1.
1847 in literature
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This article presents lists of literary events and publications in 1847. January – Vanity Fair, A Novel without a Hero begins serial publication in Punch magazine, with the author, William Makepeace Thackeray, march–April – Ivan Goncharovs debut novel A Common Story is published in Sovremennik. April – Robert Browning settles with his wife and fellow poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning in Florence, hans Christian Andersen begins his first visit to Britain during which he meets Charles Dickens. June 10 – Fictional date at the end of Anne Brontës The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, july – London publisher Thomas Cautley Newby accepts for publication Emily Brontës Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontës Agnes Grey. August 7–24 – Charlotte Brontë completes the manuscript of Jane Eyre at Haworth, september 16 – William Shakespeares birthplace in Stratford-upon-Avon in England is bought by the United Shakespeare Company for preservation. October 19 – Charlotte Brontës Jane Eyre is published in London by Smith, november – Dmitry Grigorovichs anti-serfdom novel Anton Goremyka is published in Sovremennik with its politically sensitive last scene rewritten by a censor. November 1 – John Maddison Mortons one-act farce Box and Cox opens at the Lyceum Theatre, London with John Pritt Harley and John Baldwin Buckstone in the title rôles. December 14 – Emily Brontës Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontës Agnes Grey are published in a 3-volume set under the pen names of Ellis, Wuthering Heights will be Emilys only published novel as she dies aged 30 a year later. London publisher E. Churton brings out the first six of George Sands books to be issued in English, the translations being by Matilda Hays, Eliza Ashurst and Rev. Edmund Larken
2.
1849 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1849. March–November – La Tribune des Peuples, a romantic nationalist periodical, is published by Adam Mickiewicz. April 22 – Fyodor Dostoyevsky and fellow members of the literary Petrashevsky Circle are arrested for their progressive views. Sentenced to death on November 16 and facing a firing squad on December 23 he and some others are reprieved at the last moment, may 1 – Charles Dickenss Bildungsroman David Copperfield begins serial publication. May 10 – The Astor Place Riot takes place in Manhattan over a dispute between two Shakespearean actors, the American Edwin Forrest and the Englishman William Macready, may 28 – Anne Brontë dies of tuberculosis at Scarborough, aged 29. September 20 – Honoré de Balzac travels to Poland to meet Eveline Hanska, october 3 – Edgar Allan Poe is found on the streets of Baltimore delirious, in great distress, and. in need of immediate assistance. October–December – Thomas De Quinceys essay The English Mail-Coach appears in issues of Blackwoods Edinburgh Magazine, November – The English scholarly correspondence magazine Notes and Queries is first published. November 14 – A public festival is held in Denmark to celebrate the 70th birthday of Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger, J. A. Leipzig publisher B. G. Teubner begins publishing the Bibliotheca Teubneriana series of editions of the Classics. Whos Who is published for the first time in the United Kingdom, philip Massingers play Believe as You List receives its first publication,218 years after its theatrical première
3.
1854 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1854. April 1–August 12 – Charles Dickenss novel Hard Times is serialised in his magazine Household Words, from September 2, it is followed in the magazine by Elizabeth Gaskells North and South, another social novel based in the Lancashire manufacturing district. July – Publication begins of Anthony Trollopes novel Barchester Towers, november – Crimean War, Future novelist Leo Tolstoy arrives to take part as a defending soldier in the Siege of Sevastopol. Off-duty he is reading Thackerays novels in French translation, john Rollin Ridges The Life and Adventures of Joaquín Murieta, The Celebrated California Bandit is the first novel by a Native American in the United States, although concerning a Mexican immigrant. The Polyglotta Africana, a classification of African languages based on field work under freed slaves in Freetown. 1, Dogme Theodor Mommsen – History of Rome, vol, morrow, American writer, noted for his stories of horror and suspense
4.
