1.
1850 in art
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Events from the year 1850 in art. Controversial exhibition of Pre-Raphaelite paintings by Holman Hunt and Millais at the Royal Academy, james Collinson resigns from the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which then dissolves. Francisco Goyas engravings, Proverbios, are posthumously published, edouard Pingret relocates to Mexico City. Grand Prix de Rome, painting, William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Paul Baudry, Grand Prix de Rome, sculpture, Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Grand Prix de Rome, music, J. A
2.
1855 in art
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Events from the year 1855 in art. July 3 – John Everett Millais and Effie Gray marry, jean Auguste Dominique Ingres exhibits Venus Anadyomene, which has taken him forty years to complete. William Bell Scott begins painting murals of Northumbrian history at Wallington Hall, the Bavarian National Museum is founded by King Maximilian II of Bavaria. Kelly, American sculptor and illustrator September 8 – William Friese-Greene, English photographer and cinematographer Willis E
3.
1857 in art
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Events from the year 1857 in art. June 22 – The South Kensington Museum, predecessor of the Victoria, lewis Carroll meets John Ruskin and begins to associate with the Pre-Raphaelites. In the same year, Ruskin publishes his Political Economy of Art, may 5 – October 17 – The Art Treasures of Great Britain exhibition is held in Manchester, one of the largest such displays of all time. Emily Mary Osborn – Nameless and Friendless O. G. W
4.
1859 in art
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Events from the year 1859 in art. March 22 – Scottish National Gallery opens to the public in Edinburgh in neoclassical premises designed by W. H. Playfair, april 26 – William Morris marries his model, Jane Burden. Edward Burne-Jones presents them with a self-painted wardrobe, frederic E. Churchs The Heart of the Andes is exhibited in New York and draws 12,000 paying visitors. The Artists Rifles set up in London as a unit of the British Army
5.
1861 in art
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Events from the year 1861 in art. February – Hilda Sjölin opens a studio in Malmö, making her one of the first known Swedish female professional photographers. Paul Cézanne and his friend Émile Zola arrive in Paris, berthe Morisot becomes a pupil of Corot. Édouard Manet has his first paintings accepted by the Salon, william Bell Scott concludes his series of murals of Northumbrian history at Wallington Hall with Iron and Coal, the Nineteenth Century
6.
1863 in art
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Events from the year 1863 in art. March – American-born painter James McNeill Whistler settles close to the River Thames in Chelsea, London, the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris becomes independent of the Académie des Beaux-Arts. Julia Margaret Cameron takes up photography, alexander Gilchrists Life of William Blake, Pictor Ignotus is published in London, edited posthumously by Anne Gilchrist. May 17 – Opening of first exhibition of the Salon des Refusés in Paris, and coining of the term avant-garde
7.
1864 in art
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Events from the year 1864 in art. January 30 – National Gallery of Ireland opens to the public in Dublin in a designed by Francis Fowke based on early plans by Charles Lanyon. February 20 – Painter George Frederic Watts marries his 16-year-old model and she elopes less than a year later. December 30 – Julia Margaret Cameron sends John Herschel an album of her first years photography including her iconic portrait of him, stanisław Chlebowski takes up a post as master painter to Sultan Abdülaziz in Istanbul. The National Gallery in London acquires The Annunciation, with Saint Emidius from Lord Taunton, F. Watts – Choosing James McNeill Whistler Caprice in Purple and Gold, The Golden Screen Symphony in White, No
8.
1865 in art
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Events from the year 1865 in art. July 21 – Charles Dodgson photographs Effie Gray Millais, John Everett Millais, ford Madox Brown completes his painting Work after thirteen years. Édouard Manets painting Olympia is first exhibited, at the Salon, jean-François Millets painting The Angelus is first exhibited and becomes very popular in France. The Bargello in Florence becomes an art museum
9.
