1.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
2.
1859 in Wales
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This article is about the particular significance of the year 1859 to Wales and its people. Prince of Wales – Albert Edward Princess of Wales – vacant January - Y Brython changes from weekly to monthly publication, february - First race at Bangor-on-Dee racecourse. 1 April - Opening of the Corris Railway,5 April -27 men are killed by flooding at Neath Chain Colliery. 31 May - U. K. general election and this is the last general election in which the Conservative Partys vote share in Wales exceeds that in England. 29 June - Benjamin Hall is raised to the peerage as 1st Baron Llanover,15 October–17 October - Queen Victoria stays at Penrhyn Castle. St Brynachs Church, Cwm-yr-Eglwys, is destroyed, peak year for copper production in Wales. Opening of the East Bute Dock, Cardiff, merger of Yr Amserau and Baner Cymru. Religious revival led by Humphrey Jones, the Cymanfa Ganu movement is launched in Aberdare. Sir Charles Morgan, 3rd Baronet, is created Baron Tredegar, Lewis William Lewis wins the chair at the Merthyr Tydfil eisteddfod
3.
1857 in Ireland
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Events from the year 1857 in Ireland. 27 March–24 April - General election, there are also riots in Derry, Portadown and Lurgan. 4 October - The Catholic St. Marys Cathedral, Kilkenny, is opened, the Natural History Museum is opened by the Royal Dublin Society. Dublin Zoos lions breed for the first time, scrabo Tower erected above Newtownards as a memorial to Charles Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry. Tom Gallaher sets up the Gallaher tobacco business in Derry,7 February - Windham Wyndham-Quin, 5th Earl of Dunraven and Mount-Earl, peer and politician. 12 February - Margaret Pearse, Fianna Fáil politician, mother of Patrick Pearse,11 March - Tom Clarke, nationalist, rebel and organiser of the Easter Rising. 17 April - Jane Barlow, poet and novelist,19 April - Patrick Stone, Member of the Western Australian Legislative Assembly. 20 April - Thomas Myles, surgeon, Home Ruler, involved in importation of arms for the Irish Volunteers in 1914,19 May - William Morgan Jellett, Irish Unionist MP in the Parliament of the United Kingdom. 1 August - Alan Joseph Adamson, politician in Canada,22 August - William Dowler Morris, mayor of Ottawa. 5 October - Peadar Mac Fhionnlaoich, Irish language writer 1 November W. H. Grattan Flood, musicologist,18 November - Stanhope Forbes, painter. 20 November - Sir Henry Robinson, 1st Baronet, civil servant, full date unknown - T. W. Rolleston, writer, poet and translator. 29 January - John Connors, soldier, recipient of the Victoria Cross for gallantry in 1855 at Sebastopol in the Crimea,3 March - William Brown, creator and first admiral of the Argentine Navy. 9 April - Charles McCorrie, soldier, recipient of the Victoria Cross for gallantry in 1855 at Sebastopol,11 July - John Egan, businessman and politician in Ottawa. 27 July - Laurence F. Renehan, priest and historian,10 August - John Wilson Croker, statesman and author. 19 September - John Purcell, soldier, recipient of the Victoria Cross for gallantry in 1857 at Delhi, India,23 September - John Nicholson, military hero in India. 17 December - Francis Beaufort, hydrographer and officer in the British Royal Navy, creator of the Beaufort scale
4.
Welsh people
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The Welsh people or the Welsh are a nation and ethnic group native to, or otherwise associated with, Wales and the Welsh language. Prior to the 20th century, large numbers of Welsh people spoke only Welsh, the term Welsh people applies to people from Wales and people of Welsh ancestry perceiving themselves or being perceived as sharing a cultural heritage and shared ancestral origins. Over 300,000 Welsh people live in London, the same etymological origin is shared by the names of various other Celtic or Latin peoples such as the Walloons and the Vlachs, as well as of the Swiss canton of Valais. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. They thus carry a sense of land of fellow-countrymen, our country, the word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century. It is attested in a poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. During their time in Britain, the ancient Romans encountered tribes in present-day Wales that they called the Ordovices, the Demetae, the Silures and the Deceangli. The people of what is now Wales were not distinguished from the rest of the peoples of southern Britain, all were called Britons and spoke the common British language, a Brythonic Celtic tongue. Celtic language and culture seems to have arrived in Britain during the Iron Age, the claim has also been made that Indo-European languages may have been introduced to the British Isles as early as the early Neolithic, with Goidelic and Brythonic languages developing indigenously. The genetic evidence in this case would show that the change to Celtic languages in Britain may have occurred as a cultural rather than through migration as was previously supposed. The assumed genetic imprint of Neolithic incomers is seen as a cline, with stronger Neolithic representation in the east of Europe, when the Roman legions departed Britain around 400, a Romano-British culture remained in the areas the Romans had settled, and the pre-Roman cultures in others. According to Stephen Oppenheimer 96% of lineages in Llangefni in north Wales derive from Iberia, Genetic marker R1b averages from 83–89% amongst the Welsh. The people in what is now Wales continued to speak Brythonic languages with additions from Latin, the surviving poem Y Gododdin is in early Welsh and refers to the Brythonic kingdom of Gododdin with a capital at Din Eidyn and extending from the area of Stirling to the Tyne. John Davies places the change from Brythonic to Welsh between 400 and 700, offas Dyke was erected in the mid-8th century, forming a barrier between Wales and Mercia. The genetic tests suggested that between 50% and 100% of the population of what was to become England was wiped out. In 2001, research for a BBC programme on the Vikings suggested a strong link between the Celts and Basques, dating back tens of thousands of years. The UCL research suggested a migration on a huge scale during the Anglo-Saxon period and it appears England is made up of an ethnic cleansing event from people coming across from the continent after the Romans left, said Dr Mark Thomas, of the Centre for Genetic Anthropology at UCL
5.