1857 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1857. January 5 – Wilkie Collins drama The Frozen Deep is first performed in an amateur performance staged by and featuring Charles Dickens at the latters London home. January 10 – Jules Verne marries Honorine de Viane Morel, February 7 – Gustave Flauberts pioneering realist novel Madame Bovary is acquitted on charges of offending morals and religion from its 1856 expurgated serialization. It is published complete in book form in April by Michel Lévy Frères in Paris, may 5 – American publisher Moses Phillips hosts a dinner for Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. May 10 – Indian Rebellion of 1857 breaks out, it will feature extensively in subsequent fiction, june 25 – Charles Baudelaires collection of poems Les Fleurs du mal is published in Paris. He will be convicted and some of the most decadent poems suppressed on charges of offending morals, september – Obscene Publications Act 1857 is passed in the United Kingdom, making the sale of obscene material a statutory offence. William Dugdale, a target of the act, is one of the first to be charged under it. The Act is replaced with a less stringent one in 1959, september 25 – Eugène Sues extended fiction Les Mystères du peuple is condemned on charges of offending morals and religion, the author having died on August 3. George Eliots Scenes of Clerical Life are serialized in Blackwoods Edinburgh Magazine through the year, her first work of fiction, the British Museum Reading Room opens in London. Saintine – Seul Catharine Maria Sedgwick – Married or Single, adalbert Stifter – Der Nachsommer William Makepeace Thackeray – The Virginians Anthony Trollope – Barchester Towers R. M. With an Introductory Sketch of its Progress, and Suggestions for its Confutation February 7 – Benjamin Eli Smith, American editor of reference books February 9 – A
5.
1859 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1859. – Tidskrift för hemmet, the first womens magazine in the Nordic countries, is established by Sophie Leijonhufvud, february 1 – George Eliots Adam Bede, her first full-length novel, is published by John Blackwood in the United Kingdom. April 30 – Charles Dickenss new weekly magazine All the Year Round is published for the first time in London, june–July – Frances Harpers The Two Offers, the first English-language short story by an African American author, is published in the first volume of The Anglo-African Magazine. November 26 – Wilkie Collinss sensation novel The Woman in White, an early example of mystery fiction, begins serialization in All the Year Round
6.
1860 in literature
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This article presents lists of literary events and publications in 1860. January First issue of the Cornhill Magazine published in London, anthony Trollopes Framley Parsonage is serialized in it throughout the year. Mrs. Henry Woods sensation novel East Lynne begins serialization in The New Monthly Magazine and this year also her first full-length novel Danesbury House is published. Approximate date - The Catholic newspaper LUnivers is suppressed by the French government, january 28 - The first of Charles Dickens literary sketches under the general title of The Uncommercial Traveller is published in his magazine All the Year Round. February - Mary Elizabeth Braddon gives up her career to write. In the same year, she meets her future husband John Maxwell, march 27 - The Irish melodrama The Colleen Bawn, or The Brides of Garryowen, written by and starring Dion Boucicault, is first performed at Miss Laura Keenes theatre, New York. April 4 - George Eliots novel The Mill on the Floss is published by John Blackwood in three volumes, june 30 -1860 Oxford evolution debate, Samuel Wilberforce and Thomas Huxley debate the theories of Charles Darwin at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. Lewis Carroll is among the audience, August 25 - Wilkie Collins sensation novel The Woman in White, an early example of mystery fiction, concludes serialization in the magazine All the Year Round. It is published in form in London around August 15. September 3 - Charles Dickens burns most of his papers at his home in Kent. December 1 - Charles Dickenss Bildungsroman Great Expectations begins serialization in his magazine All the Year Round, alexander Bain is appointed to the chair of logic and English literature at the University of Aberdeen. Andreas Munch becomes the first person to be granted a pension by the Parliament of Norway. Bram Stokers horror novel The Lair of the White Worm is set in this year
7.
