1.
1844 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1844. Data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list
2.
1846 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1846. |style=border, 0px valign=top| |style=border, 0px valign=top| |style=border, 0px valign=top| |- |}
3.
1848 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1848
4.
1852 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1852. Bleak House by Charles Dickens was published, the story told by this novel is unrelated to paleontology, but it does briefly mention a Megalosaurus, which happened to be the first reference made to dinosaurs in fiction
5.
1855 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1855. The Albany Museum of Grahamstown, South Africa is established
6.
1856 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1856. Death of William Buckland, the polymath who was the first to describe a dinosaur
7.
1862 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1862
8.
1851 in science
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The year 1851 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. February – First public exhibition of a Foucault pendulum, at the Meridian of the Paris Observatory, a few weeks later Foucault installs one at the Panthéon. July 28 – Solar eclipse of July 28,1851, Total solar eclipse, the first correctly exposed photograph, a daguerrotype, of the solar corona is made during the total phase of the eclipse by Berkowski at Koenigsberg Observatory in Prussia. October 24 – Ariel and Umbriel, moons of Uranus, are discovered by William Lassell, the William Brydone Jack Observatory is completed at Fredericton, New Brunswick. March – English sculptor Frederick Scott Archer makes public the wet collodion photographic process. George Wilson publishes The Life of the Hon. Henry Cavendish, bernhard Riemann provides a proof of Greens theorem in his inaugural dissertation. The Royal Marsden is established as the Free Cancer Hospital by surgeon William Marsden in London, hippolyte Fizeau carries out the Fizeau experiment to measure the relative speeds of light in moving water. November 13 – First protected submarine telegraph cable laid, across the English Channel, William Armstrong introduces the weight-loaded hydraulic accumulator. Copley Medal, Richard Owen Wollaston Medal for geology, Adam Sedgwick January 19 – Jacobus Kapteyn, march 16 – Martinus Beijerinck, Dutch microbiologist and botanist. April 12 – E. Walter Maunder, astronomer, July 8 – Arthur Evans, archaeologist. July 20 – Arnold Pick, neurologist, august 3 – George FitzGerald, mathematician. January 27 – John James Audubon, naturalist and illustrator, february 18 – Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi, mathematician. March 9 – Hans Christian Ørsted, physicist, July 6 – Thomas Davenport, electrical engineer. July 17 – John Farey, mechanical engineer and technical writer, september 2 – William Nicol, geologist
9.
1852 in science
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The year 1852 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. September 24 – French engineer Henri Giffard makes the first airship trip, last recognised sighting of a great auk, on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. August Beer proposes Beers law, which explains the relationship between the composition of a mixture and the amount of light it will absorb, based partly on earlier work by Pierre Bouguer and Johann Heinrich Lambert, it establishes the analytical technique known as spectrophotometry. October 23 – Francis Guthrie poses the four colour problem to Augustus De Morgan, january 15 – Nine representatives of Hebrew charitable organizations come together to form what will become the Mount Sinai Hospital, New York. February 15 – The Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children, London, march 2 – The first American experimental steam fire engine is tested. The mechanical semaphore line in France is superseded by the electric telegraph, captain E. M. Boxer of the Royal Arsenal devizes an improvement to the shrapnel shell by insertion of an iron diaphragm, preventing premature ignition. Copley Medal, Alexander von Humboldt Wollaston Medal for Geology, William Henry Fitton April 10 – Arthur Vierendeel, may 1 – Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Spanish neuroscientist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. August 4 – Catharine van Tussenbroek, Dutch physician, august 30 – Jacobus van t Hoff, Dutch chemist. September 9 – John Henry Poynting, English physicist, discoverer of the Poynting–Robertson effect, september 28 – Isis Pogson, English astronomer and meteorologist. October 2 – William Ramsay, Scottish winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, october 9 – Hermann Emil Fischer, German winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. December 15 – Henri Becquerel, French physicist, january 6 – Louis Braille, French inventor. August 15 – Johan Gadolin, Finnish chemist, september 8 – Anna Maria Walker, Scottish botanist. November 10 – Gideon Mantell, English paleontologist, november 27 – Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace, English computing pioneer
10.
