1.
1846 in poetry
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Nationality words link to articles with information on the nations poetry or literature. May 22 – The Brontë sisters first published work, the collection Poems by Currer, Ellis and it sells just two copies in the first year. September 12 – Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning marry privately in St Marylebone Parish Church, London, departing for the continent a week later
2.
1852 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1852. February 2 – Alexandre Dumas, filss stage adaptation of his 1848 novel La Dame aux caméllias is premièred at the Théâtre du Vaudeville in Paris. February 24 – Nikolai Gogol burns some of his manuscripts, including most of the part of Dead Souls. He takes to his bed and dies a few days later, march – Serialization of Charles Dickens novel Bleak House begins, the September installment introduces the first detective in an English novel. The first dramatic adaptations appear on the New York stage from Autumn, april – Samuel Orchart Beeton launches The Englishwomans Domestic Magazine, the first British magazine aimed at a middle-class female readership. April 16 – Ivan Turgenev is imprisoned and exiled to his estate over an obituary praising Gogol. April 24 – Wilkie Collins first contribution to Household Words, The travellers story of a strange bed, is an early example of crime fiction involving the police. August 5 – Exiled French novelist Victor Hugo moves to Saint Helier on Jersey in the Channel Islands, September 2 – The public library in Campfield, Manchester, England, is the first to offer free lending under the U. K. Public Libraries Act 1850, Edward Bulwer-Lytton and Charles Dickens are present at the opening ceremony, november – Leo Tolstoys debut novel, Childhood, is published under the initials L. N. in this months issue of the Saint Petersburg literary journal Sovremennik. Pierre Larousse founds his publishing house in Paris, hanah Mullens Karuna O Phulmonir Bibaran is the first Bengali novel. M. Reynolds – Mary Price Caroline Rush – The North and the South, or, Slavery and Its Contrasts William L
3.
1854 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1854. April 1–August 12 – Charles Dickenss novel Hard Times is serialised in his magazine Household Words, from September 2, it is followed in the magazine by Elizabeth Gaskells North and South, another social novel based in the Lancashire manufacturing district. July – Publication begins of Anthony Trollopes novel Barchester Towers, november – Crimean War, Future novelist Leo Tolstoy arrives to take part as a defending soldier in the Siege of Sevastopol. Off-duty he is reading Thackerays novels in French translation, john Rollin Ridges The Life and Adventures of Joaquín Murieta, The Celebrated California Bandit is the first novel by a Native American in the United States, although concerning a Mexican immigrant. The Polyglotta Africana, a classification of African languages based on field work under freed slaves in Freetown. 1, Dogme Theodor Mommsen – History of Rome, vol, morrow, American writer, noted for his stories of horror and suspense
4.
1857 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1857. January 5 – Wilkie Collins drama The Frozen Deep is first performed in an amateur performance staged by and featuring Charles Dickens at the latters London home. January 10 – Jules Verne marries Honorine de Viane Morel, February 7 – Gustave Flauberts pioneering realist novel Madame Bovary is acquitted on charges of offending morals and religion from its 1856 expurgated serialization. It is published complete in book form in April by Michel Lévy Frères in Paris, may 5 – American publisher Moses Phillips hosts a dinner for Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. May 10 – Indian Rebellion of 1857 breaks out, it will feature extensively in subsequent fiction, june 25 – Charles Baudelaires collection of poems Les Fleurs du mal is published in Paris. He will be convicted and some of the most decadent poems suppressed on charges of offending morals, september – Obscene Publications Act 1857 is passed in the United Kingdom, making the sale of obscene material a statutory offence. William Dugdale, a target of the act, is one of the first to be charged under it. The Act is replaced with a less stringent one in 1959, september 25 – Eugène Sues extended fiction Les Mystères du peuple is condemned on charges of offending morals and religion, the author having died on August 3. George Eliots Scenes of Clerical Life are serialized in Blackwoods Edinburgh Magazine through the year, her first work of fiction, the British Museum Reading Room opens in London. Saintine – Seul Catharine Maria Sedgwick – Married or Single, adalbert Stifter – Der Nachsommer William Makepeace Thackeray – The Virginians Anthony Trollope – Barchester Towers R. M. With an Introductory Sketch of its Progress, and Suggestions for its Confutation February 7 – Benjamin Eli Smith, American editor of reference books February 9 – A
5.