1862 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1862. February – Ivan Turgenevs novel Fathers and Sons is published by Russkiy Vestnik in Moscow, the first English language translations are by Charles Edwin Wilbour, published in New York on June 7, and by Frederic Charles Lascelles Wraxall, published in London in October. April 28 - Thomas Hardy becomes an assistant to architect Arthur Blomfield, april 6 – Two months after joining the staff of General William Babcock Hazen, Ambrose Bierce participates in the Battle of Shiloh, later the subject of a memoir. Among those on the side is future journalist and explorer Henry Morton Stanley. June – Nikolai Chernyshevsky is imprisoned in Saint Petersburg and begins his novel What Is To Be Done, June 4 – Henry Morton Stanley, now a Galvanized Yankee, joins the Union Army, he is discharged 18 days later because of illness. July – George Eliots historical novel Romola begins serialization in Cornhill Magazine, George Murray Smith of the publishers Smith, Elder & Co. has agreed a £7,000 advance for it. July 1 – Moscows first free public library opens as The Library of the Moscow Public Museum and Rumiantsev Museum, july 4 – Charles Dodgson extemporises a story for 10-year-old Alice Liddell and her sisters on a rowing boat trip on The Isis from Oxford to Godstow. The story becomes the manuscript Alices Adventures Underground and is published in 1865 as Alices Adventures in Wonderland, september 23 – Leo Tolstoy marries Sophia Andreevna Behrs,16 years his junior, in Moscow, having given her a diary detailing his previous sexual relations. November 26 – Charles Dodgson sends the manuscript of Alices Adventures Underground to Alice Liddell. November 29 – Serialization of The Notting Hill Mystery by Charles Felix commences in Once A Week, december – Louisa May Alcott becomes a nurse at the Union hospital in Georgetown, D. C. December 24 – William Dean Howells marries Elinor Mead at the American embassy in Paris, date unknown James Russell Lowell begins writing for The North American Review. Karl Heinrich Ulrichs begins writing about homosexuality under the pseudonym of Numa Numantius, Henry Wood – The Channings Frances Freeling Broderip – Tale of the Toys, Told by Themselves F. W. Farrar – St.3 Newdigate Prize – Arthur C
8.
1852 in architecture
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The year 1852 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. February - Augustus Pugin suffers a breakdown and is admitted to an asylum, Kensington House, London. June - Augustus Pugin is transferred to the Royal Bethlem Hospital, date unknown - Thomas M. Penson restores a house at 22 Eastgate Street, Chester, England, in black-and-white Revival style. January 1 - Battle railway station, East Sussex, designed by William Tress, is opened, february 3 - The House of Commons of the United Kingdom in the Palace of Westminster, London designed by Charles Barry and Augustus Pugin, is opened. May 15 - Teatro Comunale Alighieri in Ravenna, designed by Tommaso, october 14 - London Kings Cross railway station, designed by Lewis Cubitt, is opened. Helsinki Cathedral, Finland, designed by Carl Ludvig Engel, is completed, chapel of St Edmunds College, Ware, England, designed by Augustus Pugin in 1845, is completed. Rolle Mausoleum, Bicton, Devon, England, reconstructed by Augustus Pugin, is completed, siegestor in Munich, Bavaria, designed by Friedrich von Gärtner, is completed by Eduard Mezger. Åmodt bro suspension bridge, Oslo, Norway, philippi Covered Bridge, West Virginia, United States. Royal Gold Medal - Leo von Klenze, grand Prix de Rome, architecture - P. R. L. June 25 - Antoni Gaudí, Catalan Modernist architect July 4 - E. S
9.
1852 in science
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The year 1852 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. September 24 – French engineer Henri Giffard makes the first airship trip, last recognised sighting of a great auk, on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. August Beer proposes Beers law, which explains the relationship between the composition of a mixture and the amount of light it will absorb, based partly on earlier work by Pierre Bouguer and Johann Heinrich Lambert, it establishes the analytical technique known as spectrophotometry. October 23 – Francis Guthrie poses the four colour problem to Augustus De Morgan, january 15 – Nine representatives of Hebrew charitable organizations come together to form what will become the Mount Sinai Hospital, New York. February 15 – The Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children, London, march 2 – The first American experimental steam fire engine is tested. The mechanical semaphore line in France is superseded by the electric telegraph, captain E. M. Boxer of the Royal Arsenal devizes an improvement to the shrapnel shell by insertion of an iron diaphragm, preventing premature ignition. Copley Medal, Alexander von Humboldt Wollaston Medal for Geology, William Henry Fitton April 10 – Arthur Vierendeel, may 1 – Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Spanish neuroscientist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. August 4 – Catharine van Tussenbroek, Dutch physician, august 30 – Jacobus van t Hoff, Dutch chemist. September 9 – John Henry Poynting, English physicist, discoverer of the Poynting–Robertson effect, september 28 – Isis Pogson, English astronomer and meteorologist. October 2 – William Ramsay, Scottish winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, october 9 – Hermann Emil Fischer, German winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. December 15 – Henri Becquerel, French physicist, january 6 – Louis Braille, French inventor. August 15 – Johan Gadolin, Finnish chemist, september 8 – Anna Maria Walker, Scottish botanist. November 10 – Gideon Mantell, English paleontologist, november 27 – Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace, English computing pioneer
10.
