. K
2.
1847 in literature
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This article presents lists of literary events and publications in 1847. January – Vanity Fair, A Novel without a Hero begins serial publication in Punch magazine, with the author, William Makepeace Thackeray, march–April – Ivan Goncharovs debut novel A Common Story is published in Sovremennik. April – Robert Browning settles with his wife and fellow poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning in Florence, hans Christian Andersen begins his first visit to Britain during which he meets Charles Dickens. June 10 – Fictional date at the end of Anne Brontës The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, july – London publisher Thomas Cautley Newby accepts for publication Emily Brontës Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontës Agnes Grey. August 7–24 – Charlotte Brontë completes the manuscript of Jane Eyre at Haworth, september 16 – William Shakespeares birthplace in Stratford-upon-Avon in England is bought by the United Shakespeare Company for preservation. October 19 – Charlotte Brontës Jane Eyre is published in London by Smith, november – Dmitry Grigorovichs anti-serfdom novel Anton Goremyka is published in Sovremennik with its politically sensitive last scene rewritten by a censor. November 1 – John Maddison Mortons one-act farce Box and Cox opens at the Lyceum Theatre, London with John Pritt Harley and John Baldwin Buckstone in the title rôles. December 14 – Emily Brontës Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontës Agnes Grey are published in a 3-volume set under the pen names of Ellis, Wuthering Heights will be Emilys only published novel as she dies aged 30 a year later. London publisher E. Churton brings out the first six of George Sands books to be issued in English, the translations being by Matilda Hays, Eliza Ashurst and Rev. Edmund Larken
3.
1849 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1849. March–November – La Tribune des Peuples, a romantic nationalist periodical, is published by Adam Mickiewicz. April 22 – Fyodor Dostoyevsky and fellow members of the literary Petrashevsky Circle are arrested for their progressive views. Sentenced to death on November 16 and facing a firing squad on December 23 he and some others are reprieved at the last moment, may 1 – Charles Dickenss Bildungsroman David Copperfield begins serial publication. May 10 – The Astor Place Riot takes place in Manhattan over a dispute between two Shakespearean actors, the American Edwin Forrest and the Englishman William Macready, may 28 – Anne Brontë dies of tuberculosis at Scarborough, aged 29. September 20 – Honoré de Balzac travels to Poland to meet Eveline Hanska, october 3 – Edgar Allan Poe is found on the streets of Baltimore delirious, in great distress, and. in need of immediate assistance. October–December – Thomas De Quinceys essay The English Mail-Coach appears in issues of Blackwoods Edinburgh Magazine, November – The English scholarly correspondence magazine Notes and Queries is first published. November 14 – A public festival is held in Denmark to celebrate the 70th birthday of Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger, J. A. Leipzig publisher B. G. Teubner begins publishing the Bibliotheca Teubneriana series of editions of the Classics. Whos Who is published for the first time in the United Kingdom, philip Massingers play Believe as You List receives its first publication,218 years after its theatrical première
4.
1852 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1852. February 2 – Alexandre Dumas, filss stage adaptation of his 1848 novel La Dame aux caméllias is premièred at the Théâtre du Vaudeville in Paris. February 24 – Nikolai Gogol burns some of his manuscripts, including most of the part of Dead Souls. He takes to his bed and dies a few days later, march – Serialization of Charles Dickens novel Bleak House begins, the September installment introduces the first detective in an English novel. The first dramatic adaptations appear on the New York stage from Autumn, april – Samuel Orchart Beeton launches The Englishwomans Domestic Magazine, the first British magazine aimed at a middle-class female readership. April 16 – Ivan Turgenev is imprisoned and exiled to his estate over an obituary praising Gogol. April 24 – Wilkie Collins first contribution to Household Words, The travellers story of a strange bed, is an early example of crime fiction involving the police. August 5 – Exiled French novelist Victor Hugo moves to Saint Helier on Jersey in the Channel Islands, September 2 – The public library in Campfield, Manchester, England, is the first to offer free lending under the U. K. Public Libraries Act 1850, Edward Bulwer-Lytton and Charles Dickens are present at the opening ceremony, november – Leo Tolstoys debut novel, Childhood, is published under the initials L. N. in this months issue of the Saint Petersburg literary journal Sovremennik. Pierre Larousse founds his publishing house in Paris, hanah Mullens Karuna O Phulmonir Bibaran is the first Bengali novel. M. Reynolds – Mary Price Caroline Rush – The North and the South, or, Slavery and Its Contrasts William L
5.