1855 in art
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Events from the year 1855 in art. July 3 – John Everett Millais and Effie Gray marry, jean Auguste Dominique Ingres exhibits Venus Anadyomene, which has taken him forty years to complete. William Bell Scott begins painting murals of Northumbrian history at Wallington Hall, the Bavarian National Museum is founded by King Maximilian II of Bavaria. Kelly, American sculptor and illustrator September 8 – William Friese-Greene, English photographer and cinematographer Willis E
6.
1855 in architecture
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The year 1855 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. October 15 - The second of the Prussia Columns is inaugurated, on the 60th birthday of their instigator, the Palais de lIndustrie for the Exposition Universelle in Paris, France, mainly designed by the architect Jean-Marie-Victor Viel and the engineer Alexis Barrault. Église Saint-Eugène-Sainte-Cécile in Paris, designed by Louis-Auguste Boileau, is completed, Church of St John the Evangelist, Preston, Lancashire, England, designed by E. H. Shellard, is completed. The Old Stone Church in the United States, designed by Charles Heard, Church of Saint Bartholomew, Brugherio in Italy, rebuilt to the design of Giacomo Moraglia, is completed. St Marys Cathedral, Killarney, Ireland, to the design of Augustus Pugin following his death, the Victoria Tower of the Palace of Westminster in London, England, as The Kings Tower, designed by Charles Barry and Augustus Pugin. The original Smithsonian Institution Building in Washington, D. C. to the 1846 design of James Renwick, Jr. Fremantle Prison in Western Australia, royal Gold Medal - Jacques Ignace Hittorff. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture - Honoré Daumet
7.
Irish poetry
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Irish poetry includes poetry in two languages, Irish and English. The earliest surviving poems in Irish date back to the 6th century and this culminated in the work of the poets of the Irish Literary Revival in the late 19th and early 20th century. Poetry in Irish represents the oldest vernacular poetry in Europe, the earliest examples date from the 6th century, and are generally short lyrics on themes from religion or the world of nature. They were frequently written by their authors in the margins of the illuminated manuscripts that they were copying. The best known example is Pangur Bán and it was practical for poems to be short because the Irish recognized that it was necessary to use any means necessary to make the poems lasting in their oral culture. To accomplish such a feat as well as they have, they used complicated rhyme schemes that would render a poem nonsensical if any of the key words were changed from the original version, in an oral culture, Irish poetry had many uses. A poem could be used to both the poet and the subject of the poem, oftentimes kings would commission poets to create a piece about them. Such poems would be passed on to descendants so they would remember the deeds of past generations. Kings would also commission poets to write poems of advertisement, speaking of the greatness and worthiness. Oral poetry, because it was in the vernacular, was used for entertainment. Poems that were entertaining could also be informative, teaching people lessons or offering them wisdom of experience for dealing with situations they would encounter in their everyday lives. Finally, poems, especially those featured in the sagas, were thought to be an instrument of the supernatural, Another source of early Irish poetry is the poems in the tales and sagas, such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge. Unlike many other European epic cycles, the Irish sagas were written in prose, Irish bards formed a professional hereditary caste of highly trained, learned poets. As officials of the court of king or chieftain, they performed a number of official roles and they were chroniclers and satirists whose job it was to praise their employers and damn those who crossed them. It was believed that a well-aimed bardic satire, glam dicin, the Metrical Dindshenchas, or Lore of Places, is probably the major surviving monument of Irish bardic verse. It is a great onomastic anthology of naming legends of significant places in the Irish landscape, the earliest of these date from the 11th century, and were probably originally compiled on a provincial basis. As a national compilation, the Metrical Dindshenchas has come down to us in two different recensions. Knowledge of the real or putative history of local places formed an important part of the education of the elite in ancient Ireland, verse tales of Fionn and the Fianna, sometimes known as Ossianic poetry, were extremely common in Ireland and Scotland throughout this period
8.