Alexandre Dumas, fils
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Dumas, fils was the son of Alexandre Dumas, père, also a well-known playwright and author of classics such as The Three Musketeers. Dumas, fils was admitted to the Académie française in 1874, Dumas was born in Paris, France, the illegitimate child of Marie-Laure-Catherine Labay, a dressmaker, and novelist Alexandre Dumas. In 1831 his father recognized him and ensured that the young Dumas received the best education possible at the Institution Goubaux. At that time, the law allowed the elder Dumas to take the child away from his mother and her agony inspired the younger Dumas to write about tragic female characters. At boarding schools, he was taunted by his classmates because of his family situation. These issues profoundly influenced his thoughts, behaviour, and writing, in 1844, Dumas moved to Saint-Germain-en-Laye to live with his father. There he met Marie Duplessis, a courtesan who would be the inspiration for the character Marguerite Gauthier in his romantic novel La Dame aux camélias. Adapted into a play, it was titled Camille in English and became the basis for Verdis 1853 opera, La Traviata, Duplessis undergoing yet another name change, this time to Violetta Valéry. Although he admitted that he had done the adaptation because he needed the money, he had success with the play. He was not only more renowned than his father during his lifetime, after this, he virtually abandoned writing novels. On 31 December 1864, in Moscow, Dumas married Nadezhda von Knorring, daughter of Johan Reinhold von Knorring, after Nadezhdas death, Dumas married Henriette Régnier de La Brière in June 1895, without issue. In 1874, he was admitted to the Académie française and in 1894 he was awarded the Légion dhonneur, Dumas died at Marly-le-Roi, Yvelines, on 27 November 1895, and was interred in the Montmartre Cemetery in Paris. His grave is, perhaps coincidentally, only some 100 metres away from that of Marie Duplessis, aventures de quatre femmes et d’un perroquet Césarine La Dame aux camélias. Texte online ), with an illustrated by Albert Besnard English titled as Camellias Le Docteur Servan Antonine Le Roman d’une femme Les Quatre Restaurations. Vivier LAmi des femmes Le Supplice dune femme coll, emile de Girardin Héloïse Paranquet coll. Durentin Les Idées de Madame Aubray Le Filleul de Pompignac coll, francois Une Visite de noces La Princesse Georges La Femme de Claude Monsieur Alphonse LÉtrangère Les Danicheff coll. de Corvin La Comtesse Romani coll. Gustave Fould La Princesse de Bagdad Denise Francillon La Route de Thèbes Illegitimacy in fiction Legitimacy Maurois, the Titans, a three-generation biography of the Dumas. New York, Harper & Brothers Publishers, a Critical Edition of the Manuscripts of La Route de Thebes by Alexandre Dumas fils
11.