1854 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1854. April 1–August 12 – Charles Dickenss novel Hard Times is serialised in his magazine Household Words, from September 2, it is followed in the magazine by Elizabeth Gaskells North and South, another social novel based in the Lancashire manufacturing district. July – Publication begins of Anthony Trollopes novel Barchester Towers, november – Crimean War, Future novelist Leo Tolstoy arrives to take part as a defending soldier in the Siege of Sevastopol. Off-duty he is reading Thackerays novels in French translation, john Rollin Ridges The Life and Adventures of Joaquín Murieta, The Celebrated California Bandit is the first novel by a Native American in the United States, although concerning a Mexican immigrant. The Polyglotta Africana, a classification of African languages based on field work under freed slaves in Freetown. 1, Dogme Theodor Mommsen – History of Rome, vol, morrow, American writer, noted for his stories of horror and suspense
6.
1857 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1857. January 5 – Wilkie Collins drama The Frozen Deep is first performed in an amateur performance staged by and featuring Charles Dickens at the latters London home. January 10 – Jules Verne marries Honorine de Viane Morel, February 7 – Gustave Flauberts pioneering realist novel Madame Bovary is acquitted on charges of offending morals and religion from its 1856 expurgated serialization. It is published complete in book form in April by Michel Lévy Frères in Paris, may 5 – American publisher Moses Phillips hosts a dinner for Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. May 10 – Indian Rebellion of 1857 breaks out, it will feature extensively in subsequent fiction, june 25 – Charles Baudelaires collection of poems Les Fleurs du mal is published in Paris. He will be convicted and some of the most decadent poems suppressed on charges of offending morals, september – Obscene Publications Act 1857 is passed in the United Kingdom, making the sale of obscene material a statutory offence. William Dugdale, a target of the act, is one of the first to be charged under it. The Act is replaced with a less stringent one in 1959, september 25 – Eugène Sues extended fiction Les Mystères du peuple is condemned on charges of offending morals and religion, the author having died on August 3. George Eliots Scenes of Clerical Life are serialized in Blackwoods Edinburgh Magazine through the year, her first work of fiction, the British Museum Reading Room opens in London. Saintine – Seul Catharine Maria Sedgwick – Married or Single, adalbert Stifter – Der Nachsommer William Makepeace Thackeray – The Virginians Anthony Trollope – Barchester Towers R. M. With an Introductory Sketch of its Progress, and Suggestions for its Confutation February 7 – Benjamin Eli Smith, American editor of reference books February 9 – A
7.
1859 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1859. – Tidskrift för hemmet, the first womens magazine in the Nordic countries, is established by Sophie Leijonhufvud, february 1 – George Eliots Adam Bede, her first full-length novel, is published by John Blackwood in the United Kingdom. April 30 – Charles Dickenss new weekly magazine All the Year Round is published for the first time in London, june–July – Frances Harpers The Two Offers, the first English-language short story by an African American author, is published in the first volume of The Anglo-African Magazine. November 26 – Wilkie Collinss sensation novel The Woman in White, an early example of mystery fiction, begins serialization in All the Year Round
8.
1860 in literature
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This article presents lists of literary events and publications in 1860. January First issue of the Cornhill Magazine published in London, anthony Trollopes Framley Parsonage is serialized in it throughout the year. Mrs. Henry Woods sensation novel East Lynne begins serialization in The New Monthly Magazine and this year also her first full-length novel Danesbury House is published. Approximate date - The Catholic newspaper LUnivers is suppressed by the French government, january 28 - The first of Charles Dickens literary sketches under the general title of The Uncommercial Traveller is published in his magazine All the Year Round. February - Mary Elizabeth Braddon gives up her career to write. In the same year, she meets her future husband John Maxwell, march 27 - The Irish melodrama The Colleen Bawn, or The Brides of Garryowen, written by and starring Dion Boucicault, is first performed at Miss Laura Keenes theatre, New York. April 4 - George Eliots novel The Mill on the Floss is published by John Blackwood in three volumes, june 30 -1860 Oxford evolution debate, Samuel Wilberforce and Thomas Huxley debate the theories of Charles Darwin at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. Lewis Carroll is among the audience, August 25 - Wilkie Collins sensation novel The Woman in White, an early example of mystery fiction, concludes serialization in the magazine All the Year Round. It is published in form in London around August 15. September 3 - Charles Dickens burns most of his papers at his home in Kent. December 1 - Charles Dickenss Bildungsroman Great Expectations begins serialization in his magazine All the Year Round, alexander Bain is appointed to the chair of logic and English literature at the University of Aberdeen. Andreas Munch becomes the first person to be granted a pension by the Parliament of Norway. Bram Stokers horror novel The Lair of the White Worm is set in this year
9.