Gaisford Prize
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The Gaisford Prize is a prize in the University of Oxford, founded in 1855 in memory of Dr Thomas Gaisford. For most of its history, the prize was awarded for Classical Greek Verse and Prose, the prizes now include the Gaisford Essay Prize and the Gaisford Dissertation Prize. Dr Thomas Gaisford, Dean of Christ Church, Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Oxford for more than forty years, the Prize was first awarded in 1857. There were originally two Gaisford Prizes, for Greek Verse and for Greek Prose, to these were added two more, for an Essay and for a Dissertation. 56-98. 1858, Reginald Broughton for comic iambics, Shakespeares Henry IV, Part I,1859, George Rankine Luke for hexameter verse, Morte DArthur. 1860, Chaloner William Chute for tragic iambic verse, Shakespeares Richard III, Act 4,1861, James Bryce for Theocritean verse, The May Queen, a Greek idyll. 1862, Robert William Raper for comic verse, Shakespeares Henry IV, Part II, Act 4. 1863, Charles John Pearson for Homeric verse, Paradise Lost 6. 824-877,1864, Evelyn Abbott for tragic iambic verse, Shakespeares Pericles, Act 5, Sc.1. 1865, Ernest James Myers for a Theocritean idyll, Ægon et Milo, qui ad Olympicum certamen profecti erant, domum redeuntes,1866, George Nutt for comic iambics, Henry IV, Part II, Act 1. 1867, Alexander James Montgomerie Bell for Homeric hexameters, Necryomanteia sive Dante Poeta apud Inferos,1868, Richard Lewis Nettleship for tragic iambics, Shelleys Prometheus Unbound, Act 2, Sc.4. 1869, John Arthur Godley for Theocritean verse, Shakespeares Cymbeline, Act 4,1870, Walter Sumner Gibson for comic iambic verse, Henry IV, Part II, Act 5, Sc.1. 1871, Edward Byron Nicholson for heroic hexameters, Ἄστρων νυκτέρων ὁμήγυρις,1872, Thomas Agar for tragic iambic verse, Byrons Manfred, Act 1, The Spirits I have raised. 1873, Alfred Joshua Butler for Homeric verse, Paradise Lost 4. 634-705,1874, Edward Maclaine Field for comic iambics, Henry IV, Part I, Act 5 Sc.4. 1875, Thomas Herbert Warren for an idyll, The Ruins of Athens,1876, Arthur Elam Haigh for tragic iambics, Shakespeares Julius Caesar, Act 1, Sc.2. 1877, Sidney Graves Hamilton for Homeric hexameters, Paradise Lost 4. 223-287,1878, Alfred Denis Godley for comic iambics, the Hampshire farmers address in Rejected Addresses. 1879, Alfred Temple Roberts for idyllic hexameters, Miltons Lycidas 5.132,1880, Ernest Alfred Upcott for tragic iambics, Paradise Lost 4. 32-113. 1881, Christopher Cookson for idyllic hexameters, Matthew Arnolds Thyrsis,1882, William Ross Hardie for comic iambics, Shakespeares Twelfth Night, Act 2, Sc.51883, Cecil Henry St Leger Russell for Homeric hexameters, The Death of Zohrab and Rustum. 1884, Harry Hammond House for iambics, Henry IV, Part II, Act 1,1885, John Undershell Powell for idyllic hexameters Shelleys Adonaïs 39-66
9.
Alfred, Lord Tennyson
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Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson, FRS was Poet Laureate of Great Britain and Ireland during much of Queen Victorias reign and remains one of the most popular British poets. Tennyson excelled at penning short lyrics, such as Break, Break, Break, The Charge of the Light Brigade, Tears, Idle Tears, Tennyson also wrote some notable blank verse including Idylls of the King, Ulysses, and Tithonus. During his career, Tennyson attempted drama, but his plays enjoyed little success and he is the ninth most frequently quoted writer in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations. Tennyson was born in Somersby, Lincolnshire, England and he was born into a middle-class line of Tennysons, but also had a noble and royal ancestry. His father, George Clayton Tennyson, was rector of Somersby, also rector of Benniworth and Bag Enderby, and vicar of Grimsby. Rev. George Clayton Tennyson raised a family and was a man of superior abilities and varied attainments, who tried his hand with fair success in architecture, painting, music. He was comfortably well off for a clergyman and his shrewd money management enabled the family to spend summers at Mablethorpe. Alfred Tennysons mother, Elizabeth Fytche, was the daughter of Stephen Fytche, vicar of St. James Church, Louth and rector of Withcall, Tennysons father carefully attended to the education and training of his children. Tennyson and two of his brothers were writing poetry in their teens and a collection of poems by all three was published locally when Alfred was only 17. One of those brothers, Charles Tennyson Turner, later married Louisa Sellwood, the sister of Alfreds future wife. Another of Tennysons brothers, Edward Tennyson, was institutionalised at a private asylum, Tennyson was a student of Louth Grammar School for four years and then attended Scaitcliffe School, Englefield Green and King Edward VI Grammar School, Louth. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1827, where he joined a society called the Cambridge Apostles. A portrait of Tennyson by George Frederic Watts is in Trinitys collection, at Cambridge, Tennyson met Arthur Henry Hallam and William Henry Brookfield, who became his closest friends. His first publication was a collection of his rhymes and those of his elder brother Charles entitled Poems by Two Brothers. In 1829, Tennyson was awarded the Chancellors Gold Medal at Cambridge for one of his first pieces, reportedly, it was thought to be no slight honour for a young man of twenty to win the chancellors gold medal. He published his first solo collection of poems, Poems Chiefly Lyrical in 1830, claribel and Mariana, which later took their place among Tennysons most celebrated poems, were included in this volume. Although decried by critics as overly sentimental, his verse soon proved popular and brought Tennyson to the attention of well-known writers of the day. In the spring of 1831, Tennysons father died, requiring him to leave Cambridge before taking his degree and he returned to the rectory, where he was permitted to live for another six years and shared responsibility for his widowed mother and the family
10.