Nikolai Gogol
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Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol was a Russian dramatist of Ukrainian origin. His early works, such as Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka, were influenced by his Ukrainian upbringing and his later writing satirised political corruption in the Russian Empire. Gogol was born in the Ukrainian Cossack village of Sorochyntsi, in Poltava Governorate of the Russian Empire and his mother descended from Leonty Kosyarovsky, an officer of the Lubny Regiment in 1710. As was typical of the left-bank Ukrainian gentry of the nineteenth century. As a child, Gogol helped stage Ukrainian-language plays in his uncles home theater, in 1820, Gogol went to a school of higher art in Nezhin and remained there until 1828. It was there that he began writing and he was not popular among his schoolmates, who called him their mysterious dwarf, but with two or three of them he formed lasting friendships. Very early he developed a dark and secretive disposition, marked by a painful self-consciousness and boundless ambition, equally early he developed a talent for mimicry, which later made him a matchless reader of his own works and induced him to toy with the idea of becoming an actor. In 1828, on leaving school, Gogol came to Saint Petersburg, full of vague and he had hoped for literary fame, and brought with him a Romantic poem of German idyllic life – Hans Küchelgarten. He had it published, at his own expense, under the name of V. Alov, the magazines he sent it to almost universally derided it. He bought all the copies and destroyed them, swearing never to write poetry again, Gogol was in touch with the literary aristocracy, had a story published in Anton Delvigs Northern Flowers, was taken up by Vasily Zhukovsky and Pyotr Pletnyov, and was introduced to Pushkin. In 1831 Gogol brought out the first volume of his Ukrainian stories and he followed it in 1832 with a second volume, and in 1835 by two volumes of stories entitled Mirgorod, as well as by two volumes of miscellaneous prose entitled Arabesques. However, Gogols satire was much more sophisticated and unconventional, at this time, Gogol developed a passion for Ukrainian history and tried to obtain an appointment to the history department at Kiev University. Despite the support of Pushkin and Sergey Uvarov, the Russian minister of education and his fictional story Taras Bulba, based on the history of Ukrainian cossacks, was the result of this phase in his interests. During this time he developed a close and lifelong friendship with another Ukrainian. In 1834 Gogol was made Professor of Medieval History at the University of St. Petersburg and he turned in a performance ludicrous enough to warrant satiric treatment in one of his own stories. At the final examination, he sat in silence with a black handkerchief wrapped around his head, simulating a toothache. This academic venture proved a failure and he resigned his chair in 1835, during this time, the Russian critics Stepan Shevyrev and Vissarion Belinsky, contradicting earlier critics, reclassified Gogol from a Ukrainian to a Russian writer. It was only after the presentation at the Saint Petersburg State Theatre, on 19 April 1836, the comedy, a violent satire of Russian provincial bureaucracy, was staged thanks only to the intervention of the emperor, Nicholas I
12.
Dead Souls
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Dead Souls is a novel by Nikolai Gogol, first published in 1842, and widely regarded as an exemplar of 19th-century Russian literature. The purpose of the novel was to demonstrate the flaws and faults of the Russian mentality, Gogol portrayed those defects through Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov and the people whom he encounters in his endeavours. These people are typical of the Russian middle-class of the time, Gogol himself saw it as an epic poem in prose, and within the book as a novel in verse. Despite supposedly completing the second part, Gogol destroyed it shortly before his death. Although the novel ends in mid-sentence, it is regarded as complete in the extant form. The original title, as shown on the illustration, was The Wanderings of Chichikov, poema, which contracted to merely Dead Souls. In the Russian Empire, before the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, serfs were for most purposes considered the property of the landowner, who could buy, sell or mortgage them, as any other chattel. To count serfs, the word soul was used, e. g. six souls of serfs. The plot of the novel relies on dead souls which are accounted for in property registers. On another level, the title refers to the souls of Gogols characters. It is also described as a novel, the literary genre virtually non-existent in Russian literature of the times. The first part of the novel was intended to represent a modern-day Inferno of the Divine Comedy, Gogol reveals to his readers an encompassing picture of the ailing social system in Russia after the war of 1812. As in many of Gogols short stories, the criticism of Dead Souls is communicated primarily through absurd. Unlike the short stories, however, Dead Souls was meant to offer solutions rather than simply point out problems. This grander scheme was largely unrealized at Gogols death, the work was never completed, and it is primarily the earlier, darker part of the novel that is remembered. In their studies of Gogol, Andrey Bely, D. S. Mirsky, Vladimir Nabokov, the novel has a circular structure, following Chichikov as he visits the estates of landowners living around the capital of a guberniya. Every reader of The Iliad was struck by this device, too, Nabokov also pointed out the Homeric roots of the complicated absurdist technique of Gogols comparisons and digressions. Of all Gogols creations, Chichikov stands out as the incarnation of poshlost and his psychological leitmotiv is complacency, and his geometrical expression roundness
13.