1854 in science
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The year 1854 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. July 22 – Discovery of the asteroid 30 Urania by John Russell Hind, George Airy calculates the mean density of the Earth by measuring the gravity in a coal mine in South Shields. Benjamin Silliman of Yale University is the first person to fractionate petroleum into its components by distillation. George Booles work on logic, An Investigation of the Laws of Thought on Which are Founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities. Arthur Cayley states the version of Cayleys theorem and produces the first Cayley table. Bernhard Riemann, a German mathematician, submits his habilitation thesis Ueber die Darstellbarkeit einer Function durch eine trigonometrische Reihe and it is published by Richard Dedekind in 1867. November – Florence Nightingale and her team of trained volunteer nurses arrive at Selimiye Barracks in Scutari in the Ottoman Empire to care for British Army troops invalided from the Crimean War, spanish-born vocal pedagogist Manuel García observes his own functioning glottis using a form of laryngoscope incorporating mirrors. Claude Bernard introduces the term Milieu intérieur in physiology, filippo Pacini, an Italian anatomist, discovers Vibrio cholerae, the bacterium that causes cholera. Louis Pasteur begins studying fermentation at the request of brewers, may 9 – Albert Fink patents the Fink truss in the United States. May 17 – Deck of Wheeling Suspension Bridge in the United States destroyed through torsional movement, July – First voyage by a seagoing steamship fitted with a compound steam engine, the screw steamer Brandon, built on the River Clyde in Scotland by John Elder. December 20 – In the case of Talbot v. Laroche, james Ambrose Cutting takes out three United States patents for improvements to the wet plate collodion process. Elisha Otis completes work on the safety elevator,10 June – The Crystal Palace reopens in Sydenham, South London with life-size dinosaur models in the grounds. Copley Medal, Johannes Peter Müller Wollaston Medal for Geology, Richard John Griffith January 27 – George Alexander Gibson, Scottish physician, January 29 – Fred Baker, American physician and naturalist. March 4 – Napier Shaw, English meteorologist, march 15 – Emil Adolf von Behring, German physiologist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1901. March 31 – Dugald Clerk, Scottish mechanical engineer, april 28 – Phoebe Marks, later Hertha Ayrton, English electrical engineer. April 29 – Henri Poincaré, French mathematician, may 11 – Ottmar Mergenthaler, German-born inventor. June 13 – Charles Algernon Parsons, British inventor of the steam turbine, July 12 – George Eastman, American photographic inventor. July 23 – Birt Acres, American-born cinematographic inventor, october 3 – Hermann Struve, Russian-born astronomer
11.
1854 in architecture
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The year 1854 in architecture involved some significant events and new buildings. Pena National Palace in Sintra, Portugal, designed by Baron Wilhelm Ludwig von Eschwege, church of St. Walburge, Preston, Lancashire, England, designed by Joseph Hansom. St Georges Hall, Liverpool, England, completed by Charles Robert Cockerell to the design of Harvey Lonsdale Elmes, the Kościuszko Mound in Kraków, Poland, erected in commemoration of Tadeusz Kościuszko, a national hero in Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and the United States. The Semper Gallery in Dresden, Germany, designed by Gottfried Semper, royal Gold Medal - Philip Hardwick Grand Prix de Rome, architecture - Joseph Auguste Émile Vaudremer
12.
1854 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1854. April 1–August 12 – Charles Dickenss novel Hard Times is serialised in his magazine Household Words, from September 2, it is followed in the magazine by Elizabeth Gaskells North and South, another social novel based in the Lancashire manufacturing district. July – Publication begins of Anthony Trollopes novel Barchester Towers, november – Crimean War, Future novelist Leo Tolstoy arrives to take part as a defending soldier in the Siege of Sevastopol. Off-duty he is reading Thackerays novels in French translation, john Rollin Ridges The Life and Adventures of Joaquín Murieta, The Celebrated California Bandit is the first novel by a Native American in the United States, although concerning a Mexican immigrant. The Polyglotta Africana, a classification of African languages based on field work under freed slaves in Freetown. 1, Dogme Theodor Mommsen – History of Rome, vol, morrow, American writer, noted for his stories of horror and suspense
13.
Paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the Holocene Epoch. It includes the study of fossils to determine organisms evolution and interactions with each other, paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th century BC. The science became established in the 18th century as a result of Georges Cuviers work on comparative anatomy, and developed rapidly in the 19th century. The term itself originates from Greek παλαιός, palaios, i. e. old, ancient, ὄν, on, i. e. being, creature and λόγος, logos, i. e. speech, thought, study. Paleontology lies on the border between biology and geology, but differs from archaeology in that it excludes the study of modern humans. It now uses techniques drawn from a range of sciences, including biochemistry, mathematics. The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of molecular phylogenetics, molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged, but there is controversy about the reliability of the molecular clock on which such estimates depend. The simplest definition is the study of ancient life, paleontology is one of the historical sciences, along with archaeology, geology, astronomy, cosmology, philology and history itself. This means that it aims to describe phenomena of the past, hence it has three main elements, description of the phenomena, developing a general theory about the causes of various types of change, and applying those theories to specific facts. Sometimes the smoking gun is discovered by an accident during other research. Paleontology lies on the boundary between biology and geology since paleontology focuses on the record of past life but its source of evidence is fossils. In addition paleontology often uses techniques derived from other sciences, including biology, osteology, ecology, chemistry, techniques developed in engineering have been used to analyse how ancient organisms might have worked, for example how fast Tyrannosaurus could move and how powerful its bite was. As knowledge has increased, paleontology has developed specialised subdivisions, vertebrate paleontology concentrates on fossils of vertebrates, from the earliest fish to the immediate ancestors of modern mammals. Invertebrate paleontology deals with fossils of such as molluscs, arthropods. Paleobotany focuses on the study of plants, but traditionally includes the study of fossil algae. Palynology, the study of pollen and spores produced by plants and protists. Micropaleontology deals with all microscopic fossil organisms, regardless of the group to which they belong, one example is the development of oxygenic photosynthesis by bacteria, which hugely increased the productivity and diversity of ecosystems. This also caused the oxygenation of the atmosphere, together, these were a prerequisite for the evolution of the most complex eukaryotic cells, from which all multicellular organisms are built
14.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
15.
Prehistory
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Prehistory means literally before history, from the Latin word for before, præ, and Greek ιστορία. Neighbouring civilisations were the first to follow, most other civilisations reached the end of prehistory during the Iron Age. The period when a culture is written about by others, but has not developed its own writing is known as the protohistory of the culture. By definition, there are no records from human prehistory. Clear techniques for dating were not well-developed until the 19th century and this article is concerned with human prehistory as defined here above. There are separate articles for the history of the Earth. However, for the race as a whole, prehistory ends when recorded history begins with the accounts of the ancient world around the 4th millennium BC. For example, in Egypt it is accepted that prehistory ended around 3200 BC, whereas in New Guinea the end of the prehistoric era is set much more recently. The three-age system is the periodization of prehistory into three consecutive time periods, named for their respective predominant tool-making technologies, Stone Age Bronze Age Iron Age. The notion of prehistory began to surface during the Enlightenment in the work of antiquarians who used the word primitive to describe societies that existed before written records, the first use of the word prehistory in English, however, occurred in the Foreign Quarterly Review in 1836. The main source for prehistory is archaeology, but some scholars are beginning to more use of evidence from the natural and social sciences. This view has been articulated by advocates of deep history, human population geneticists and historical linguists are also providing valuable insight for these questions. Human prehistory differs from history not only in terms of its chronology, restricted to material processes, remains and artifacts rather than written records, prehistory is anonymous. Because of this, reference terms that use, such as Neanderthal or Iron Age are modern labels with definitions sometimes subject to debate. Palaeolithic means Old Stone Age, and begins with the first use of stone tools, the Paleolithic is the earliest period of the Stone Age. The early part of the Palaeolithic is called the Lower Palaeolithic, evidence of control of fire by early humans during the Lower Palaeolithic Era is uncertain and has at best limited scholarly support. The most widely accepted claim is that H. erectus or H. ergaster made fires between 790,000 and 690,000 BP in a site at Bnot Yaakov Bridge, Israel. The use of fire enabled early humans to cook food, provide warmth, Early Homo sapiens originated some 200,000 years ago, ushering in the Middle Palaeolithic
16.