Robert Browning
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Robert Browning was an English poet and playwright whose mastery of the dramatic monologue made him one of the foremost Victorian poets. His poems are known for their irony, characterization, dark humour, social commentary, historical settings, Brownings early career began promisingly, but was not a success. His reputation took more than a decade to recover, during which time he moved away from the Shelleyan forms of his early period, in 1846 Browning married the older poet Elizabeth Barrett, who at the time was considerably better known than himself. So started one of historys most famous literary marriages and they went to live in Italy, a country he called my university, and which features frequently in his work. By the time of her death in 1861, he had published the crucial collection Men and Women, the collection Dramatis Personae and the book-length epic poem The Ring and the Book followed, and made him a leading British poet. He continued to write prolifically, but his reputation rests largely on the poetry he wrote in this middle period. Unusually for a poet, societies for the study of his work were founded while he was still alive, such Browning Societies remained common in Britain and the United States until the early 20th century. Brownings admirers have tended to temper their praise with reservations about the length and difficulty of his most ambitious poems, particularly The Ring and the Book. Nevertheless, they have included such eminent writers as Henry James, Oscar Wilde, George Bernard Shaw, G. K. Chesterton, Ezra Pound, Jorge Luis Borges, among living writers, Stephen Kings The Dark Tower series and A. S. Byatts Possession refer directly to Brownings work, today Brownings critically most esteemed poems include the monologues Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came, Fra Lippo Lippi, Andrea Del Sarto, and My Last Duchess. Robert Browning was born in Walworth in the parish of Camberwell, Surrey and he was baptized on 14 June 1812, at Locks Fields Independent Chapel, York Street, Walworth, the only son of Sarah Anna and Robert Browning. His father was a clerk for the Bank of England. Brownings paternal grandfather was an owner in Saint Kitts, West Indies. Brownings father had sent to the West Indies to work on a sugar plantation. Brownings mother was the daughter of a German shipowner who had settled in Dundee in Scotland, the evidence, however, is inconclusive either way. Roberts father, a collector, amassed a library of around 6,000 books. As such, Robert was raised in a household of significant literary resources and his mother, to whom he was very close, was a devout nonconformist and a talented musician. His younger sister, Sarianna, also gifted, became her brothers companion in his later years and his father encouraged his childrens interest in literature and the arts
11.