1870 in art
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Events from the year 1870 in art. June 28 – Claude Monet marries his mistress and model Camille Doncieux in Paris, july – Franco-Prussian War breaks out, Monet and Pissarro flee to London, Cézanne and his mistress, Marie-Hortense Fiquet, leave Paris for LEstaque where he predominantly paints landscapes. In September the Dutch painter Lourens Alma Tadema moves permanently to London where he adopts the name Lawrence Alma-Tadema, Édouard Manet and Louis Edmond Duranty fight a duel at Café Guerbois, Paris. Russian industrialist and patron of the arts Savva Mamontov acquires the Abramtsevo Colony, dante Gabriel Rossettis Poems are published, exhumed from Elizabeth Siddals grave. Daoud Corm goes to Rome to study under Roberto Bompiani at the Accademia di San Luca
10.
1860 in architecture
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The year 1860 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. August 22 - The Cenotaph to Matthew Henry, designed by Thomas Harrison, is unveiled in Chester, spring - Willden Fort, Utah, built by Charles William Willden and his son Ellott. June - Oxford University Museum of Natural History, designed by Benjamin Woodward, august 28 - St. Augustin, Coburg, consecrated by the Archbishop of Bamberg Michael Deinlein. November 22 - Solund Church, Norway, designed by Christian Henrik Grosch, november 28 - Swedish Theatre, Helsinki, Finland, designed by Georg Theodor von Chiewitz. Mosque of Omar, Bethlehem, Palestinian territories Varshavsky railway station building in Saint Petersburg, Russia, designed by Piotr Salmanovich
11.
1860 in literature
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This article presents lists of literary events and publications in 1860. January First issue of the Cornhill Magazine published in London, anthony Trollopes Framley Parsonage is serialized in it throughout the year. Mrs. Henry Woods sensation novel East Lynne begins serialization in The New Monthly Magazine and this year also her first full-length novel Danesbury House is published. Approximate date - The Catholic newspaper LUnivers is suppressed by the French government, january 28 - The first of Charles Dickens literary sketches under the general title of The Uncommercial Traveller is published in his magazine All the Year Round. February - Mary Elizabeth Braddon gives up her career to write. In the same year, she meets her future husband John Maxwell, march 27 - The Irish melodrama The Colleen Bawn, or The Brides of Garryowen, written by and starring Dion Boucicault, is first performed at Miss Laura Keenes theatre, New York. April 4 - George Eliots novel The Mill on the Floss is published by John Blackwood in three volumes, june 30 -1860 Oxford evolution debate, Samuel Wilberforce and Thomas Huxley debate the theories of Charles Darwin at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. Lewis Carroll is among the audience, August 25 - Wilkie Collins sensation novel The Woman in White, an early example of mystery fiction, concludes serialization in the magazine All the Year Round. It is published in form in London around August 15. September 3 - Charles Dickens burns most of his papers at his home in Kent. December 1 - Charles Dickenss Bildungsroman Great Expectations begins serialization in his magazine All the Year Round, alexander Bain is appointed to the chair of logic and English literature at the University of Aberdeen. Andreas Munch becomes the first person to be granted a pension by the Parliament of Norway. Bram Stokers horror novel The Lair of the White Worm is set in this year
12.
1860 in science
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The year 1860 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. July 18 – Total solar eclipse, june 30 – Debate about evolution at the new Oxford University Museum of Natural History. John Curtis publishes Farm Insects, being the history and economy of the insects injurious to the field crops of Great Britain. With suggestions for their destruction in Glasgow, joseph Dalton Hooker concludes publication of The Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of H. M. 1839–1843 with issue of the part of Flora Tasmaniae in London. September 3–5 – Karlsruhe Congress, the first international meeting of chemists, marcellin Berthelot rediscovers and names acetylene. Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff, using their newly improved spectroscope, discover and name caesium in mineral water from Bad Dürkheim, albert Niemann makes a detailed analysis of the coca leaf, isolating and purifying the crystalline alkaloid which he calls cocaine. Carl Wilhelm Borchardt first discovers and proves Cayleys formula in graph theory, july 9 – The Nightingale Training School and Home for Nurses, the first nursing school based on the ideas of Florence Nightingale, is opened at St Thomas Hospital in London. Gustav Fechner publishes Elemente der Psychophysik, establishing the discipline of psychophysics, april 9 – Earliest known decipherable sound recording of the human voice, a phonautogram, produced by Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville. Playback is impossible at this time, wollaston Medal for geology, Searles Valentine Wood. February 29 – Herman Hollerith, American statistician, punched card data processing inventor, may 2 John Scott Haldane, Scottish physiologist. May 25 – James McKeen Cattell, American psychologist, january 27 – János Bolyai, mathematician. January 27 – Thomas Brisbane, astronomer, june 29 – Thomas Addison, physician and scientist. July 1 – Charles Goodyear, inventor of the vulcanization process
13.