Prince of Wales
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Charles, Prince of Wales is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in South West England as Duke of Cornwall and in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay, he is the heir apparent in British history. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover, Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. After earning a bachelor of degree from Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons, Prince William later to become Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, in 1996, the couple divorced, following well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year, in 2005, Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles has sought to raise awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment. As an environmentalist, he has received awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community and he has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. Subsequently, Charles created Poundbury, a new town based on his theories. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain, A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and he was baptised in the palaces Music Room by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, on 15 December 1948. When Prince Charles was aged three his mothers accession as Queen Elizabeth II made him her heir apparent. As the monarchs eldest son, he took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince. Charles attended his mothers coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, seated alongside his grandmother, as was customary for upper-class children at the time, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, Charles then attended two of his fathers former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland. He reportedly despised the school, which he described as Colditz in kilts. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy and he left in 1967, with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C, respectively. Tradition was broken again when Charles proceeded straight from school into university
6.
Edward VII
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Edward VII was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910. The eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, before his accession to the throne, he served as heir apparent and held the title of Prince of Wales for longer than any of his predecessors. During the long reign of his mother, he was excluded from political power. He travelled throughout Britain performing ceremonial duties, and represented Britain on visits abroad. His tours of North America in 1860 and the Indian subcontinent in 1875 were popular successes, as king, Edward played a role in the modernisation of the British Home Fleet and the reorganisation of the British Army after the Second Boer War. He reinstituted traditional ceremonies as public displays and broadened the range of people with whom royalty socialised and he died in 1910 in the midst of a constitutional crisis that was resolved the following year by the Parliament Act 1911, which restricted the power of the unelected House of Lords. Edward was born at 10,48 in the morning on 9 November 1841 in Buckingham Palace and he was the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was christened Albert Edward at St Georges Chapel, Windsor Castle and he was named Albert after his father and Edward after his maternal grandfather Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn. He was known as Bertie to the family throughout his life. As the eldest son of the British sovereign, he was automatically Duke of Cornwall, as a son of Prince Albert, he also held the titles of Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duke of Saxony. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 8 December 1841, Earl of Dublin on 17 January 1850, a Knight of the Garter on 9 November 1858, and a Knight of the Thistle on 24 May 1867. In 1863, he renounced his rights to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in favour of his younger brother. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were determined that their eldest son should have an education that would prepare him to be a constitutional monarch. At age seven, Edward embarked on an educational programme devised by Prince Albert. Unlike his elder sister Victoria, Edward did not excel in his studies and he tried to meet the expectations of his parents, but to no avail. Although Edward was not a diligent student—his true talents were those of charm, sociability and tact—Benjamin Disraeli described him as informed, intelligent, after the completion of his secondary-level studies, his tutor was replaced by a personal governor, Robert Bruce. After an educational trip to Rome, undertaken in the first few months of 1859, he spent the summer of that year studying at the University of Edinburgh under, among others, in October, he matriculated as an undergraduate at Christ Church, Oxford. Now released from the strictures imposed by his parents, he enjoyed studying for the first time
7.
Princess of Wales
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Princess of Wales is a British courtesy title held by the wife of the Prince of Wales, who is, since the 14th century, the heir apparent of the English or British monarch. The first acknowledged title holder was Eleanor de Montfort, wife of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd and it has subsequently been used by wives of post-conquest princes of Wales. The title is held by Camilla, second wife of Charles. She does not, however, use the title, as it has remained associated with the previous holder. Instead, she uses the title Duchess of Cornwall, the Princess of Wales is not a princess in her own right. For most of her childhood, Mary was her fathers only legitimate heir, for example, Spanish scholar Juan Luis Vives dedicated his Satellitium Animi to Dominæ Mariæ Cambriæ Principi, Henrici Octavi Angliæ Regis Filiæ. When a title was discussed for the future Elizabeth II, the possibility of investing her as Princess of Wales in her own right was raised, but proved problematical. If it were used by Princess Elizabeth, it would have degraded her right as a Princess of the United Kingdom unless Letters Patent or legislation were introduced to the contrary. Furthermore, if the then-Princess Elizabeth had been given the title of Princess of Wales, therefore, King George VI decided not to grant his elder daughter the title. The Princess of Wales, by virtue of her marriage to the Prince of Wales, takes on the equivalent of her husbands titles. Of all these titles, Princess of Wales has been used officially, however, as with the example of the current holder, a subsidiary title may just as easily and lawfully be used. The Princess of Wales also holds the titles of Duchess of Cornwall and Countess of Chester, as the wife of the Prince of Wales who is also Duke of Cornwall, several consorts of Welsh princes of Wales were theoretically princesses of Wales while their husbands were in power. The only consort of a Welsh prince definitively shown to have used the title was Eleanor de Montfort, the English bride of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the last native Prince of Wales. Their only child was Gwenllian of Wales, who was taken prisoner as an infant following her fathers death. herein is kept the Princess of Wales, whom we have to maintain. This is a list of Princesses of Wales who held the title by their marriage to the Prince of Wales The Green Howards, tystiolaeth Garth Celyn Y Traethodydd 1998 ISSN 0969-8930 Fryer, M. Mary Beacock Fryer, Arthur Bousfield, Garry Toffoli. Lives of the Princesses of Wales
8.