Charles Dickens
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Charles John Huffam Dickens was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the worlds best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era and his works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity, born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors prison. Dickenss literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers, within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire, and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the publication of narrative fiction. The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audiences reaction, and he modified his plot. For example, when his wifes chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities and his plots were carefully constructed, and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives. Masses of the poor chipped in hapennies to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up. Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age and his 1843 novella, A Christmas Carol, remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also adapted, and, like many of his novels. His 1859 novel, A Tale of Two Cities, set in London, Dickens has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for his realism, comedy, prose style, unique characterisations, and social criticism. On the other hand, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of depth, loose writing. The term Dickensian is used to something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings. Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812, at 1 Mile End Terrace, Landport in Portsea Island and his father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam, rigger to His Majestys Navy, gentleman, Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickenss eponymous Dombey and Son. In January 1815 John Dickens was called back to London, when Charles was four, they relocated to Sheerness, and thence to Chatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he himself a very small. Charles spent time outdoors but also read voraciously, including the novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding, as well as Robinson Crusoe
14.
Bleak House
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Bleak House is one of Charles Dickenss major novels, first published as a serial between March 1852 and September 1853. The novel has characters and several sub-plots, and the story is told partly by the novels heroine, Esther Summerson. At the centre of Bleak House is the legal case, Jarndyce and Jarndyce. Though the legal profession criticised Dickenss satire as exaggerated, this novel helped support a reform movement. There is some debate among scholars as to when Bleak House is set, the English legal historian Sir William Holdsworth sets the action in 1827, however, reference to preparation for the building of a railway in Chapter LV suggests the 1830s. Sir Leicester Dedlock and his wife Lady Honoria live on his estate at Chesney Wold, unknown to Sir Leicester, Lady Dedlock had a lover, Captain Hawdon, before she married – and had a daughter by him. Lady Dedlock believes her daughter is dead, the daughter, Esther, is in fact alive, and being raised by Miss Barbary, Lady Dedlocks sister. Esther does not know Miss Barbary is her aunt, after Miss Barbary dies, John Jarndyce becomes Esthers guardian and assigns the Chancery lawyer Conversation Kenge to take charge of her future. After attending school for six years, Esther moves in with him at Bleak House, Jarndyce simultaneously assumes custody of two other wards, Richard Carstone and Ada Clare. They are beneficiaries in one of the wills at issue in Jarndyce and Jarndyce, their guardian is a beneficiary under another will, and the two wills conflict. Richard and Ada soon fall in love, but though Mr Jarndyce does not oppose the match, Richard first tries a career in medicine, and Esther meets Allan Woodcourt, a physician, at the house of Richards tutor. When Richard mentions the prospect of gaining from the resolution of Jarndyce and Jarndyce, meanwhile, Lady Dedlock is also a beneficiary under one of the wills. Early in the book, while listening to the reading of an affidavit by the solicitor, Mr Tulkinghorn. The sight affects her so much she almost faints, which Tulkinghorn notices and investigates and he traces the copyist, a pauper known only as Nemo, in London. Lady Dedlock is also investigating, disguised as her maid, Mademoiselle Hortense and she pays Jo to take her to Nemos grave. Meanwhile, Tulkinghorn is concerned Lady Dedlocks secret could threaten the interests of Sir Leicester and he also enlists Inspector Bucket to run Jo out of town, so that there are no loose ends that might connect Nemo to the Dedlocks. Esther sees Lady Dedlock at church and talks with her later at Chesney Wold – though neither woman recognises their connection, later, Lady Dedlock does discover that Esther is her child. However Esther has become sick after nursing the homeless boy Jo, Lady Dedlock waits until she has recovered before telling her the truth
15.