Artists Rifles
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The Artists Rifles is a regiment of the British Army Reserve. Raised in London in 1859 as a light infantry unit. It did not serve outside Britain during World War II, as it was used as a training unit at that time. The regiment was disbanded in 1945 but in 1947, it was re-established to resurrect the Special Air Service Regiment, today, the full title of the Regiment is 21 Special Air Service Regiment and with 23 Special Air Service Regiment, it forms the Special Air Service. The regiment was formed in 1859, part of the volunteer movement which developed in the face of potential French invasion after Felice Orsinis attack on Napoleon III was linked to Britain. It was established on 28 February 1860 as the 38th Middlesex Rifle Volunteer Corps and its first commanders were the painters Henry Wyndham Phillips and Frederic Leighton. The units badge, designed by J. W. Wyon, shows the heads of the Roman gods Mars, until 1914 the regimental full dress uniform was light grey with white facings, silver buttons and braid. This distinctive uniform dated from the foundation as a volunteer unit. After World War I standard khaki was the normal dress, in September 1880, the corps became the 20th Middlesex Rifle Volunteer Corps, with headquarters at Dukes Road, off Euston Road, London. It formed the 7th Volunteer Battalion of the Rifle Brigade from 1881 until 1891, during this period, The Artists Rifles fought in the Second Boer War as part of the City Imperial Volunteers. After the 1860s the voluntary recruitment basis of the regiment gradually broadened to include professions other than artistic ones, by 1893 lawyers and architects made up 24% of the unit, doctors followed with 10% and civil engineers 6%. Sculptors and painters totaled about 5%, following the formation of the Territorial Force, the Artists Rifles was one of 26 volunteer battalions in the London and Middlesex areas that combined to form the new London Regiment. It became the 28th Battalion of The London Regiment on 1 April 1908, the Artists Rifles was a popular unit for volunteers. It had been increased to twelve companies in 1900 and was formed into three sub-battalions in 1914, and recruitment was restricted by recommendation from existing members of the battalion. Over fifteen thousand men passed through the battalion during the war, the battalion eventually saw battle in France in 1917 and 1918. Members of the Regiment won eight Victoria Crosses, fifty-six DSOs, in the early 1920s, the unit was reconstituted as an infantry regiment within the Territorial Army, as the 28th County of London Regiment. In 1937, this regiment became part of The Prince Consorts Own Rifle Brigade, the regiment was not deployed during the Second World War, functioning again as an Officers Training Corps throughout the war. It was disbanded in 1945, but reformed in The Rifle Brigade in January 1947, the number 21 SAS was chosen to perpetuate two disbanded wartime regiments 1 SAS and 2 SAS, with the 1 and the 2 being reversed into 21
14.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
15.