1851 in architecture
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The year 1851 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. February 5 - Saint Thomas Episcopal Church and Rectory, Smithfield, Rhode Island, USA, may 1 The Crystal Palace, home of the Great Exhibition, erected in Hyde Park, London to the design of Joseph Paxton. Permanent Windsor Riverside railway station in England completed to the design of William Tite, may 31 - Madonna dellArchetto, Rome Italy. July 25 - Holy Trinity Church, Bangalore, India, october 1 - Alabama State Capitol, Montgomery, Alabama. Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, England, designed by Prince Albert in consultation with builder Thomas Cubitt, wat San Chao Chet, Bangkok, Thailand. St. Stephens Basilica in Budapest, Hungary, designed by Miklós Ybl, muhammad Amin Khan Madrasa in Khiva, Uzbekistan. Hurstpierpoint College in England, designed by Richard Cromwell Carpenter, gottfried Semper - The Four Elements of Architecture, part 1 Edmund Sharpe - The Seven Periods of English Architecture. Royal Gold Medal - Thomas Leverton Donaldson, grand Prix de Rome, architecture - Gabriel-Auguste Ancelet
10.
1851 in music
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This article is about music-related events in 1851. February – Operatic tenor Sims Reeves returns to perform in Dublin with his new wife, february 6 – Schumanns Symphony No.3 receives its première in Düsseldorf, the composer conducting. March 11 – Giuseppe Verdis opera Rigoletto is first performed at La Fenice in Venice, april 5 – Jenny Lind visits the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, USA. July 23 – Richard Wagner writes down the leitmotif for the Ride of the Valkyries, Operatic baritone Hans von Milde marries soprano Rosa Agthe. Eight-year-old Adelina Patti sings in public for the first time
11.
1851 in science
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The year 1851 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. February – First public exhibition of a Foucault pendulum, at the Meridian of the Paris Observatory, a few weeks later Foucault installs one at the Panthéon. July 28 – Solar eclipse of July 28,1851, Total solar eclipse, the first correctly exposed photograph, a daguerrotype, of the solar corona is made during the total phase of the eclipse by Berkowski at Koenigsberg Observatory in Prussia. October 24 – Ariel and Umbriel, moons of Uranus, are discovered by William Lassell, the William Brydone Jack Observatory is completed at Fredericton, New Brunswick. March – English sculptor Frederick Scott Archer makes public the wet collodion photographic process. George Wilson publishes The Life of the Hon. Henry Cavendish, bernhard Riemann provides a proof of Greens theorem in his inaugural dissertation. The Royal Marsden is established as the Free Cancer Hospital by surgeon William Marsden in London, hippolyte Fizeau carries out the Fizeau experiment to measure the relative speeds of light in moving water. November 13 – First protected submarine telegraph cable laid, across the English Channel, William Armstrong introduces the weight-loaded hydraulic accumulator. Copley Medal, Richard Owen Wollaston Medal for geology, Adam Sedgwick January 19 – Jacobus Kapteyn, march 16 – Martinus Beijerinck, Dutch microbiologist and botanist. April 12 – E. Walter Maunder, astronomer, July 8 – Arthur Evans, archaeologist. July 20 – Arnold Pick, neurologist, august 3 – George FitzGerald, mathematician. January 27 – John James Audubon, naturalist and illustrator, february 18 – Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi, mathematician. March 9 – Hans Christian Ørsted, physicist, July 6 – Thomas Davenport, electrical engineer. July 17 – John Farey, mechanical engineer and technical writer, september 2 – William Nicol, geologist
12.