Crumlin Viaduct
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During the Industrial Revolution, and the mass-extraction of coal from South Wales, there was a resultant growth in construction of railways into the South Wales Coalfield. This allowed shipment of goods from Pontypool and the Ebbw Valley to Hereford, the LNWR approved the required capital expenditure, and merged the existing three railways and the extension project in the new Newport, Abergavenny and Hereford Railway. Further, the solidity of a structure would create additional compressed wind flow around the rail tracks, resulting in a possible safety hazard for passengers. Overall, the required over-engineered result would also have very expensive. His recommendation therefore to the board was for a cast iron structure, two tender responses were received by August 1852, with Liddells recommendation for a design by Scottish civil engineer Thomas W. Kennard, using an amended design using the Warren truss. Contracts were signed in December 1852, with a completion date of 1 October 1857. After further experimentation of his system at his fathers Blaenavon Ironworks. Kennard began construction in October 1853 by building the Crumlin Viaduct Works on the east bank, here castings from Falkirk were brought together with wrought iron from Blaenavon, and all fitting and fabrication work took place. The completed structure linking Pontypool Clarence Street railway station in the north to the Bryn Tunnel in the south by the end of May 1857, testing began that same month, in front of the Board of Trade Inspector, Colonel Wynne. After a series of tests, during which a deflection of less than 1.5 inches was measured, the bridge was approved for use in the same month. The final Crumlin viaduct, at 200 feet high and 1,650 feet across its two spans and ten trusses in length, remained the highest railway viaduct in Great Britain throughout its working life, nearby were the Crumlin railway stations, both at high and valley levels. As Liddell predicted, the proved to be susceptible to high winds. The NA&HR route, due to a combination of its height and steepness and it was therefore no surprise when, following the post-World War II nationalisation, British Railways reduced the entire extension line to single track after 1947. As a result of the Beeching Axe, the last scheduled train ran over the bridge on Saturday 13 June 1964. Preservation of the viaduct was discussed, and the structure was scheduled as being of architectural and historical interest by the Ministry of Housing. The decision was made to dismantle it, as by now housing was extending into the lower valley area. Demolition of the Viaduct was carried out by Birds of Swansea from June 1966, the iron parts of the bridge had been completed dismantled by the end of 1967, and now only the stone and cast concrete abutments remain visible on the valley sides. The abutments are visible at, 51°40′51. 19″N 3°08′14. 55″W, 51°40′47. 48″N 3°08′30. 07″W & 51°40′44. 16″N 3°08′36. 79″W CrumlinViaduct. co. uk Crumlin Viaduct @ BBC Wales History
9.
Thomas Gee
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Thomas Gee, was a Welsh Nonconformist preacher, journalist and publisher. Gee was born in Denbigh, North Wales, at the age of fourteen he went into his fathers printing office, but continued to attend the grammar school in the afternoons. In 1837 he went to London to improve his knowledge of printing, among his publications were the well-known quarterly magazine Y Traethodydd, Y Gwyddoniadur Cymreig, and Dr. This paper soon became regarded as an oracle in Wales, and played a part in promoting the nationalist. In educational matters he waged a long and successful struggle on behalf of undenominational schools and he was an enthusiastic advocate of church disestablishment, and had a historic newspaper duel with Dr John Owen on this question. The Eisteddfod found in him a friend and a wise counsellor. His commanding presence, mastery of diction, and resonant voice made him a platform speaker. He was ordained to the Calvinistic Methodist ministry, at Bala in 1847, throughout his life he believed in the itinerant unpaid ministry rather than in the settled pastorate. When he died in 1898, his funeral was the most imposing ever seen in North Wales and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Ieuan Wyn Jones - Y Llinyn Arian
10.
Denbigh
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Denbigh is a market town and community in Denbighshire, Wales, of which it was formerly the county town. Denbigh lies 8 miles to the north west of Ruthin and to the south of St Asaph, the town grew around the glove-making industry. The first borough charter was granted to Denbigh in 1290, when the town was contained within the old town walls. It was the centre of the Marcher Lordship of Denbigh, the town was involved in the revolt of Madog ap Llywelyn in 1294-95, the castle was captured in the autumn, and on 11 November 1294 a relieving force was defeated by the Welsh rebels. The town was recaptured by Edward I in December, Denbigh was also burnt in 1400 during the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr. During the Wars of the Roses, the town was largely destroyed, in 1643, during the English Civil War, Denbigh became a refuge for a Royalist garrison during the English Civil War. Surrendering in 1646, the castle and town walls eventually fell into ruin, notable buildings in Denbigh include Denbigh Castle, the town walls begun in 1282 including the Burgess Gate and Leicesters Church. This is an unfinished church begun in 1579 by Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester and it was planned as a cathedral with the title of city to be transferred from neighbouring St. Asaph. The project ran out of money and the grounds now lie derelict, Denbigh was once served by a railway station on the former London and North Western Railway, later part of the LMS. The Vale of Clwyd line leading north to St. Asaph and Rhyl closed in 1955, leaving Denbigh on a branch running from Chester via Mold and Denbigh to Ruthin. A southern continuation beyond Ruthin linking up with the Great Western Railway at Corwen had closed in 1952, the platform of Denbigh station can still be seen beside the road leading to the Kwik Save store. At one time the majority of the population sought employment at the North Wales Hospital, the hospital closed in the late 1990s and has since fallen into disrepair. Its population at the 2001 Census was 8,783, increasing to 8,986 in the 2011 census, attractions in the town include a library and museum. Denbigh Boxing Club is located on Middle Lane, Denbigh Cricket Club is one of the oldest cricket clubs in Wales having been established in 1844. The club plays at the Ystrad Road ground and plays in the North Wales Cricket League, the 1st XI play in the Premier Division having won the Division 1 championship in 2010 with the 2nd XI in Division 3. For over 50 years, a barrel rolling competition has been held on Boxing Day in the town square, there are two high schools located in Denbigh. The larger of which is Denbigh High School located in lower Denbigh on Ruthin Road, the second is the previously all-girls catholic school, St Bridget’s, which can be found on Mold Road on the outskirts of the town. Denbigh High School This is the high school in Denbigh, consisting of under 1,000 pupils
11.