Elizabeth Barrett Browning
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Elizabeth Barrett Browning was one of the most prominent English poets of the Victorian era, popular in Britain and the United States during her lifetime. Born in County Durham, the eldest of 12 children, Elizabeth Barrett wrote poetry from about the age of six and her mothers collection of her poems forms one of the largest collections extant of juvenilia by any English writer. At 15 she became ill, suffering intense head and spinal pain for the rest of her life, later in life she also developed lung problems, possibly tuberculosis. She took laudanum for the pain from an age, which is likely to have contributed to her frail health. In the 1830s Elizabeth was introduced to society through her cousin. Her first adult collection of poems was published in 1838 and she wrote prolifically between 1841 and 1844, producing poetry, translation and prose and she campaigned for the abolition of slavery and her work helped influence reform in the child labour legislation. Her prolific output made her a rival to Tennyson as a candidate for poet laureate on the death of Wordsworth, Elizabeths volume Poems brought her great success, attracting the admiration of the writer Robert Browning. Their correspondence, courtship and marriage were carried out in secret, following the wedding she was indeed disinherited by her father. The couple moved to Italy in 1846, where she would live for the rest of her life and they had one son, Robert Barrett Browning, whom they called Pen. She died in Florence in 1861, a collection of her last poems was published by her husband shortly after her death. Elizabeths work had a influence on prominent writers of the day, including the American poets Edgar Allan Poe. She is remembered for such poems as How Do I Love Thee. some of Elizabeth Barretts family had lived in Jamaica since 1655. Their wealth derived mainly from Edward Barrett, owner of 10,000 acres in the estates of Cinnamon Hill, Cornwall, Cambridge, Elizabeths maternal grandfather owned sugar plantations, mills, glassworks and ships that traded between Jamaica and Newcastle. What the family believed to be their genealogy in relation to Jamaica is unclear, the family wished to hand down their name, stipulating that Barrett should always be held as a surname. In some cases inheritance was given on condition that the name was used by the beneficiary, given this strong tradition, Elizabeth used Elizabeth Barrett Moulton Barrett on legal documents and before she was married often signed herself Elizabeth Barrett Barrett or EBB. Elizabeths father chose to raise his family in England while his business enterprises remained in Jamaica, the fortune of Elizabeths mothers line, the Graham Clarke family, also derived in part from slave labour, and was considerable. Elizabeth Barrett Moulton-Barrett was born on 6 March 1806, in Coxhoe Hall and her parents were Edward Barrett Moulton Barrett and Mary Graham Clarke, Elizabeth was the eldest of 12 children. All lived to adulthood except for one girl, who died at the age of three, when Elizabeth was eight, the children all had nicknames, Elizabeth was Ba
12.
Dante Gabriel Rossetti
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Dante Gabriel Rossetti was an English poet, illustrator, painter and translator. He founded the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in 1848 with William Holman Hunt, Rossetti was later to be the main inspiration for a second generation of artists and writers influenced by the movement, most notably William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones. His work also influenced the European Symbolists and was a precursor of the Aesthetic movement. Rossettis art was characterised by its sensuality and its medieval revivalism and his early poetry was influenced by John Keats. His later poetry was characterised by the complex interlinking of thought and feeling, especially in his sonnet sequence, poetry and image are closely entwined in Rossettis work. Rossettis personal life was linked to his work, especially his relationships with his models and muses Elizabeth Siddal, Fanny Cornforth. The son of émigré Italian scholar Gabriele Pasquale Giuseppe Rossetti and his wife Frances Mary Lavinia Polidori, Rossetti was born in London, England and his family and friends called him Gabriel, but in publications he put the name Dante first in honour of Dante Alighieri. He was the brother of poet Christina Rossetti, critic William Michael Rossetti and his father was a Roman Catholic, at least prior to his marriage, and his mother was an Anglican, ostensibly Gabriel was baptized as and was a practicing Anglican. During his childhood, Rossetti was home educated and often read the Bible, along with the works of Shakespeare, Dickens, Sir Walter Scott, the youthful Rossetti is described as self-possessed, articulate, passionate and charismatic but also ardent, poetic and feckless. Like all his siblings, he aspired to be a poet and attended Kings College School and he also wished to be a painter, having shown a great interest in Medieval Italian art. He studied at Henry Sass Drawing Academy from 1841 to 1845, when he enrolled in the Antique School of the Royal Academy, after leaving the Royal Academy, Rossetti studied under Ford Madox Brown, with whom he retained a close relationship throughout his life. Following the exhibition of William Holman Hunts painting The Eve of St. Agnes, the painting illustrated a poem by the little-known John Keats. Rossettis own poem, The Blessed Damozel, was an imitation of Keats, together they developed the philosophy of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood which they founded along with John Everett Millais. Their approach was to return to the abundant detail, intense colours, the eminent critic John Ruskin wrote, Every Pre-Raphaelite landscape background is painted to the last touch, in the open air, from the thing itself. Every Pre-Raphaelite figure, however studied in expression, is a portrait of some living person. Rossettis first major paintings in oil display the realist qualities of the early Pre-Raphaelite movement and his Girlhood of Mary Virgin and Ecce Ancilla Domini portray Mary as a teenage girl. I saw at once that he was not an orthodox boy, the mixture of genius and dilettantism of both men shut me up for the moment, and whetted my curiosity. Although his work subsequently won support from John Ruskin, Rossetti only rarely exhibited thereafter, in 1850, Rossetti met Elizabeth Siddal, an important model for the Pre-Raphaelite painters
13.