Georgia (country)
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Georgia is a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. The capital and largest city is Tbilisi, Georgia covers a territory of 69,700 square kilometres, and its 2016 population is about 3.72 million. Georgia is a unitary, semi-presidential republic, with the government elected through a representative democracy, during the classical era, several independent kingdoms became established in what is now Georgia. The kingdoms of Colchis and Iberia adopted Christianity in the early 4th century, a unified Kingdom of Georgia reached the peak of its political and economic strength during the reign of King David IV and Queen Tamar in the 12th and early 13th centuries. Thereafter the kingdom declined and eventually disintegrated under hegemony of various powers, including the Mongols, the Ottoman Empire. Russian rule over Georgia was eventually acknowledged in various treaties with Iran. Since the establishment of the modern Georgian republic in April 1991, post-communist Georgia suffered from civil, the countrys Western orientation soon led to the worsening of relations with Russia, culminating in the brief Russo-Georgian War in August 2008. Georgia is a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, and it contains two de facto independent regions, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which gained limited international recognition after the 2008 Russo-Georgian War. Georgia and a part of the international community consider the regions to be part of Georgias sovereign territory under Russian military occupation. Georgia probably stems from the Persian designation of the Georgians – gurğān, in the 11th and 12th centuries adapted via Syriac gurz-ān/gurz-iyān, starting with the Persian word gurğ/gurğān, the word was later adopted in numerous other languages, including Slavic and West European languages. This term itself might have established through the ancient Iranian appellation of the near-Caspian region. The self-designation used by ethnic Georgians is Kartvelebi, the medieval Georgian Chronicles present an eponymous ancestor of the Kartvelians, Kartlos, a great-grandson of Japheth. However, scholars agree that the word is derived from the Karts, the name Sakartvelo consists of two parts. Its root, kartvel-i, specifies an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Georgian region of Kartli, ancient Greeks and Romans referred to early western Georgians as Colchians and eastern Georgians as Iberians. Today the full, official name of the country is Georgia, before the 1995 constitution came into force the countrys name was the Republic of Georgia. The territory of modern-day Georgia was inhabited by Homo erectus since the Paleolithic Era, the proto-Georgian tribes first appear in written history in the 12th century BC. The earliest evidence of wine to date has found in Georgia. In fact, early metallurgy started in Georgia during the 6th millennium BC, the classical period saw the rise of a number of early Georgian states, the principal of which was Colchis in the west and Iberia in the east
13.
Giorgi Eristavi
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Giorgi Eristavi was a Georgian playwright, poet, journalist, and the founder of modern Georgian theatre. Prince Giorgi Eristavi was born in the village of Odzisi of a prominent noble family and he received his early education in Tiflis and Moscow. On return to Georgia, he involved with the underground society which plotted a coup against the Imperial Russian rule. He had his first poem published in 1832 and this was An Ossetic Tale, a story of ill-fated lovers set against the background of the struggle of Georgian and Ossetian mountaineers against the Persian armies of Shah Abbas I in the 17th century. In 1842, he was able to return to Georgia where he married and joined the Russian civil service soon to become assistant to the Viceroy of the Caucasus Mikhail Vorontsov. Under the patronage of this liberal viceroy, Eristavi took charge of the Georgian theatre in Tiflis, the company premiered on January 1,1851 and was later able to stage its performances in the new theatre building in the city’s central square. He almost single-handedly created and directed a troupe and wrote first actable comedies – original as well as translated – in which he took leading parts. He also created and edited the 24 issues of the literary journal Tsiskari and, under the pseudonym Glukharich and these plays had a popular support and were tolerated by Vorontsov. However, after Vorontsovs departure from Georgia in 1854, Eristavi was forced to resign and he retired to the village of Khidistavi near Gori. His protégé and successor, Ivane Kereselidze, was able to keep the company for two years and, in 1856, the theatre went defunct. Apart from comedies, lyrics and journalism, Eristavi also wrote an account of his 1862 journey to London to inspect machinery and he died in Gori in 1864 and was buried at the Ikorta church
14.