Whigs (British political party)
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The Whigs were a political faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Whigs origin lay in constitutional monarchism and opposition to absolute monarchy. The Whigs played a role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the standing enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders. The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715, and remained dominant until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760. The Whig Supremacy was enabled by the Hanoverian succession of George I in 1714, the Whigs thoroughly purged the Tories from all major positions in government, the army, the Church of England, the legal profession, and local offices. The Partys hold on power was so strong and durable, historians call the period from roughly 1714 to 1783 the age of the Whig Oligarchy. The first great leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government through the period 1721–1742, his protégé was Henry Pelham, who led from 1743 to 1754. Both parties were founded on rich politicians, more than on votes, there were elections to the House of Commons. The Whig Party slowly evolved during the 18th century, later on, the Whigs drew support from the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants, while the Tories drew support from the landed interests and the royal family. The term Whig was originally short for whiggamor, a term meaning cattle driver used to describe western Scots who came to Leith for corn. In the reign of Charles I the term was used during Wars of the Three Kingdoms to refer derisively to a faction of the Scottish Covenanters who called themselves the Kirk Party. It was then applied to Scottish Presbyterian rebels who were against the Kings Episcopalian order in Scotland, Whig was a term of abuse applied to those who wanted to exclude James on the grounds that he was a Roman Catholic. The fervent Tory Samuel Johnson often joked that the first Whig was the Devil, the Whigs, under Lord Shaftesburys leadership, wished to exclude the Duke of York from the throne due to his Catholicism, his favouring of monarchical absolutism and his connections to France. They believed the Duke, if allowed to inherit the throne, would endanger the Protestant religion, liberty, the first Exclusion Bill was supported by a substantial majority on its second reading in May 1679. In response, King Charles prorogued Parliament and then dissolved it and this new parliament did not meet for thirteen months, because Charles wanted to give passions a chance to die down. When it met in October 1680, an Exclusion Bill was introduced and passed in the Commons without major resistance, Charles dissolved Parliament in January 1681, but the Whigs did not suffer serious losses in the ensuing election. The next Parliament first met in March, at Oxford, but Charles dissolved it only after a few days, when he made an appeal to the country against the Whigs, and determined to rule without Parliament. In February, Charles had made a deal with the French King Louis XIV, without Parliament, the Whigs gradually crumbled, mainly due to the Rye House Plot
12.
Samuel Roberts (writer)
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Samuel Roberts, or simply S. R. was a Welsh political and economical writer. In 1843, Roberts founded a Welsh language journal, Y Cronicl, in 1857, he travelled to Tennessee in the hope of setting up a Welsh colony there. After ten years, he gave up the attempt and returned to Wales and he often collaborated with his brother, the Reverend John Roberts. He was one of the earliest, if not the earliest and he was a pacifist, working for the London Peace Society. He also wrote on th e issue and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Williams, Glanmor, Samuel Roberts Llanbrynmair, University of Wales Press,1950, 120pp Works by Samuel Roberts at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Samuel Roberts at Internet Archive
13.
Tennessee
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Tennessee is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th largest and the 17th most populous of the 50 United States, Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachian Mountains dominate the eastern part of the state, Tennessees capital and second largest city is Nashville, which has a population of 654,610. Memphis is the states largest city, with a population of 655,770, the state of Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians. What is now Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the 16th state on June 1,1796. Tennessee was the last state to leave the Union and join the Confederacy at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, occupied by Union forces from 1862, it was the first state to be readmitted to the Union at the end of the war. Tennessee furnished more soldiers for the Confederate Army than any other state besides Virginia and this sharply reduced competition in politics in the state until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-20th century. This city was established to house the Manhattan Projects uranium enrichment facilities, helping to build the worlds first atomic bomb, Tennessees major industries include agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism. Poultry, soybeans, and cattle are the primary agricultural products, and major manufacturing exports include chemicals, transportation equipment. In the early 18th century, British traders encountered a Cherokee town named Tanasi in present-day Monroe County, the town was located on a river of the same name, and appears on maps as early as 1725. The meaning and origin of the word are uncertain, some accounts suggest it is a Cherokee modification of an earlier Yuchi word. It has been said to mean meeting place, winding river, according to ethnographer James Mooney, the name can not be analyzed and its meaning is lost. The modern spelling, Tennessee, is attributed to James Glen, the governor of South Carolina, the spelling was popularized by the publication of Henry Timberlakes Draught of the Cherokee Country in 1765. In 1788, North Carolina created Tennessee County, the county to be established in what is now Middle Tennessee. When a constitutional convention met in 1796 to organize a new out of the Southwest Territory. Other sources differ on the origin of the nickname, according to the Columbia Encyclopedia. Tennessee ties Missouri as the state bordering the most other states, the state is trisected by the Tennessee River. The highest point in the state is Clingmans Dome at 6,643 feet, Clingmans Dome, which lies on Tennessees eastern border, is the highest point on the Appalachian Trail, and is the third highest peak in the United States east of the Mississippi River
14.