Belarusian literature
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Belarusian literature is the writing produced, both prose and poetry, by speakers of the Belarusian language. Belarusian literature was formed from the basis of Kievan Rus literary tradition. A separate literary tradition of Belarus became apparent only in the 14th-15th centuries, the old Belarusian literature experienced its golden age in the 16th-17th centuries, when the Old Belarusian language was the official language of the Great Duchy of Lithuania. The Statutes of the Great Duchy of 1529,1566 and 1588, since the early 16th century Belarusian literary works have been printed. The first printed Belarusian book was Psaltyr, which was printed in Prague by Francysk Skaryna in 1517, during the 16th and 17th century poetry and drama appeared in Belarusian literature under the influence of a more developed Polish literature. Its renaissance began in the first half of the 19th century, the first novels in Belarusian have been authored by Pauljuk Bahrym, and several works have been contributed by Polish poets born in Belarus. Books were often published in the Latin alphabet, not the Cyrillic, in the second half of the 19th century there was a rise in the literary tradition of Realism. A new period started after the 1905 Russian Revolution, when the first Belarusian-language newspapers were established in Vilnius and they brought together a circle of writers, who were arguing for developing the Belarusian language and its literature. The Belarusian literature of the combined elements of Romanticism, Realism and Modernism. During World War I and the proclamation of the Belarusian Peoples Republic, besides the authors from the previous periods, this was a period of active work of poets Mihkal Charot, Uladzimer Dubouka, Adam Dudar, and writers Maksim Harecki, Tsishka Hartny and Kuzma Chorny. Outside of Belarus, Belarusian literature developed as well - in Vilnius, Kaunas, in 1934, the Union of Writers of BSSR was established in Minsk. The tradition of socialist realism appeared in the 1930s, after the end of the World War II, the key themes for the new Belarusian literature were war time experiences, the life of Belarusians in the Soviet Union and national history. Since the 1960s a new theme of morality appeared in the Belarusian prose, many writers have been fighting for freedom of speech for the authors. There are several Belarusian authors who have left Belarus and now work in emigration, leading literary magazines of Belarus are Litaratura i mastatstva and Polymia
14.
Vintsent Dunin-Martsinkyevich
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Vintsent Dunin-Martsinkievich was born in a Belarusian part of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, in a noble family in the region of Babruysk. He graduated from the faculty of the University of St. Petersburg. He wrote both in contemporary Belarusian and Polish languages, writing in modern Belarusian language he faced the problem of its being not standardized, as the written tradition of the Old Belarusian language had been largely extinct by that time. From 1827 Dunin-Martsinkyevich lived and worked in Minsk as a bureaucrat, in 1840 he acquired a mansion near Ivyanets and went there to write most of his works. In 1859 he translated into Belarusian language Adam Mickiewiczs epic poem Pan Tadeusz, under the pressure of Russian Empire authorities he succeeded in publishing only the first two chapters of the poem. This was the first translation of the poem into another slavic language, vintsent Dunin-Martsinkyevich was accused by the police in separatist propaganda during the January Uprising. He was arrested but later set free but kept under supervision by the police and his daughter, Kamila Marcinkievič, participated in the uprising and was sentenced to the psychiatric hospital for her political activity. The writer was buried in Tupalshchyna, now Valozhyn rajon, opera Sielanka — the first play, written partly in contemporary Belarusian language. Poem Hapon — the first poem, written completely in contemporary Belarusian, plays and poetry, some of them in contemporary Belarusian, some of them being, Wieczernice i Opętany Interested. Note, proper names and place names are rendered in BGN/PCGN
15.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
16.