Harriet Beecher Stowe
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Harriet Elisabeth Beecher Stowe was an American abolitionist and author. She came from the Beecher family, a religious family. It depicts the life for African Americans under slavery. It reached millions as a novel and play, and became influential in the United States and it energized anti-slavery forces in the American North, while provoking widespread anger in the South. She wrote 30 books, including novels, three memoirs, and collections of articles and letters. She was influential for both her writings and her public stands on issues of the day. Harriet Elisabeth Beecher was born in Litchfield, Connecticut, on June 14,1811 and she was the seventh of 13 children born to outspoken Calvinist preacher Lyman Beecher and Roxana, a deeply religious woman who died when Stowe was only five years old. Roxanas maternal grandfather was General Andrew Ward of the Revolutionary War, among her classmates was Sarah P. Willis, who later wrote under the pseudonym Fanny Fern. In 1832, at the age of 21, Harriet Beecher moved to Cincinnati, Ohio to join her father, who had become the president of Lane Theological Seminary. There, she joined the Semi-Colon Club, a literary salon and social club whose members included the Beecher sisters, Caroline Lee Hentz, Salmon P. Chase, Emily Blackwell. Areas of the city had been wrecked in the Cincinnati riots of 1829, Beecher met a number of African Americans who had suffered in those attacks, and their experience contributed to her later writing about slavery. Riots took place again in 1836 and 1841, driven also by native-born anti-abolitionists and it was in the literary club that she met Calvin Ellis Stowe, a widower who was a professor at the seminary. The two married on January 6,1836 and he was an ardent critic of slavery, and the Stowes supported the Underground Railroad, temporarily housing several fugitive slaves in their home. Most slaves continued north to freedom in Canada. The Stowes had seven children together, including twin daughters, in 1850, Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Law, prohibiting assistance to fugitives and strengthening sanctions even in free states. At the time, Stowe had moved with her family to Brunswick, Maine and their home near the campus is protected as a national historic resource in her honor. Stowe claimed to have a vision of a slave during a communion service at the college chapel. However, what more likely allowed her to empathize with slaves was the loss of her eighteen-month-old son and she even stated the following, Having experienced losing someone so close to me, I can sympathize with all the poor, powerless slaves at the unjust auctions
15.
Uncle Tom's Cabin
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Uncle Toms Cabin, or, Life Among the Lowly, is an anti-slavery novel by American author Harriet Beecher Stowe. Published in 1852, the novel helped lay the groundwork for the Civil War, the sentimental novel depicts the reality of slavery while also asserting that Christian love can overcome something as destructive as enslavement of fellow human beings. Uncle Toms Cabin was the novel of the 19th century. It is credited with helping fuel the abolitionist cause in the 1850s, in the first year after it was published,300,000 copies of the book were sold in the United States, one million copies in Great Britain. In 1855, three years after it was published, it was called the most popular novel of our day, to affirm the role of literature as an agent of social change. The book and the plays it inspired helped popularize a number of stereotypes about black people and these include the affectionate, dark-skinned mammy, the pickaninny stereotype of black children, and the Uncle Tom, or dutiful, long-suffering servant faithful to his white master or mistress. In recent years, the associations with Uncle Toms Cabin have, to an extent. Stowe, a Connecticut-born teacher at the Hartford Female Seminary and an active abolitionist, wrote the novel as a response to the passage, in 1850, of the second Fugitive Slave Act. Much of the book was composed in Brunswick, Maine, where her husband, Calvin Ellis Stowe, taught at his alma mater, Bowdoin College. Stowe was partly inspired to create Uncle Toms Cabin by the slave narrative The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself. Henson, an enslaved black man, had lived and worked on a 3,700 acres tobacco plantation in North Bethesda, Maryland. Henson escaped slavery in 1830 by fleeing to the Province of Upper Canada, where he helped other fugitive slaves settle and become self-sufficient, Stowe acknowledged in 1853 that Hensons writings inspired Uncle Toms Cabin. When Stowes work became a best-seller, Henson republished his memoirs as The Memoirs of Uncle Tom and traveled on lecture tours extensively in the United States and Europe. Stowes novel lent its name to Hensons home—Uncle Toms Cabin Historic Site, near Dresden and it is now a part of the National Park Service National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom program, and plans are underway to build a museum and interpretive center on the site. American Slavery As It Is, Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses, a volume co-authored by Theodore Dwight Weld and the Grimké sisters, is also a source of some of the novels content. Stowe said she based the novel on a number of interviews with people who escaped slavery during the time when she was living in Cincinnati, Ohio, across the Ohio River from Kentucky, a slave state. In Cincinnati the Underground Railroad had local abolitionist sympathizers and was active in efforts to help runaway slaves on their route from the South. Stowe mentioned a number of the inspirations and sources for her novel in A Key to Uncle Toms Cabin and this non-fiction book was intended to verify Stowes claims about slavery
16.