Sierra Leone
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Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north-east, Liberia to the south-east, Sierra Leone has a tropical climate, with a diverse environment ranging from savannah to rainforests. Sierra Leone has an area of 71,740 km2. Sierra Leone is divided into four regions, the Northern Province, Eastern Province, Southern Province and the Western Area. Freetown is the capital, largest city and its economic and political centre, Bo is the second largest city. The other major cities are Kenema, Makeni and Koidu Town, Sierra Leone is a constitutional republic with a directly elected president and a unicameral legislature. Sir Milton Margai built his government based on democratic principles. Throughout his time in power, Sir Milton Margai was very popular across Sierra Leone, the main opposition APC, led by its leader Siaka Stevens, narowly defeated the ruling SLPP under the leadership of Albert Margai in the 1964 general elections. Stevens ruled for eighteen years in a government, in which his critics. Soldiers and politicians convicted of plotting a coup to topple Stevens were executed, under president Stevens, the APC was made the only legal political party in Sierra Leone, and all other political parties were banned, including the main opposition. Stevens handpicked successor, retired major general Joseph Saidu Momoh, lacked the political dominance of Stevens, Momoh reestablished the country as a multi party democracy in 1991. The current constitution of Sierra Leone was adopted in 1991 during the presidency of Joseph Saidu Momoh, the rebels started the civil war in 1991 in the eastern part of the country during Momohs presidency. Momoh was very unpopular, and Public anger against the Momoh government increasingly grew due to corruption, poor economy. In 1992 a group of officers in the army led by a 25-year-old captain, Valentine Strasser. In 1996 during the war, another military coup of soldiers within Strassers inner circle, led by a 32 year old Brigadier General Julius Maada Bio, toppled Strasser. Since independent to present, Sierra Leones politics has been dominated by two political parties, the Sierra Leone Peoples Party and the All Peoples congress. From 1991 to 2002, the Sierra Leone civil war was fought and this proxy war left more than 50,000 people dead, much of the countrys infrastructure destroyed, and over two million people displaced as refugees in neighbouring countries. In January 2002, then Sierra Leones president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, fulfilled his promise by ending the civil war, with help by the British Government, ECOWAS
15.
Menai Strait
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The Menai Strait is a narrow stretch of shallow tidal water about 25 km long, which separates the island of Anglesey from the mainland of Wales. The strait varies in width from 400 metres from Fort Belan to Abermenai Point to 1,100 metres from Traeth Gwyllt to Caernarfon Castle and it then narrows to about 500 metres in the middle reaches and then it broadens again. At Bangor, Garth Pier, it is 900 metres wide and it then widens out, and the distance from Puffin Island to Penmaenmawr is about 7.5 kilometres. The differential tides at the two ends of the strait cause very strong currents to flow in both directions through the strait at different times, creating dangerous conditions, one of the most dangerous areas of the strait is known as the Swellies between the two bridges. Here rocks near the surface cause over-falls and local whirlpools, which can be of danger in themselves. This was the site of the loss of the training ship HMS Conway in 1953, entering the strait at the Caernarfon end is also hazardous because of the frequently shifting sand banks that make up Caernarfon bar. On the mainland side at this point is Fort Belan, an 18th-century defensive fort built in the times of the American War of Independence, the present day channel is a result of glacial erosion of the bedrock along a line of weakness associated with the Menai Strait Fault System. The result was a series of linear bedrock hollows across the region, the tidal effects observed along the banks of the strait can also be confusing. A rising tide approaches from the south-west, causing the water in the strait to flow north-eastwards as the level rises, the tide also flows around Anglesey until, after a few hours, it starts to flow into the strait in a south-westerly direction from Beaumaris. By the time this happens the tidal flow from the Caernarfon end is weakening, a similar sequence is seen in reverse on a falling tide. This means that slack water between the bridges tends to occur approximately one hour before high tide or low tide, theoretically it is possible to ford the strait in the Swellies at low water, spring tides when the depth may fall to less than 0.5 metres. However, at times a strong current of around 4.8 knots is running, making the passage extremely difficult. Elsewhere in the strait the minimum depth is never less than 2 metres until the sand flats at Lavan sands are reached beyond Bangor. The tides carry large quantities of fish, and the construction of Fish weirs on both banks and on several of the islands, helped make the Strait an important source of fish for many centuries, eight of the numerous Menai Strait fish weirs are now Scheduled monuments. Because the strait has such unusual tidal conditions, coupled with low wave heights because of its sheltered position, it presents a unique. The depth of the channel reaches 15 metres in places, and it is very rich in sponges. The waters are also a proposed Marine Nature Reserve, much of the land on Anglesey at the eastern end of the strait is designated as an area of outstanding natural beauty. Beaumaris Bangor Caernarfon Menai Bridge Y Felinheli Just north of the bridge on Anglesey is the famously named Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch
16.
Gas balloon
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A gas balloon is a balloon that flies in the air because it is filled with a gas less dense than air or lighter than air. It is tied to a thread to prevent it from flying up in the air and it is also sealed at the bottom to ensure that the gas doesnt escape. A gas balloon may also be called a Charlière for its inventor, today, familiar gas balloons include large blimps and small rubber party balloons. Blimps have displaced zeppelins as the dominant form of airship, the first gas balloon made its flight in August 1783. Designed by professor Jacques Charles and Les Frères Robert, it carried no passengers or cargo, on September 19,1784 the brothers and M. Collin-Hullin flew for 6 hours 40 minutes, covering 186 km from Paris to Beuvry near Béthune. This was the first flight over 100 km, gas balloons remained popular throughout the age before powered flight. They could fly higher and further than hot-air balloons, but were dangerous as they were filled with hydrogen or coal gas. Gas ballooning has been popular in Europe, most notably in Germany, several gas balloon clubs exist throughout the country with well organized launch sites and well defined infrastructure making flights relatively easy to do. Rough estimates show 150 active gas pilots in Europe, in stark contrast, gas ballooning in the USA might have at most 30 active pilots who typically fly only once a year at the Albuquerque Balloon Fiesta in October. This is primarily due to the high cost of helium. This is starting to change with the introduction of hydrogen as a lifting gas, the German gas community has been a valuable resource in helping the US pilots gain skills in flying gas balloons and working with hydrogen as a lifting gas. Many US gas pilots have been and are participating in training flights in Germany. A gas balloon can also be tethered, on October 24,2014, Alan Eustace, a former Google executive, made a jump from the stratosphere, a shepericarp ballon, breaking Felix Baumgartners 2012 world record. The launch-point for his jump was from a runway in Roswell, New Mexico. He reached a maximum altitude of 135,908 feet. The balloon used for the feat was manufactured by the Balloon Facility of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Hyderabad, Eustace in his pressure suit hung tethered under the balloon, without the kind of capsule used by Felix Baumgartner. Eustace started his fall by using a device to separate from the helium balloon. The altitude record for a balloon is 53.0 kilometers
17.