Organism
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In biology, an organism is any contiguous living system, such as an animal, plant, fungus, protist, archaeon, or bacterium. All known types of organisms are capable of some degree of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development and homeostasis. An organism consists of one or more cells, when it has one cell it is known as an organism. Most unicellular organisms are of microscopic scale and are thus described as microorganisms. Humans are multicellular organisms composed of trillions of cells grouped into specialized tissues. An organism may be either a prokaryote or a eukaryote, prokaryotes are represented by two separate domains—bacteria and archaea. Eukaryotic organisms are characterized by the presence of a cell nucleus. Fungi, animals and plants are examples of kingdoms of organisms within the eukaryotes, estimates on the number of Earths current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which only about 1.2 million have been documented. More than 99% of all species, amounting to five billion species. In 2016, a set of 355 genes from the last universal ancestor of all living organisms living was identified. The term organism first appeared in the English language in 1703 and it is directly related to the term organization. There is a tradition of defining organisms as self-organizing beings. An organism may be defined as an assembly of molecules functioning as a more or less stable whole that exhibits the properties of life. Dictionary definitions can be broad, using such as any living structure, such as a plant, animal, fungus or bacterium, capable of growth. Many definitions exclude viruses and possible man-made non-organic life forms, as viruses are dependent on the machinery of a host cell for reproduction. A superorganism is an organism consisting of individuals working together as a single functional or social unit. There has been controversy about the best way to define the organism, several contributions are responses to the suggestion that the category of organism may well not be adequate in biology. Viruses are not typically considered to be organisms because they are incapable of autonomous reproduction and this controversy is problematic because some cellular organisms are also incapable of independent survival and live as obligatory intracellular parasites
17.
Earth
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Earth, otherwise known as the World, or the Globe, is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life. It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets, according to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence, Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago. Earths gravity interacts with objects in space, especially the Sun. During one orbit around the Sun, Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times, thus, Earths axis of rotation is tilted, producing seasonal variations on the planets surface. The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides, stabilizes the Earths orientation on its axis, Earths lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. About 71% of Earths surface is covered with water, mostly by its oceans, the remaining 29% is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes, rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere. The majority of Earths polar regions are covered in ice, including the Antarctic ice sheet, Earths interior remains active with a solid iron inner core, a liquid outer core that generates the Earths magnetic field, and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics. Within the first billion years of Earths history, life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earths atmosphere and surface, some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earths distance from the Sun, physical properties, in the history of the Earth, biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events. Over 99% of all species that lived on Earth are extinct. Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely, over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival. Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures, politically, the world has about 200 sovereign states, the modern English word Earth developed from a wide variety of Middle English forms, which derived from an Old English noun most often spelled eorðe. It has cognates in every Germanic language, and their proto-Germanic root has been reconstructed as *erþō, originally, earth was written in lowercase, and from early Middle English, its definite sense as the globe was expressed as the earth. By early Modern English, many nouns were capitalized, and the became the Earth. More recently, the name is simply given as Earth. House styles now vary, Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, another convention capitalizes Earth when appearing as a name but writes it in lowercase when preceded by the. It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as what on earth are you doing, the oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4. 5672±0.0006 billion years ago. By 4. 54±0.04 Gya the primordial Earth had formed, the formation and evolution of Solar System bodies occurred along with the Sun
18.
Fossil
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Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous rock formations and sedimentary layers is known as the fossil record. The study of fossils across geological time, how they were formed, such a preserved specimen is called a fossil if it is older than some minimum age, most often the arbitrary date of 10,000 years. The observation that fossils were associated with certain rock strata led early geologists to recognize a geological timescale in the 19th century. The development of dating techniques in the early 20th century allowed geologists to determine the numerical or absolute age of the various strata. Like extant organisms, fossils vary in size from microscopic, even single bacterial cells one micrometer in diameter, to gigantic, such as dinosaurs, Fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as animal tracks or feces. These types of fossil are called trace fossils, as opposed to body fossils, finally, past life leaves some markers that cannot be seen but can be detected in the form of biochemical signals, these are known as chemofossils or biosignatures. The process of fossilization varies according to type and external conditions. Permineralization is a process of fossilization that occurs when an organism is buried, the empty spaces within an organism become filled with mineral-rich groundwater. Minerals precipitate from the groundwater, occupying the empty spaces and this process can occur in very small spaces, such as within the cell wall of a plant cell. Small scale permineralization can produce very detailed fossils, for permineralization to occur, the organism must become covered by sediment soon after death or soon after the initial decay process. The degree to which the remains are decayed when covered determines the later details of the fossil, some fossils consist only of skeletal remains or teeth, other fossils contain traces of skin, feathers or even soft tissues. This is a form of diagenesis, in some cases the original remains of the organism completely dissolve or are otherwise destroyed. The remaining organism-shaped hole in the rock is called an external mold, if this hole is later filled with other minerals, it is a cast. An endocast or internal mold is formed when sediments or minerals fill the cavity of an organism. This is a form of cast and mold formation. If the chemistry is right, the organism can act as a nucleus for the precipitation of minerals such as siderite, if this happens rapidly before significant decay to the organic tissue, very fine three-dimensional morphological detail can be preserved. Nodules from the Carboniferous Mazon Creek fossil beds of Illinois, USA, are among the best documented examples of such mineralization, replacement occurs when the shell, bone or other tissue is replaced with another mineral
19.