Abolitionism in the United States
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Abolitionism in the United States was the movement before and during the American Civil War to end slavery in the United States. In the Americas and western Europe, abolitionism was a movement to end the Atlantic slave trade, in the 17th century, English Quakers and Evangelicals condemned slavery as un-Christian. At that time, most slaves were Africans, but thousands of Native Americans were also enslaved, in the 18th century, as many as six million Africans were transported to the Americas as slaves, at least a third of them on British ships to North America. Abolition was part of the message of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s in the Thirteen Colonies, in the same period, rationalist thinkers of the Enlightenment criticized slavery for violating human rights. A member of the British Parliament, James Edward Oglethorpe, was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery, founder of the Province of Georgia, Oglethorpe banned slavery on humanistic grounds. He argued against it in Parliament and eventually encouraged his friends Granville Sharp, soon after his death in 1785, Sharp and More joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Although anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century, colonies and emerging nations, notably in the southern United States, continued to use and uphold traditions of slavery. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, in other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans. During the ensuing decades, the abolitionist movement grew in Northern states, britain banned the importation of African slaves in its colonies in 1807 and abolished slavery in the British Empire in 1833. The United States criminalized the international trade in 1808 and made slavery unconstitutional in 1865 as a result of the American Civil War. Historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate, unconditional and total abolition of slavery in the United States. He does not include antislavery activists such as Abraham Lincoln, U. S. President during the Civil War, or the Republican Party, the first Americans who made a public protest against slavery were the Mennonites of Germantown, Pennsylvania. Soon after, in April 1688, Quakers in the town wrote a two-page condemnation of the practice and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church. The Quaker establishment never took action, the Quaker Quarterly Meeting of Chester, Pennsylvania, made its first protest in 1711. Within a few decades the entire slave trade was under attack, being opposed by leaders as William Burling, Benjamin Lay, Ralph Sandiford, William Southby. Slavery was banned in the Province of Georgia soon after its founding in 1733, the colonys founder, James Edward Oglethorpe, fended off repeated attempts by South Carolina merchants and land speculators to introduce slavery to the colony. In 1739, he wrote to the Georgia Trustees urging them to hold firm, If we allow slaves we act against the principles by which we associated together. Whereas, now we should occasion the misery of thousands in Africa, by setting men upon using arts to buy, the struggle between Georgia and South Carolina led to the first debates in Parliament over the issue of slavery, occurring between 1740 and 1742
17.
The National Era
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The National Era was an abolitionist newspaper that ran from 1847 to 1860. Published weekly in Washington D. C. it contained seven columns and was four pages long, the National Era was noted for its large size and unique type. It featured the works of John Greenleaf Whittier who served as the associated editor, two months after the establishment of The National Era, The Soft Answer was published on its back page by T. S. Arthur. The short story was based off a business disagreement between two friends, Mr. Singleton and Mr. Williams, set to be mediated by a Lawyer named Mr. Trueman. After receiving a settlement offer from Williams, Singleton prepares an angry reply, only to be dissuaded from sending it by his lawyer. Singleton instead assents to signing a far more tactful and conciliatory reply composed by Trueman and this tactful and conciliatory reply which reconciled two former friends is what is now known as The Soft Answer. This idea suggested a Gradualism point of view to abolish slavery, changes in the forms of the social organization have always been gradual, Social reforms are the product of the characters and opinions of the individuals composing a society. Individual influences determine them at first, and they react upon the individual and this idea of gradual steps to get two sides to agree is something that many felt that the North and South could use to abolish slavery and integrate the African Americans into society. Abolitionist publications National Era archive via Fultonhistory. com
18.