Caernarfon Castle
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Caernarfon Castle, often anglicized as Carnarvon Castle, is a medieval fortress in Caernarfon, Gwynedd, north-west Wales cared for by Cadw, the Welsh Governments historic environment service. There was a castle in the town of Caernarfon from the late 11th century until 1283 when King Edward I of England began replacing it with the current stone structure. The Edwardian town and castle acted as the centre of north Wales. There was a link with Caernarfons Roman past and the Roman fort of Segontium is nearby. While the castle was under construction, town walls were built around Caernarfon, the work cost between £20,000 and £25,000 from the start until the end of work in 1330. Despite Caernarfon Castles external appearance of being complete, the interior buildings no longer survive. The town and castle were sacked in 1294 when Madog ap Llywelyn led a rebellion against the English, Caernarfon was recaptured the following year. During the Glyndŵr Rising of 1400–1415, the castle was besieged, when the Tudor dynasty ascended to the English throne in 1485, tensions between the Welsh and English began to diminish and castles were considered less important. As a result, Caernarfon Castle was allowed to fall into a state of disrepair, despite its dilapidated condition, during the English Civil War Caernarfon Castle was held by Royalists, and was besieged three times by Parliamentarian forces. This was the last time the castle was used in war, Caernarfon Castle was neglected until the 19th century when the state funded repairs. In 1911, Caernarfon Castle was used for the investiture of the Prince of Wales and it is part of the World Heritage Site Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd. The first fortifications at Caernarfon were built by the Romans and their fort, which they named Segontium, is on the outskirts of the modern town. The fort sat near the bank of the River Seiont, it is likely that the fort was positioned here due to the sheltered nature, Caernarfon derives its name from the Roman fortifications. In Welsh, the place was called y gaer yn Arfon, little is known about the fate of Segontium and its associated civilian settlement after the Romans departed from Britain in the early 5th century. Following the Norman Conquest of England, William the Conqueror turned his attention to Wales, according to the Domesday Survey of 1086, the Norman Robert of Rhuddlan was nominally in command of the whole of northern Wales. He was killed by the Welsh in 1088 and this early castle was built on a peninsula, bounded by the River Seiont, the Menai Strait, it would have been a motte and bailey, defended by a timber palisade and earthworks. While the motte, or mound, was integrated into the later Edwardian castle, excavations on top of the motte in 1969 revealed no traces of medieval occupation, suggesting any evidence had been removed. It is likely that the motte was surmounted by a tower known as a keep
18.
Llanidan
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Llanidan is a parish in south-west Anglesey, Wales which includes the village of Brynsiencyn. The parish is along the Menai Strait, about 4 miles north-east of Caernarfon, the parish church of St Nidans is near the A4080 highway, a little to the east of Brynsiencyn. The ruins of a parish church survive. In the Middle Ages, the parish was part of the commote of Menai, an electoral ward in the same name exists. This ward covers land to the north of Llanidan, the population of the ward at the 2011 census was 1,851. Also, Carwyn Williams lived here for a period of time, there is a horse stud, Llanidan Stud, which breeds Welsh ponies of cob type and Welsh cobs and is owned by E. W Jones. Near Brynsiencyn is the Anglesey Sea Zoo, Brynsiencyn is a small village, housing a few hundred people. It has a post office, shop, kebab house and pub, there is also a school and a large chapel
19.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
20.
Pyle
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Pyle is a village and community in Bridgend county borough, Wales. The nearest town is the resort of Porthcawl. Within the Community, to the northeast of Pyle, is the settlement of Kenfig Hill. The name Pyle is probably derived from the Welsh word pil, meaning a creek, in this instance it probably refers to the mouth of the River Kenfig, which is tidal for its first mile from the sea. An alternative derivation for the name is the English word pile and this explanation seems less likely, the only settlement in the United Kingdom known to have this derivation is the hamlet of Pyle in the Isle of Wight. Pyle is located twenty miles west of Cardiff, four miles west of Bridgend. It is on the main A48 road from Cardiff to Swansea and is just north of the M4 motorway which has superseded the trunk road for through traffic, junction 37 on the motorway is one mile south of Pyle. Other communities in the vicinity are South Cornelly, North Cornelly, Kenfig, Pyle railway station is on the Cardiff to Swansea section of the London to South Wales Main Line. An indication of settlement is the Croes Siencyn Incised Stone. This is a stone with an incised cross, dated to 11th or 12th century. The road through Kenfig was diverted one and a half miles inland, the walls of Pyle St James parish church are reputed to have been moved stone by stone from the old town, relocated further inland as the sand encroached. This gave rise to the church sometimes being referred to as the upside-down church, because the first stones moved would have been the higher ones in the original church. Writing in 1870, in the Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales, John Marius Wilson described the parish of Pyle, including Kenfig and Skerr, in 1861, the population of the village was 1,192 distributed among 251 households. Real property in the village of Pyle was valued at £3,949, besides the thriving collieries there were also coking plants and ironworks as well as a quarry where good quality building stone was extracted. The street of Longlands Close in Pyle was the site of an inn which was used by passing travelers using the west Wales to London turnpike. Pyle was made a community in 2002, when the Cynffig community was split into two parts, following a recommendation of the Local Government Boundary Commission for Wales, the village has its own leisure centre, swimming pool, supermarket, library and petrol station. The leisure centre is a frequent school trip destination, attracting schools from the Cardiff area, there is also a large industrial estate which hosts some notable names and a garden centre. An area of known as The Collwyn is close to the west side of the village
21.