Harriet Beecher Stowe
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Harriet Elisabeth Beecher Stowe was an American abolitionist and author. She came from the Beecher family, a religious family. It depicts the life for African Americans under slavery. It reached millions as a novel and play, and became influential in the United States and it energized anti-slavery forces in the American North, while provoking widespread anger in the South. She wrote 30 books, including novels, three memoirs, and collections of articles and letters. She was influential for both her writings and her public stands on issues of the day. Harriet Elisabeth Beecher was born in Litchfield, Connecticut, on June 14,1811 and she was the seventh of 13 children born to outspoken Calvinist preacher Lyman Beecher and Roxana, a deeply religious woman who died when Stowe was only five years old. Roxanas maternal grandfather was General Andrew Ward of the Revolutionary War, among her classmates was Sarah P. Willis, who later wrote under the pseudonym Fanny Fern. In 1832, at the age of 21, Harriet Beecher moved to Cincinnati, Ohio to join her father, who had become the president of Lane Theological Seminary. There, she joined the Semi-Colon Club, a literary salon and social club whose members included the Beecher sisters, Caroline Lee Hentz, Salmon P. Chase, Emily Blackwell. Areas of the city had been wrecked in the Cincinnati riots of 1829, Beecher met a number of African Americans who had suffered in those attacks, and their experience contributed to her later writing about slavery. Riots took place again in 1836 and 1841, driven also by native-born anti-abolitionists and it was in the literary club that she met Calvin Ellis Stowe, a widower who was a professor at the seminary. The two married on January 6,1836 and he was an ardent critic of slavery, and the Stowes supported the Underground Railroad, temporarily housing several fugitive slaves in their home. Most slaves continued north to freedom in Canada. The Stowes had seven children together, including twin daughters, in 1850, Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Law, prohibiting assistance to fugitives and strengthening sanctions even in free states. At the time, Stowe had moved with her family to Brunswick, Maine and their home near the campus is protected as a national historic resource in her honor. Stowe claimed to have a vision of a slave during a communion service at the college chapel. However, what more likely allowed her to empathize with slaves was the loss of her eighteen-month-old son and she even stated the following, Having experienced losing someone so close to me, I can sympathize with all the poor, powerless slaves at the unjust auctions
16.
Abolitionism in the United States
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Abolitionism in the United States was the movement before and during the American Civil War to end slavery in the United States. In the Americas and western Europe, abolitionism was a movement to end the Atlantic slave trade, in the 17th century, English Quakers and Evangelicals condemned slavery as un-Christian. At that time, most slaves were Africans, but thousands of Native Americans were also enslaved, in the 18th century, as many as six million Africans were transported to the Americas as slaves, at least a third of them on British ships to North America. Abolition was part of the message of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s in the Thirteen Colonies, in the same period, rationalist thinkers of the Enlightenment criticized slavery for violating human rights. A member of the British Parliament, James Edward Oglethorpe, was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery, founder of the Province of Georgia, Oglethorpe banned slavery on humanistic grounds. He argued against it in Parliament and eventually encouraged his friends Granville Sharp, soon after his death in 1785, Sharp and More joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Although anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century, colonies and emerging nations, notably in the southern United States, continued to use and uphold traditions of slavery. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, in other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans. During the ensuing decades, the abolitionist movement grew in Northern states, britain banned the importation of African slaves in its colonies in 1807 and abolished slavery in the British Empire in 1833. The United States criminalized the international trade in 1808 and made slavery unconstitutional in 1865 as a result of the American Civil War. Historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate, unconditional and total abolition of slavery in the United States. He does not include antislavery activists such as Abraham Lincoln, U. S. President during the Civil War, or the Republican Party, the first Americans who made a public protest against slavery were the Mennonites of Germantown, Pennsylvania. Soon after, in April 1688, Quakers in the town wrote a two-page condemnation of the practice and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church. The Quaker establishment never took action, the Quaker Quarterly Meeting of Chester, Pennsylvania, made its first protest in 1711. Within a few decades the entire slave trade was under attack, being opposed by leaders as William Burling, Benjamin Lay, Ralph Sandiford, William Southby. Slavery was banned in the Province of Georgia soon after its founding in 1733, the colonys founder, James Edward Oglethorpe, fended off repeated attempts by South Carolina merchants and land speculators to introduce slavery to the colony. In 1739, he wrote to the Georgia Trustees urging them to hold firm, If we allow slaves we act against the principles by which we associated together. Whereas, now we should occasion the misery of thousands in Africa, by setting men upon using arts to buy, the struggle between Georgia and South Carolina led to the first debates in Parliament over the issue of slavery, occurring between 1740 and 1742
17.