English Channel
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The English Channel, also called simply the Channel, is the body of water that separates southern England from northern France, and links the southern part of the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. It is about 560 km long and varies in width from 240 km at its widest to 33.3 km in the Strait of Dover and it is the smallest of the shallow seas around the continental shelf of Europe, covering an area of some 75,000 km2. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the English Channel as follows, a line joining Isle Vierge to Lands End. The southwestern limit of the North Sea, the IHO defines the southwestern limit of the North Sea as a line joining the Walde Lighthouse and Leathercoat Point. The Walde Lighthouse is 6 km east of Calais, and Leathercoat Point is at the end of St Margarets Bay. The Strait of Dover, at the Channels eastern end, is its narrowest point and it is relatively shallow, with an average depth of about 120 m at its widest part, reducing to a depth of about 45 m between Dover and Calais. Eastwards from there the adjoining North Sea reduces to about 26 m in the Broad Fourteens where it lies over the watershed of the land bridge between East Anglia and the Low Countries. It reaches a depth of 180 m in the submerged valley of Hurds Deep,48 km west-northwest of Guernsey. The eastern region along the French coast between Cherbourg and the mouth of the Seine river at Le Havre is frequently referred to as the Bay of the Seine. There are several islands in the Channel, the most notable being the Isle of Wight off the English coast. The coastline, particularly on the French shore, is indented, several small islands close to the coastline, including Chausey. The Cotentin Peninsula in France juts out into the Channel, whilst on the English side there is a parallel channel known as the Solent between the Isle of Wight and the mainland. The Celtic Sea is to the west of the Channel, the time difference of about six hours between high water at the eastern and western limits of the Channel is indicative of the tidal range being amplified further by resonance. It was never defined as a border and the names were more or less descriptive. It was not considered as the property of a nation, strangely, before the development of the modern nations, British scholars very often referred to it as Gaulish and the French one as British or English. The name English Channel has been used since the early 18th century. In modern Dutch, however, it is known as Het Kanaal, later, it has also been known as the British Channel or the British Sea having been called the Oceanus Britannicus by the 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy. The same name is used on an Italian map of about 1450, the Anglo-Saxon texts often call it Sūð-sǣ as opposed to Norð-sǣ
19.
Matthew Arnold
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Matthew Arnold was an English poet and cultural critic who worked as an inspector of schools. He was the son of Thomas Arnold, the headmaster of Rugby School. Matthew Arnold has been characterised as a writer, a type of writer who chastises. The Reverend John Keble, who would one of the leaders of the Oxford Movement. Thomas Arnold admired Kebles hymns in The Christian Year, only reversing himself with exasperation when this old friend became a Romeward-tending High Church reactionary in the 1830s. In 1828, Arnolds father was appointed Headmaster of Rugby School and his family took up residence. In 1831, Arnold was tutored by his uncle, Rev. John Buckland in the village of Laleham. In 1834, the Arnolds occupied a home, Fox How. William Wordsworth was a neighbour and close friend, in 1836, Arnold was sent to Winchester College, but in 1837 he returned to Rugby School where he was enrolled in the fifth form. He moved to the form in 1838 and thus came under the direct tutelage of his father. He wrote verse for the manuscript Fox How Magazine co-produced with his brother Tom for the enjoyment from 1838 to 1843. During his years there, he won prizes for English essay writing. His prize poem, Alaric at Rome, was printed at Rugby, in 1841, he won an open scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford. During his residence at Oxford, his friendship ripened with Arthur Hugh Clough, Arnold attended John Henry Newmans sermons at St. Marys but did not join the Oxford Movement. His father died suddenly of disease in 1842, and Fox How became his familys permanent residence. Arnolds poem Cromwell won the 1843 Newdigate prize and he graduated in the following year with a 2nd class honours degree in Literae Humaniores. In 1845, after an interlude of teaching at Rugby, he was elected Fellow of Oriel College. In 1847, he became Private Secretary to Lord Lansdowne, Lord President of the Council, in 1849, he published his first book of poetry, The Strayed Reveller
20.