Animal track
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An Animal track is the imprint left behind in soil, snow, mud, or other ground surfaces that an animal walks across. Animal tracks are used by hunters in tracking their prey and by naturalists to identify animals living in a given area. Books are commonly used to identify animal tracks, which may look different based on the weight of the particular animal, tracks can be fossilized over millions of years. It is for this reason we are able to see fossilized dinosaur tracks in some types of rock formations and these types of fossils are called trace fossils since they are a trace of an animal left behind rather than the animal itself. In paleontology, tracks often preserve as sandstone infill, forming a mold of the track
20.
Burrow
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A burrow is a hole or tunnel excavated into the ground by an animal to create a space suitable for habitation, temporary refuge, or as a byproduct of locomotion. Burrows provide a form of shelter against predation and exposure to the elements and can be found in nearly every biome, a wide variety of vertebrates construct or use burrows in many different types of substrate and can range widely in complexity. Mammals are perhaps most well known for burrowing, especially Insectivora like the voracious mole, the rabbit, a member of the family Lagomorpha, is a well-known burrower. There are estimates that a single burrow can occupy a full cubic metre. Great gerbils live in groups in extensive burrows, which can be seen on satellite images. Even the unoccupied burrows can remain visible in the landscape for years, the burrows are distributed regularly, although the occupied burrows appear to be clustered in space. Even Carnivora like the meerkat, and marsupials, are burrowers, the largest burrowing animal is probably the polar bear when it makes its maternity den in snow or earth. Burrows by birds are made in soft soils, some penguins. The Magellanic penguin is an example, constructing burrows along coastal Patagonian regions of Chile, other burrowing birds are puffins, kingfishers, and bee-eaters. Kangaroo mice construct burrows in fine sand, examples of vertebrate burrowing animals include a number of mammals, amphibians, fish, reptiles, and birds. Scabies mites construct their burrows in the skin of the animal or human. Some sea urchins and clams can burrow into rock, the burrows produced by invertebrate animals can be filled actively or passively. Dwelling burrows which remain open during occupation by an organism are filled passively, actively filled burrows, on the other hand, are filled with material by the burrowing organism itself. The establishment of an invertebrate burrow often involves the soaking of surrounding sediment in mucus in order to prevent collapse, examples of burrowing invertebrates are insects, spiders, sea urchins, crustaceans, clams and worms. Burrows are also preserved in the fossil record as a type of trace fossil. Holt Maternity den Sett- a network of badger tunnels
21.
Feces
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Feces or faeces are the solid or semisolid metabolic waste from an animals digestive tract, discharged through the anus or cloaca during a process called defecation. Urine and feces together are called excreta, collected feces has various uses, namely as fertilizer or soil conditioner in agriculture, as a fuel source, or for medicinal purposes. After an animal has digested eaten material, the remains of material are discharged from its body as waste. Although it is lower in energy than the food from which it is derived, feces may retain a large amount of energy and this means that of all food eaten, a significant amount of energy remains for the decomposers of ecosystems. Many organisms feed on feces, from bacteria to fungi to insects such as dung beetles, some may specialize in feces, while others may eat other foods as well. Feces serve not only as a food, but also as a supplement to the usual diet of some animals. Feces and urine, which reflect light, are important to raptors such as kestrels. Seeds also may be found in feces, animals who eat fruit are known as frugivores. An advantage for a plant in having fruit is that animals will eat the fruit and this mode of seed dispersal is highly successful, as seeds dispersed around the base of a plant are unlikely to succeed and often are subject to heavy predation. Provided the seed can withstand the pathway through the system, it is not only likely to be far away from the parent plant. This cycling of matter is known as the biogeochemical cycle, the distinctive odor of feces is due to bacterial action. Gut flora produce compounds such as indole, skatole, and thiols and these are the same compounds that are responsible for the odor of flatulence. Consumption of foods prepared with spices may result in the spices being undigested, the perceived bad odor of feces has been hypothesized to be a deterrent for humans, as consuming or touching it may result in sickness or infection. Human perception of the odor may be contrasted by an animals perception of it, for example. In humans and depending on the individual and the circumstances, defecation may occur daily, extensive hardening of the feces may cause prolonged interruption in the routine and is called constipation. Human fecal matter varies significantly in appearance, depending on diet, normally it is semisolid, with a mucus coating. The brown coloration comes from a combination of bile and bilirubin, in newborn babies, initially fecal matter is yellow-green after the meconium. This coloration comes from the presence of bile alone, throughout the life of an ordinary human, one may experience many types of feces
22.