Belarusian language
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Belarusian is an official language of Belarus, along with Russian, and is spoken abroad, chiefly in Russia, Ukraine, and small parts in far-eastern Poland. Following independence, it became known as Belarusian. Belarusian is one of the East Slavic languages and shares many grammatical and lexical features with other members of the group, to some extent, Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian are mutually intelligible. Its predecessor stage is known as Ruthenian, in turn descended from Old East Slavic, at the 1999 Belarus Census, the Belarusian language was declared as a language spoken at home by about 3,686,000 Belarusian citizens. About 6,984,000 of Belarusians declared it their mother tongue, other sources put the population of the language as 6,715,000 in Belarus and 9,081,102 in all countries. According to a study done by the Belarusian government in 2009, 72% of Belarusians speak Russian at home,29. 4% of Belarusians can write, speak, and read Belarusian, while 52. 5% can only read and speak it. Although closely related to other East Slavic languages, especially Ukrainian, Belarusian phonology is distinct in a number of ways, the phoneme inventory of the modern Belarusian language consists of 45 to 54 phonemes,6 vowels and 39 to 48 consonants, depending on how they are counted. When the nine geminate consonants are excluded as mere variations, there are 39 consonants, the number 48 includes all consonant sounds, including variations and rare sounds, which may be semantically distinct in the modern Belarusian language. The Belarusian alphabet is a variant of the Cyrillic script, which was first used as an alphabet for the Old Church Slavonic language, the modern Belarusian form was defined in 1918, and consists of thirty-two letters. Before that, Belarusian had also written in the Belarusian Latin alphabet, the Belarusian Arabic alphabet. The Glagolitic script had been used, sporadically, until the 11th or 12th century, there are several systems of romanizing written Belarusian text in existence, see Romanization of Belarusian. Standardized Belarusian grammar in its form was adopted in 1959. It was developed from the form set down by Branislaw Tarashkyevich. Historically, there had existed several other alternative standardized forms of Belarusian grammar and it is mainly based on the Belarusian folk dialects of Minsk-Vilnius region. Belarusian grammar is mostly synthetic and partly analytic, and overall is similar to Russian grammar. The most significant instance of this is in the representation of vowel reduction, and in particular akannye, the merger of unstressed /a/ and /o/, Belarusian always spells this merged sound as ⟨a⟩, whereas Russian uses either ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩, according to what the underlying phoneme is. This can significantly complicate the task of foreign speakers in learning these paradigms, besides the literary norm, there exist two main dialects of the Belarusian language, the North-Eastern and the South-Western. In addition, there exist the transitional Middle Belarusian dialect group, the North-Eastern dialect is chiefly characterized by the soft sounding R and strong akanye, and the South-Western dialect is chiefly characterized by the hard sounding R and moderate akanye
17.
Charles Heavysege
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Charles Heavysege was a Canadian poet and dramatist. He was one of the first serious poets to emerge in Canada, born in Huddersfield, Yorkshire, England, Heavysege emigrated to Montreal in 1853 where he worked as a wood carver. In 1860 he became a reporter for the Montreal Transcript, and later for the Montreal Daily Witness, as a poet, Heavysege was mainly influenced by Milton, Shakespeare, and the Bible. During his lifetime, Saul was Heavyseges best-known work, nathaniel Hawthorne passed on a copy to the North British Review, where it was given a laudatory review by Coventry Patmore, who called it indubitably the best poem ever written out of Great Britain. That was followed by further favorable reviews in the Atlantic Monthly, Galaxy, Saul was published in two further editions, in 1859 and 1869. Other admirers of Saul were Canadian Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald, W. D. Lighthall, who included Heavyseges work in his 1889 anthology Songs of the Great Dominion, wrote of him, His work is in no sense distinctively Canadian. W. E. Today his crude but vigorous poetry is underrated by Canadian criticism, Saul was produced as a radio drama by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in 1974. Heaysege published nine works of poetry and prose in his lifetime, london, UK, Simpkin, Marshall & Co,1850. Sonnets Saul, a drama Montreal, H. Rose,1857, count Filippo, or, the unequal marriage. The Owl The Dark Huntsman Montreal, Witness Steam Print House,1864, ISBN 0-665-35998-5 Ottawa, Golden Dog,1973. London, S. Low, Son, and Marston,1865, ISBN 0-665-35958-6 Jezebel, New Dominion Monthly,1867. Saul and Selected Poems Toronto, Buffalo, U of Toronto P,1977
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English poetry