Uncle Tom's Cabin
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Uncle Toms Cabin, or, Life Among the Lowly, is an anti-slavery novel by American author Harriet Beecher Stowe. Published in 1852, the novel helped lay the groundwork for the Civil War, the sentimental novel depicts the reality of slavery while also asserting that Christian love can overcome something as destructive as enslavement of fellow human beings. Uncle Toms Cabin was the novel of the 19th century. It is credited with helping fuel the abolitionist cause in the 1850s, in the first year after it was published,300,000 copies of the book were sold in the United States, one million copies in Great Britain. In 1855, three years after it was published, it was called the most popular novel of our day, to affirm the role of literature as an agent of social change. The book and the plays it inspired helped popularize a number of stereotypes about black people and these include the affectionate, dark-skinned mammy, the pickaninny stereotype of black children, and the Uncle Tom, or dutiful, long-suffering servant faithful to his white master or mistress. In recent years, the associations with Uncle Toms Cabin have, to an extent. Stowe, a Connecticut-born teacher at the Hartford Female Seminary and an active abolitionist, wrote the novel as a response to the passage, in 1850, of the second Fugitive Slave Act. Much of the book was composed in Brunswick, Maine, where her husband, Calvin Ellis Stowe, taught at his alma mater, Bowdoin College. Stowe was partly inspired to create Uncle Toms Cabin by the slave narrative The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself. Henson, an enslaved black man, had lived and worked on a 3,700 acres tobacco plantation in North Bethesda, Maryland. Henson escaped slavery in 1830 by fleeing to the Province of Upper Canada, where he helped other fugitive slaves settle and become self-sufficient, Stowe acknowledged in 1853 that Hensons writings inspired Uncle Toms Cabin. When Stowes work became a best-seller, Henson republished his memoirs as The Memoirs of Uncle Tom and traveled on lecture tours extensively in the United States and Europe. Stowes novel lent its name to Hensons home—Uncle Toms Cabin Historic Site, near Dresden and it is now a part of the National Park Service National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom program, and plans are underway to build a museum and interpretive center on the site. American Slavery As It Is, Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses, a volume co-authored by Theodore Dwight Weld and the Grimké sisters, is also a source of some of the novels content. Stowe said she based the novel on a number of interviews with people who escaped slavery during the time when she was living in Cincinnati, Ohio, across the Ohio River from Kentucky, a slave state. In Cincinnati the Underground Railroad had local abolitionist sympathizers and was active in efforts to help runaway slaves on their route from the South. Stowe mentioned a number of the inspirations and sources for her novel in A Key to Uncle Toms Cabin and this non-fiction book was intended to verify Stowes claims about slavery
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Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
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Hammatt Billings
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Charles Howland Hammatt Billings was an artist and architect from Boston, Massachusetts. He worked for years with his brother Joseph Edward Billings. He was the artist of one of the portrayals of the Battle of Lexington. M. Life story of Hosea Ballou, for the young, racial Innocence, Performing American Childhood from Slavery to Civil Rights. New York University Press, pages 95-97, 105-119, accomplished in All Departments of Art, Hammatt Billings of Boston 1818-1874. O’Gorman, James F. Hammatt Billings, in The Private Library Autumn 1994, society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities. Archived from the original on October 30,2007
20.
Samuel Orchart Beeton
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Samuel Orchart Beeton was an English publisher, best known as the husband of Mrs Beeton and publisher of Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management. He also founded and published Boys Own Magazine, the first and most influential boys magazine, Beeton made money as the first British publisher of Uncle Toms Cabin in 1852, securing the rights from the then-unknown Harriet Beecher Stowe. He launched The Englishwomans Domestic Magazine, a serial for middle-class women. His Boys Own Magazine, published in the UK from 1855 to 1890, was the first and most influential boys magazine, Beeton married Isabella Mary Mayson in 1856. She began writing for The Englishwomans Domestic Magazine, and contributed to the success of the business. He founded Beetons Christmas Annual paperback magazine in 1860, Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management was published in 1861. He also produced an edition of the works of Francis Bacon, after his wife Isabella died in 1865, Beetons fortunes failed and he was obliged to sell the rights to the Beeton name to rival publishers and work for them for a salary. His last years were clouded by the tuberculosis from which he ultimately died, works by or about Samuel Orchart Beeton at Internet Archive Beetons book of acting charades on the Internet Archive