Coprolite
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Coprolites are classified as trace fossils as opposed to body fossils, as they give evidence for the animals behaviour rather than morphology. The name is derived from the Greek words κόπρος and λίθος and they were first described by William Buckland in 1829. Prior to this they were known as fir cones and bezoar stones. They serve a purpose in paleontology because they provide direct evidence of the predation. Coprolites may range in size from a few millimetres to over 60 centimetres, coprolites, distinct from paleofaeces, are fossilized animal dung. Like other fossils, coprolites have had much of their original composition replaced by mineral deposits such as silicates, in the same context, there are the urolites, erosions caused by evacuation of liquid wastes and nonliquid urinary secretions. The fossil hunter Mary Anning had noticed that bezoar stones were found in the abdominal region of ichthyosaur skeletons found in the Lias formation at Lyme Regis. She also noted that if such stones were broken open they often contained fossilized fish bones and scales as well as sometimes bones from smaller ichthyosaurs. It was these observations by Anning that led the geologist William Buckland to propose in 1829 that the stones were fossilized feces and named them coprolites. In one example these fossils can be analyzed for certain minerals that are known to exist in trace amounts in certain species of plant that can still be detected millions of years later. In another example, the existence of proteins in coprolites can be used to pinpoint the existence of cannibalistic behavior in an ancient culture. The recognition of coprolites is aided by their structural patterns, such as spiral or annular markings, by their content, such as undigested food fragments, the smallest coprolites are often difficult to distinguish from inorganic pellets or from eggs. Most coprolites are composed chiefly of calcium phosphate, along with quantities of organic matter. By analyzing coprolites, it is possible to infer the diet of the animal which produced them, coprolites have been recorded in deposits ranging in age from the Cambrian period to recent times and are found worldwide. Some of them are useful as index fossils, such as Favreina from the Jurassic period of Haute-Savoie in France, some marine deposits contain a high proportion of fecal remains. However, animal excrement is easily fragmented and destroyed, so usually has little chance of becoming fossilized, realising their potential as a source of available phosphate once they had been treated with sulphuric acid, he patented an extraction process and set about finding new sources. Very soon, coprolites were being mined on a scale for use as fertiliser due to their high phosphate content. The major area of extraction occurred over the east of England, centred on Cambridgeshire, there is a Coprolite Street near Ipswich docks where the Fisons works once stood
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Palynology
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Palynology is the study of dust or particles that are strewn. A classic palynologist analyses particulate samples collected from the air, from water, the condition and identification of those particles, organic and inorganic, give the palynologist clues to the life, environment, and energetic conditions that produced them. Palynology does not include diatoms, foraminiferans or other organisms with siliceous or calcareous exoskeletons, palynology is an interdisciplinary science and is a branch of earth science and biological science, particularly plant science. Stratigraphical palynology is a branch of micropalaeontology and paleobotany, which studies fossil palynomorphs from the Precambrian to the Holocene, early investigators include Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Gideon Mantell and Henry Hopley White. Quantitative analysis of pollen began with Lennart von Posts published work, although he published in the Swedish language, his methodology gained a wide audience through his lectures. In particular, his Kristiania lecture of 1916 was important in gaining a wider audience, because the early investigations published in the Nordic languages or Scandinavian languages the field of pollen analysis was confined to those countries. The isolation ended with the German publication of Gunnar Erdtmans 1921 thesis, the methodology of pollen analysis became widespread throughout Europe and North America and revolutionized Quaternary vegetation and climate change research. Earlier pollen researchers were Früh, who enumerated many common tree types. There is a study of samples taken from sediments of Swedish lakes by Trybom, Pinus. Georg F. L. Sarauw studied fossil pollen of middle Pleistocene age from the harbour of Copenhagen, a. Weber appear to be among the first to undertake percentage frequency calculations. The term palynology was introduced by Hyde and Williams in 1944, following correspondence with the Swedish geologist Antevs, Hyde and Williams chose palynology on the basis of the Greek words paluno meaning to sprinkle and pale meaning dust. Pollen analysis advanced rapidly in this due to advances in optics. Much of the science was revised by Johannes Iversen and Knut Fægri in their textbook on the subject, palynomorphs are broadly defined as organic-walled microfossils