George Eliot
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Mary Anne Evans, known by her pen name George Eliot, was an English novelist, poet, journalist, translator and one of the leading writers of the Victorian era. She used a pen name, she said, to ensure that her works would be taken seriously. Female authors were published under their own names during Eliots life and she also wished to have her fiction judged separately from her already extensive and widely known work as an editor and critic. Eliots Middlemarch has been described by Martin Amis and Julian Barnes as the greatest novel in the English language, Mary Ann Evans was born in Nuneaton, Warwickshire, England. She was the child of Robert Evans and Christiana Evans. Mary Anns name was shortened to Marian. Her full siblings were Christiana, known as Chrissey, Isaac and she also had a half-brother, Robert, and half-sister, Fanny, from her fathers previous marriage to Harriet Poynton. Robert Evans, of Welsh ancestry, was the manager of the Arbury Hall Estate for the Newdigate family in Warwickshire, in early 1820 the family moved to a house named Griff House, between Nuneaton and Bedworth. The young Evans was obviously intelligent, a voracious reader, at Mrs. Wallingtons school, she was taught by the evangelical Maria Lewis — to whom her earliest surviving letters are addressed. In the religious atmosphere of the Miss Franklins school, Evans was exposed to a quiet, after age sixteen, Evans had little formal education. Thanks to her fathers important role on the estate, she was allowed access to the library of Arbury Hall and her classical education left its mark, Christopher Stray has observed that George Eliots novels draw heavily on Greek literature, and her themes are often influenced by Greek tragedy. The other important early influence in her life was religion and she was brought up within a low church Anglican family, but at that time the Midlands was an area with a growing number of religious dissenters. In 1836 her mother died and Evans returned home to act as housekeeper, when she was 21, her brother Isaac married and took over the family home, so Evans and her father moved to Foleshill near Coventry. The closeness to Coventry society brought new influences, most notably those of Charles, Charles Bray had become rich as a ribbon manufacturer and had used his wealth in the building of schools and in other philanthropic causes. The people whom the woman met at the Brays house included Robert Owen, Herbert Spencer, Harriet Martineau. Through this society Evans was introduced to more liberal theologies and to such as David Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach. As a product of their friendship, Bray published some of Evanss earliest writing, such as reviews, in his newspaper the Coventry Herald and Observer. When Evans began to question her religious faith, her father threatened to throw her out of the house, instead, she respectfully attended church and continued to keep house for him until his death in 1849, when she was 30
21.
George Henry Lewes
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George Henry Lewes was an English philosopher and critic of literature and theatre. He became part of the ferment of ideas which encouraged discussion of Darwinism, positivism. Lewes, born in London, was the son of the minor poet John Lee Lewes and Elizabeth Ashweek. His mother married a sea captain when he was six. Frequent changes of home meant he was educated in London, Jersey, Brittany, having abandoned successively a commercial and a medical career, he seriously thought of becoming an actor and appeared several times on stage between 1841 and 1850. Finally he devoted himself to literature, science and philosophy, as early as 1836, he belonged to a club formed for the study of philosophy, and had sketched out a physiological treatment of the philosophy of the Scottish school. Two years later he went to Germany, probably with the intention of studying philosophy and he became friends with James Henry Leigh Hunt, and through him, he entered London literary society and met John Stuart Mill, Thomas Carlyle and Charles Dickens. In 1841, he married Agnes Jervis, daughter of Swynfen Stevens Jervis, Lewes met writer Mary Ann Evans, later to be famous as George Eliot, in 1851, and by 1854 they had decided to live together. Lewes and Agnes Jervis had agreed to have an open marriage, since Lewes was named on the birth certificate as the father of one of these children despite knowing this to be false, he was considered complicit in adultery and was not able to divorce Agnes. In July 1854, Lewes and Evans travelled to Weimar and Berlin together for the purpose of research. The trip to Germany also served as a honeymoon as Evans and Lewes were now married, with Evans calling herself Marian Evans Lewes. Of his three sons only one, Charles Lewes, survived him, he became a London County Councillor, the most valuable are those on drama, afterwards republished under the title Actors and Acting, and The Spanish Drama. As a youngster, he witnessed a performance by Edmund Kean which stayed with him as an unforgettable experience and he also witnessed and wrote of his impressions of performances by William Charles Macready and other famous stars of the 19th century London stage. He is considered to be the first practitioner of modern theatre criticism, in 1845–46, Lewes published The Biographical History of Philosophy, an attempt to depict the life of philosophers as an ever-renewed fruitless labour to attain the unattainable. The same is to be said of an attempt to rehabilitate Robespierre. In 1850 he collaborated with Thornton Leigh Hunt in the foundation of the Leader, in 1853 he republished under the title of Comtes Philosophy of the Sciences a series of papers which had appeared in that journal. The culmination of Lewess work in literature is the Life of Goethe. Lewess versatility, and his combination of scientific with literary tastes, the work became well known in Germany itself, despite the boldness of its criticism and the unpopularity of some of its views