St Deiniol's Church, Hawarden
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St Deiniols Church, Hawarden, is in the village of Hawarden, Flintshire, Wales. It is the church of the Rectorial Benefice of Hawarden in the deanery of Hawarden, the archdeaconry of Wrexham. The church has associations with W. E. Gladstone and his family, the parish dates back at least 1,000 years and the list of rectors starts in 1180. The church was restored by James Harrison in about 1855–56, however it was badly damaged on 29 October 1857 by a fire which had been started deliberately. Some of the glass and woodwork at the east end were not damaged by the fire. In 1896 a porch was added, designed by the Chester firm of architects, the plan of the church consists of a nave with north and south aisles, a chancel, a south porch, another porch to the chancel aisle, and northeast vestries. At the east end of the aisle is the Gladstone Memorial Chapel, which has a three-sided apse. The tower is central, over the easternmost bay of the nave, in Perpendicular style, the church is not cruciform, because it does not have transepts. In the chancel is a sedilia which is dated 1846 but which is probably a restoration of an Early English sedilia, at the east end of the north aisle, but moved from elsewhere, is an ogee-headed piscina. The font was designed by Scott and it is thought that the reredos was also designed by Scott, it depicts the Last Supper behind a tripartite arcade, with a canopy above. The choir stalls, which survived the fire, date from Harrisons restoration, the rood, dating from 1915–16 and by Giles Gilbert Scott, was erected in memory of William Glynne Charles Gladstone. The pulpit dating from about 1951 was designed by H. S. Goodhart-Rendel in a Wren style, in 1884 Edward Frampton created wall paintings in the south aisle of the chancel but, apart from two fragments at the east end, these have disappeared. The processional cross and churchwardens staves were designed by George Frederick Bodley, much of the stained glass in the church consists of memorials to the Glynne and Gladstone families. Three of the windows in the chancel dating from the 1850s are by William Wailes. Five windows elsewhere contain glass designed by Frampton, one of these being a memorial to his own wife. The glass in the west window was made by Morris & Co. in 1898 and was the last stained glass window to be designed by Edward Burne-Jones, the east window was also made by Morris & Co. in 1907 reusing a design by Burne-Jones. Glass elsewhere in the church is by Henry Holiday, F. C, the Gladstone Memorial Chapel contains a monument to W. E. Gladstone and his wife Catherine designed by Sir William Richmond and completed in 1906. The tomb chest is in a different type of marble with figures, the altar cross and the candlesticks were also designed by Richmond, as was the stained glass, which was made by James Powell and Sons
22.
Arson
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Arson is a crime of intentionally, deliberately and maliciously setting fire to buildings, wildland areas, abandoned homes, vehicles or other property with the intent to cause damage. It may be distinguished from other such as spontaneous combustion, accidental fires. Arson often involves fires deliberately set to the property of another or to own property in order to collect insurance compensation. A person who commits this crime is called an arsonist, more often than not, arsonists use accelerants to ignite, propel and directionalize fires. It is not required that the defendant acted intentionally or willfully for the purpose of burning a dwelling, burning – at common law charring to any part of dwelling was sufficient to satisfy this element. No significant amount of damage to the dwelling was required, any injury or damage to the structure caused by exposure to heat or flame is sufficient. Of the dwelling – dwelling refers to a place of residence, the destruction of an unoccupied building was not considered arson, since arson protected habitation, the burning of an unoccupied house did not constitute arson. Dwelling includes structures and outbuildings within the curtilage, dwellings were not limited to houses. A barn could be the subject of arson if it was occupied as a dwelling, moreover, for purposes of common law arson, possession or occupancy rather than title determines whose dwelling the structure is. Thus a tenant who sets fire to his house would not be guilty of common law arson. In many states, arson is divided into degrees, depending sometimes on the value of the property but more commonly on its use, first-degree arson – The act in which the arsonist sets fire to an occupied domain or building such as a school. Second-degree arson – The act in which the arsonist sets fire to a building such as an empty barn. Third-degree arson – The act in which the arsonist sets fire to a building or an abandoned area of space such as a field. Many statutes vary the degree of the according to the criminal intent of the accused. In the United States, the common law elements of arson are often varied in different jurisdictions, for example, the element of dwelling is no longer required in most states, and arson occurs by the burning of any real property without consent or with unlawful intent. Arson is prosecuted with attention to degree of severity in the alleged offense, first degree arson generally occurs when persons are harmed or killed in the course of the fire, while second degree arson occurs when significant destruction of property occurs. While usually a felony, arson may also be prosecuted as a misdemeanor, criminal mischief, burglary also occurs, if the arson involved a breaking and entering. A person may be sentenced to death if arson occurred as a method of homicide, as was the case in California of Raymond Lee Oyler, in New York, arson is charged in five degrees
23.