Burlington House
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Burlington House is a building on Piccadilly in London. It was originally a private Palladian mansion, and was expanded in the century after being purchased by the British government. The house was one of the earliest of a number of large private residences built on the north side of Piccadilly, previously a country lane. The first version was begun by Sir John Denham about 1664 and it was a red-brick double-pile hip-roofed mansion with a recessed centre, typical of the style of the time, or perhaps even a little old fashioned. In 1704 the house passed to the ten-year-old Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, who was to become the patron of the Palladian movement in England. The colonnade separated the house from increasingly urbanized Piccadilly with a cour dhonneur, inside, Baroque decorative paintings in the entrance hall and staircase by Sebastiano Ricci and Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini resulted in some of the richest interiors in London. In between his two Grand Tours of Italy young Lord Burlingtons taste was transformed by the publication of Giacomo Leonis Palladio. In 1717 or 1718, Colen Campbell was appointed to replace Gibbs, the ground floor became a rusticated basement, which supported a monumental piano nobile of nine bays. This had no centrepiece, but was highlighted by venetian windows in the end bays. Other alterations included a monumental screening gateway to Piccadilly and the reconstruction of most of the principal interiors, with typical Palladian features such as rich coved ceilings. The Saloon, constructed immediately after William Kents return from Rome in December 1719, has survived in the most intact condition and its plaster putti above the pedimented doorcases were probably by Giovanni Battista Guelfi. Lord Burlington transferred his energies to Chiswick House after 1722. On Burlingtons death in 1753, Burlington House passed to the Dukes of Devonshire, the 4th Dukes younger son Lord George Cavendish and a Devonshire in-law, the 3rd Duke of Portland, each used the house for at least two separate spells. Portland had some of the interiors altered by John Carr in the 1770s. Eventually Lord George, who was a man in his own right due to a marriage to an heiress. Like Carrs work Wares was sympathetic with the Palladian style of the house, providing an example of the Kent Revival. In 1819 the Burlington Arcade was built along the part of the grounds. In 1854, Burlington House was sold to the British government for £140,000 and this plan, however, was abandoned in the face of strong opposition and in 1857 Burlington House was occupied by the Royal Society, the Linnean Society and the Chemical Society
16.
Dante Gabriel Rossetti
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Dante Gabriel Rossetti was an English poet, illustrator, painter and translator. He founded the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in 1848 with William Holman Hunt, Rossetti was later to be the main inspiration for a second generation of artists and writers influenced by the movement, most notably William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones. His work also influenced the European Symbolists and was a precursor of the Aesthetic movement. Rossettis art was characterised by its sensuality and its medieval revivalism and his early poetry was influenced by John Keats. His later poetry was characterised by the complex interlinking of thought and feeling, especially in his sonnet sequence, poetry and image are closely entwined in Rossettis work. Rossettis personal life was linked to his work, especially his relationships with his models and muses Elizabeth Siddal, Fanny Cornforth. The son of émigré Italian scholar Gabriele Pasquale Giuseppe Rossetti and his wife Frances Mary Lavinia Polidori, Rossetti was born in London, England and his family and friends called him Gabriel, but in publications he put the name Dante first in honour of Dante Alighieri. He was the brother of poet Christina Rossetti, critic William Michael Rossetti and his father was a Roman Catholic, at least prior to his marriage, and his mother was an Anglican, ostensibly Gabriel was baptized as and was a practicing Anglican. During his childhood, Rossetti was home educated and often read the Bible, along with the works of Shakespeare, Dickens, Sir Walter Scott, the youthful Rossetti is described as self-possessed, articulate, passionate and charismatic but also ardent, poetic and feckless. Like all his siblings, he aspired to be a poet and attended Kings College School and he also wished to be a painter, having shown a great interest in Medieval Italian art. He studied at Henry Sass Drawing Academy from 1841 to 1845, when he enrolled in the Antique School of the Royal Academy, after leaving the Royal Academy, Rossetti studied under Ford Madox Brown, with whom he retained a close relationship throughout his life. Following the exhibition of William Holman Hunts painting The Eve of St. Agnes, the painting illustrated a poem by the little-known John Keats. Rossettis own poem, The Blessed Damozel, was an imitation of Keats, together they developed the philosophy of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood which they founded along with John Everett Millais. Their approach was to return to the abundant detail, intense colours, the eminent critic John Ruskin wrote, Every Pre-Raphaelite landscape background is painted to the last touch, in the open air, from the thing itself. Every Pre-Raphaelite figure, however studied in expression, is a portrait of some living person. Rossettis first major paintings in oil display the realist qualities of the early Pre-Raphaelite movement and his Girlhood of Mary Virgin and Ecce Ancilla Domini portray Mary as a teenage girl. I saw at once that he was not an orthodox boy, the mixture of genius and dilettantism of both men shut me up for the moment, and whetted my curiosity. Although his work subsequently won support from John Ruskin, Rossetti only rarely exhibited thereafter, in 1850, Rossetti met Elizabeth Siddal, an important model for the Pre-Raphaelite painters
17.