between 5 and 500 micrometres in size. They are extracted from sedimentary rocks and sediment cores both physically, by treatment and wet sieving, and chemically, by chemical digestion to remove the non-organic fraction. Palynomorphs may be composed of material such as chitin, pseudochitin and sporopollenin. Palynomorphs that have a taxonomy description are sometimes referred to as palynotaxa, palynomorphs form a geological record of importance in determining the type of prehistoric life that existed at the time the sedimentary formation was laid down. As a result, these microfossils give important clues to the climatic conditions of the time. Their paleontological utility derives from an abundance numbering in millions of cells per gram in organic marine deposits, palynomorphs, however, generally have been destroyed in metamorphic or recrystallized rocks
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Residue (chemistry)
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In chemistry residue is whatever remains or acts as a contaminant after a given class of events. Residue may be the material remaining after a process of preparation, separation, or purification, such as distillation, evaporation and it may also denote the undesired by-products of a chemical reaction. Toxic chemical residues, wastes or contamination from other processes, are a concern in food safety, for example, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration and the Canadian Food Inspection Agency have guidelines for detecting chemical residues that are possibly dangerous to consume. Residue may refer to an atom or a group of atoms that forms part of a molecule, in biochemistry and molecular biology, a residue refers to a specific monomer within the polymeric chain of a polysaccharide, protein or nucleic acid. One might say, This protein consists of 118 amino acid residues or The histidine residue is considered to be basic because it contains an imidazole ring. Note that a residue is different from a moiety, which, a residue might be one amino acid in a polypeptide or one monosaccharide in a starch molecule
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Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
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Dimetrodon borealis
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Dimetrodon borealis, formerly known as Bathygnathus borealis, is an extinct species of pelycosaur-grade synapsid that lived about 270 million years ago in the Early Permian. A partial maxilla or upper jaw bone from Prince Edward Island in Canada is the known fossil of Bathygnathus. The bone was later identified as that of a pelycosaur, a 2015 study by the researchers from U of T Mississauga, Carleton University and the Royal Ontario Museum reclassified the species into the genus Dimetrodon. The teeth of Bathygnathus are long, recurved, and distinctively teardrop-shaped, the teardrop shape of the teeth is an indication that Bathygnathus belongs to the family Sphenacodontidae. The shape of the maxilla indicates that Bathygnathus had a skull like those of other advanced sphenacodontids like Dimetrodon. Like Dimetrodon, Bathygnathus has an enlarged caniniform tooth near the front of the jaw, the maxilla of Bathygnathus was found around 1845 in a community in the north of Prince Edward Island called French River. The bone was uncovered by a landowner named Donald McLeod in a layer of shale at the bottom of his well, canadian geologist John William Dawson purchased the fossil and was the first to recognize its significance. Dawson brought it to the attention of American paleontologist Joseph Leidy, Leidy identified the bone as a lower jaw, a mistake that was not corrected until English paleontologist Richard Owen reinterpreted it as an upper jaw in 1876. Leidy erected the new genus and species Bathygnathus borealis, which means northern deep jaw in Greek as a reference to the height of the jaw and he identified it as belonging to a dinosaur, although he never called Bathygnathus a dinosaur in the paper. Leidy compared Bathygnathus with Thecodontosaurus from the Triassic red beds of the United Kingdom, bearing it to the ground with its great weight, while the powerful claws prevented its escape, and the sabre-armed jaws completed the sanguinary work of destruction. In their 1940 overview of pelycosaurs, Alfred Romer and Llewellyn Ivor Price suggested that Bathygnathus might be synonymous with Dimetrodon
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Joseph Leidy
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Joseph Leidy was an American paleontologist. Leidy was professor of anatomy at the University of Pennsylvania, and his book Extinct Fauna of Dakota and Nebraska contained many species not previously described and many previously unknown on the North American continent. At the time, scientific investigation was largely the province of wealthy amateurs, Leidy named the holotype specimen of Hadrosaurus foulkii, which was recovered from the marl pits of Haddonfield, New Jersey. It was notable for being the first nearly-complete fossilized skeleton of a dinosaur ever recovered, the specimen was originally discovered by William Parker Foulke. Leidy concluded, contrary to the view prevailing at the time and he also described the holotype specimens of Arctodus, the dire wolf, and the American lion, among many others. The