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This article focuses on poetry written in English from the United Kingdom, England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The article does not include poetry from other countries where the English language is spoken, the earliest surviving English poetry, written in Anglo-Saxon, the direct predecessor of modern English, may have been composed as early as the 7th century. This is generally taken as marking the beginning of Anglo-Saxon poetry and it is possible to identify certain key moments, however. The Dream of the Rood was written before circa AD700, by and large, however, Anglo-Saxon poetry is categorised by the manuscripts in which it survives, rather than its date of composition. While the poetry that has survived is limited in volume, it is wide in breadth, beowulf is the only heroic epic to have survived in its entirety, but fragments of others such as Waldere and the Finnesburg Fragment show that it was not unique in its time. Other genres include much religious verse, from works to biblical paraphrase, elegies such as The Wanderer, The Seafarer, and The Ruin, and numerous proverbs, riddles. With one notable exception, Anglo-Saxon poetry depends on alliterative verse for its structure, with the Norman conquest of England, beginning in 1111 the Anglo-Saxon language rapidly diminished as a written literary language. The new aristocracy spoke predominantly Norman, and this became the language of courts, parliament. While Anglo-Norman or Latin was preferred for high culture, English literature by no means died out, other transitional works were preserved as popular entertainment, including a variety of romances and lyrics. With time, the English language regained prestige, and in 1362 it replaced French and Latin in Parliament, the reputation of Chaucers successors in the 15th century has suffered in comparison with him, though Lydgate and Skelton are widely studied. A group of Scottish writers arose who were believed to be influenced by Chaucer. The rise of Scottish poetry began with the writing of The Kingis Quair by James I of Scotland, the main poets of this Scottish group were Robert Henryson, William Dunbar and Gavin Douglas. The Renaissance was slow in coming to England, with the generally accepted start date being around 1509 and it is also generally accepted that the English Renaissance extended until the Restoration in 1660. However, a number of factors had prepared the way for the introduction of the new learning long before this start date. A number of medieval poets had, as noted, shown an interest in the ideas of Aristotle. The introduction of printing by Caxton in 1474 provided the means for the more rapid dissemination of new or recently rediscovered writers and thinkers. Caxton also printed the works of Chaucer and Gower and these books helped establish the idea of a poetic tradition that was linked to its European counterparts. In addition, the writings of English humanists like Thomas More and Thomas Elyot helped bring the ideas, the establishment of the Church of England in 1535 accelerated the process of questioning the Catholic world-view that had previously dominated intellectual and artistic life
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William Allingham
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William Allingham was an Irish poet, diarist and editor. His wife, Helen Allingham, was a well-known water-colorist and illustrator, William Allingham was born on 19 March 1824 in the little port of Ballyshannon, County Donegal, Ireland, and was the son of the manager of a local bank who was of English descent. His younger brothers and sisters were Catherine, John, Jane, Edward, during his childhood his parents moved twice within the town, where the boy enjoyed the country sights and gardens, learned to paint and listened to his mothers piano-playing. When he was nine, his mother died and he obtained a post in the custom-house of his native town, and held several similar posts in Ireland and England until 1870. During this period were published his Poems and Day and Night Songs, lawrence Bloomfield in Ireland, his most ambitious, though not his most successful work, a narrative poem illustrative of Irish social questions, appeared in 1864. He also edited The Ballad Book for the Golden Treasury series in 1864, on 22 August 1874 he married the illustrator, Helen Paterson, who was twenty-four years younger than he. His wife gave up her work as an illustrator and would become known under her married name as a water-colour painter. In 1877 appeared Allinghams Songs, Poems and Ballads, in 1881, after the death of Carlyle, the Allinghams moved to Sandhills near Witley in Surrey, where their third child, Henry William, was born in 1882. At this period Allingham published Evil May Day, Blackberries and Irish Songs, in 1888, because of Williams declining health, they moved back to the capital, to the heights of Hampstead village. But in 1889, on 18 November, William died at Hampstead, according to his wishes he was cremated. His ashes are interred at St. Annes church in his native Ballyshannon, posthumously Allinghams Varieties in Prose was published in 1893. William Allingham A Diary, edited by Mrs Helen Allingham and D. Radford, was published in 1907 and it contains Allinghams reminiscences of Alfred Tennyson, Thomas Carlyle and other writers and artists. Working on a scale, Allingham produced much lyrical and descriptive poetry. His verse is clear, fresh, and graceful and his best-known poem remains his early work, The Faeries. Allingham had a influence on W. B. Yeats, while the Ulster poet John Hewitt felt Allinghams impact keenly, and attempted to revive his reputation by editing, Allinghams wide-ranging anthology of poetry, Nightingale Valley was to be the inspiration for the 1923 collection Come Hither by Walter de la Mare. We darent go a-hunting/For fear of little men, several lines of the poem are quoted by Henry Flyte, a character in issue No.65 of the Supergirl comic book, August 2011. This same poem was quoted in Andre Nortons 1990 science fiction novel Dare To Go A-Hunting