Aberdare
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Aberdare is a town in the Cynon Valley area of Rhondda Cynon Taf, Wales, at the confluence of the Rivers Dare and Cynon. The population at the 2001 census was 31,705, Aberdare is 4 miles south-west of Merthyr Tydfil,20 miles north-west of Cardiff and 22 miles east-north-east of Swansea. During the 19th century it became an industrial settlement, which was also notable for the vitality of its cultural life. Aberdare dates from the Middle Ages and it was originally a small village in an agricultural district, centred around the Church of St John the Baptist, said to date from 1189. By the middle of the 15th century, Aberdare contained a mill in addition to a number of thatched cottages. Two major industries supported the growth of the community, first iron, a branch of the Glamorganshire Canal was used to transport these products, then the railway became the main means of transport to the South Wales coast. From the 1870s onwards, the economy of the town was dominated by the mining industry. There were also several brickworks and breweries, during the latter half of the 19th century, considerable improvements were made to the town, which became a pleasant place to live, despite the nearby collieries. A postgraduate theological college opened in connection with the Church of England in 1892, the services in the majority of the chapels were in Welsh. Most of these chapels have now closed, with many converted to other uses, the urban district includes what were once the separate villages of Aberaman, Abernant, Cwmaman, Cwmbach, Cwmdare, Llwydcoed, Penywaun and Trecynon. There are several cairns and the remains of a circular British encampment on the mountain between Aberdare and Merthyr. This population growth, a result of the growth of the coal trade was increasingly concentrated in the previously agricultural areas of Blaengwawr. Many of the came from the rural parts of west Wales which had been affected by an agricultural depression. Population levels continued to increase over the forty years, albeit with a small decline in the 1870s. The first decade of the 20th century saw a sharp increase, largely as a result of the steam coal trade. The population has declined owing to the loss of most of the heavy industry. Welsh was the prominent language until the mid 20th century and Aberdare was an important centre of Welsh language publishing, a large proportion of the early migrant population were Welsh speaking, and in 1851 only ten per cent of the population had been born outside of Wales. Griffiths meanwhile, was vicar of Merthyr in order to escape local anger
24.
Owen Wynne Jones
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Owen Wynne Jones, often known by his bardic name of Glasynys, was a Welsh clergyman and author. Owen Wynne Jones was born at a house called Tyn-y-ffrwd, in the village of Rhostryfan, at the age of ten, he was sent to work in the quarry, but later returned to full-time education and went on to train as a teacher. In 1855 he began teaching at Llanfachreth in Merionethshire and he began to assist Eben Fardd in arranging local eisteddfodau. In 1860 he was ordained as an Anglican clergyman and worked as a curate in several parishes and he wrote many articles and co-edited the periodical Y Glorian with William Thomas. Fy Oriau Hamddenol Lleucu Llwyd Yr Wyddfa Dafydd Llwyd Dafydd Gruffydd, pa beth wyt ti yn ei feddwl or Ddwy Fil ar dydd hwnnw
25.
John Ashton (musician)
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John Geza Ashton is an English musician, songwriter, composer, and record producer. Ashtons music career more than 30 years. He is best known as the guitarist of the Psychedelic Furs, John Geza Ashton was born on 30 November 1957 in Whips Cross Hospital, Forest Gate, London. Ashton came to prominence in the early 1980s as the guitarist of the Psychedelic Furs, the band is an English group formed in 1977 by Richard and Tim Butler, Duncan Kilburn and Roger Morris. Their first album release was a hit in the UK and Europe and their second release Talk Talk Talk placed them on the US charts. After the release of Forever Now in late 1982, Morris and Kilburn left the band, and Ashton, the Psychedelic Furs went on hiatus after their 1992 tour, but reformed in 2001. Since then, Ashton has joined the band on occasion for tours, after the Psychedelic Furs went on hiatus, Ashton became a record producer and worked on a number of projects including Marianne Faithfull, The Sisters of Mercy, Red Betty, and Seven Color Sky. Ashton mixed and co-produced The Secret Posts album From Train to Station, released in 2015, Ashton has also pursued a solo career and released his debut album, Satellite Paradiso, in 2014. Ashton moved to the United States in about 1989 and is married to Catherine Dewson, the couple have two children, and currently reside in Woodstock, New York. John Ashton interview by Brian D. Holland
26.
Hymn tune
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A hymn tune is the melody of a musical composition to which a hymn text is sung. Musically speaking, a hymn is generally understood to have four-part harmony, a fast harmonic rhythm, editors bring extensive knowledge of theology, poetry, and music to the process of compiling a new hymnal. Ideally, a hymn is set out in clear, unambiguous language, although it deals with profound thoughts, a hymn states them so simply and directly that he who runs may read and understand. Simplicity, which is the servant of clarity, is the first characteristic of hymnic expression, when editors choose a text for the planned collection, it may already be paired to a tune that supports its meaning, catches its spirit, and allows for congregational participation. This pairing may be used elsewhere, even recognized, appearing in many other hymnals. However, if a hymn has been linked to a tune the editors think is not the best partner for it, partnerships of texts and tunes can give special attention to the interpretive opportunities in a text by providing artistic support of the message through its musical setting. Often the author of a text has not composed a setting of text or otherwise paired the text to a particular tune. It then becomes the challenge to complement that text with a tune for publication. Where the meter of a text is regular, editors can choose an existing tune of the meter that fits the text, often there is more than just one good possible partner available. If one refers to the hymnals metrical index, more possible tunes may be found, of the same meter, in The Anatomy of Hymnody, Austin C. Lovelace explores the relevance of the meter to a text, a meter of few syllables, perhaps with a trochaic stress pattern, fits best an exhortive or forceful declamation of ideas. A stirring, motivating text will fit this meter well, using a more lyrical meter suggests a more expansive or introspective treatment of ideas. An author may have superb ideas but may have chosen a meter which exhorts when it should be expansive, in such cases the editor is challenged to achieve an overall fit which doesnt distract from the message of the text. Editorial skills are evident in the credits of some hymns. For the well-loved and great hymn, All Creatures of Our God and King and it is wedded to the tune Lasst uns erfreuen, first printed in the Geistliches Kirchengesangbuch, dated 1623, and is presented with a harmonization by Ralph Vaughan Williams, dated 1906. Some texts become associated with several tunes, for different reasons, some tunes set numerous texts. Wareham LM, melody William Knapp, alt. harm, Hymns Ancient and Modern,1875, after James Turle, sets three texts in Hymnal 1982. It has supported more than 20 texts in various hymnals, the practice of naming hymn tunes developed to help identify a particular tune
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