noted American fossil collector and paleontologist E. D, cope was a student of Leidys, but the enmity and ruthless competition that developed between him and rival paleontologist O. C. Marsh eventually drove Leidy out of western American vertebrate paleontology, a field that Leidy had helped to found, Leidy was an early American supporter of Darwins theory of evolution, and lobbied successfully for Darwins election to membership in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. In 1852 Leidy referred Bison antiquus, the North American fossil bison, to the genus Bison, Leidy was also a renowned parasitologist, and determined as early as 1846 that trichinosis was caused by a parasite in undercooked meat. He was also a pioneering protozoologist, publishing Fresh-water Rhizopods of North America in 1879 - a masterpiece that is still referenced today, Leidy collected gems as well as fossils, and donated his important collection of the former to the Smithsonian before he died. At Swarthmore, he taught a class on mineralogy and geology. Joseph Leidy was born on September 9,1823, to an established Philadelphia family of German extraction. His father, Philip, was a hatter, his mother, Catharine, died when he was young, during childbirth, whereupon his father remarried to his wifes first cousin, Leidy also had a brother named Thomas Leidy. With the support of his stepmother, and after overcoming the opposition of his father and he graduated with his medical degree in 1844. He married Anna Harden, a woman who took a serious interest in his work and their marriage was childless, and they eventually adopted an orphaned seven-year-old girl. In 1846, Leidy became the first person ever to use a microscope to solve a murder mystery, a man accused of killing a Philadelphia farmer had blood on his clothes and hatchet. The suspect claimed the blood was from chickens he had been slaughtering, using his microscope, Leidy found no nuclei in these erythrocytes. Moreover, he found that if he let chick erythrocytes remain outside the body for hours, thus, he concluded that the blood stains could not have been chicken blood. Leidy was the first president of the American Association of Anatomists Works by or about Joseph Leidy at Internet Archive Chapman Henry C.1891, Memoir of Joseph Leidy, M. D. LL. D
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Permian
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The Permian is a geologic period and system which spans 46.7 million years from the end of the Carboniferous Period 298.9 million years ago, to the beginning of the Triassic Period 252.2 Mya. It is the last period of the Paleozoic Era, the following Triassic Period belongs to the Mesozoic Era, the concept of the Permian was introduced in 1841 by geologist Sir Roderick Murchison, who named it after the city of Perm. The Permian witnessed the diversification of the early amniotes into the groups of the mammals, turtles, lepidosaurs. The world at the time was dominated by two known as Pangaea and Siberia, surrounded by a global ocean called Panthalassa. The Carboniferous rainforest collapse left behind vast regions of desert within the continental interior, amniotes, who could better cope with these drier conditions, rose to dominance in place of their amphibian ancestors. The Permian ended with the Permian–Triassic extinction event, the largest mass extinction in Earths history, in which nearly 90% of marine species and it would take well into the Triassic for life to recover from this catastrophe. Recovery from the Permian-Triassic extinction event was protracted, on land, the term Permian was introduced into geology in 1841 by Sir R. I. Murchison, president of the Geological Society of London, who identified typical strata in extensive Russian explorations undertaken with Edouard de Verneuil, the region now lies in the Perm Krai of Russia. This could have in part caused the extinctions of marine species at the end of the period by severely reducing shallow coastal areas preferred by many marine organisms. During the Permian, all the Earths major landmasses were collected into a supercontinent known as Pangaea. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, a new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era. Large continental landmass interiors experience climates with extreme variations of heat and cold, deserts seem to have been widespread on Pangaea. Such dry conditions favored gymnosperms, plants with seeds enclosed in a cover, over plants such as ferns that disperse spores in a wetter environment. The first modern trees appeared in the Permian, the climate in the Permian was quite varied. At the start of the Permian, the Earth was still in an Ice Age, glaciers receded around the mid-Permian period as the climate gradually warmed, drying the continents interiors. In the late Permian period, the drying continued although the temperature cycled between warm and cool cycles, Permian marine deposits are rich in fossil mollusks, echinoderms, and brachiopods. By the close of the Permian, trilobites and a host of other groups became extinct. Terrestrial life in the Permian included diverse plants, fungi, arthropods, the period saw a massive desert covering the interior of Pangaea
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Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
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