Elizabeth Siddal
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Elizabeth Eleanor Siddal was an English artists model, poet and artist. She was painted and drawn extensively by artists of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, including Walter Deverell, William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais and her husband and she featured prominently in Rossettis early paintings of women. Named Elizabeth Eleanor Siddall, after her mother, Lizzie Siddall was born on 25 July 1829, at the home at 7 Charles Street. Her parents were Charles Crooke Siddall, who claimed his family descended from nobility, and Eleanor Evans, from a family of English and Welsh descent. At the time of her birth, her father had a business but around 1831, her family moved to the borough of Southwark, in south London. In Southwark the rest of Lizzie Siddalls siblings were born, Lydia, to whom she was close, Mary, Clara, James. Although there is no record of Lizzie Siddall having attended school, she could read and write, the spelling Siddall was changed to Siddal when Dante Gabriel Rossetti dropped the second l. She was first noticed by Walter Deverell in 1849, while she was working as a milliner in Cranbourne Alley, whether Siddal had any artistic aspirations is unknown, though she loved poetry. She was employed as a model by Deverell and through him was introduced to the Pre-Raphaelites, though she was later touted for her beauty, Siddal was originally chosen as a model because of her plainness. At the time, Deverell was working on an oil painting depicting a scene from Twelfth Night, showing Orsino, Feste. Like the rest of the Pre-Raphaelites, Deverell took his inspiration and he based his Orsino on himself, Feste on his friend Dante Rossetti. All that remained was to find a girl who could dress as a boy, deverells Twelfth Night was the first painting Lizzie Siddal ever sat for. While posing for Millais Ophelia in 1852, Siddal floated in a full of water to represent the drowning Ophelia. Millais painted daily into the winter putting lamps under the tub to warm the water, on one occasion the lamps went out and the water became icy cold. Millais, absorbed by his painting, did not notice and Siddal did not complain, after this she became very ill with a severe cold or pneumonia. Her father held Millais responsible and, under the threat of legal action and it was thought that she suffered from tuberculosis, but some historians believe an intestinal disorder was more likely. Others have suggested she might have been anorexic while others attribute her poor health to an addiction to laudanum or a combination of ailments, Elizabeth Siddal was the primary muse for Dante Gabriel Rossetti throughout most of his youth. The number of paintings he did of her are said to number in the thousands, Rossettis drawings and paintings of Siddal culminated in Beata Beatrix which shows a praying Beatrice painted in 1863, a year after her death
18.
Hastings
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Hastings /ˈheɪstɪŋz/ is a town and borough in the county of East Sussex, within the historic county of Sussex, on the south coast of England. The town is located 24 mi east of the county town of Lewes and 53 mi south east of London, and has an population of 90,254. Hastings gives its name to the Battle of Hastings in 1066 and it later became one of the medieval Cinque Ports. The town became a seaside resort in the 19th century with the coming of the railway. Hastings is a port with a beach based fishing fleet. The first mention of Hastings is found in the late 8th century in the form Hastingas and this is derived from the Old English tribal name Hæstingas, meaning the constituency/followers of Hæsta. Symeon of Durham records the victory of Offa in 771 over the Hestingorum gens, that is, hastingleigh in Kent was named after that tribe. The place name Hæstingaceaster is found in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for 1050, evidence of prehistoric settlements have been found at the town site, flint arrowheads and Bronze Age artefacts have been found, Iron Age forts have been excavated on both the East and West Hills. This suggests that the inhabitants moved early to the safety of the valley in between the forts, the settlement was already based on the port when the Romans arrived in Britain for the first time in 55 BC. At this time, they began to exploit the iron, Iron was worked locally at Beauport Park, to the north of the town, which employed up to one thousand men and is considered to have been the third largest mine in the Roman Empire. With the departure of the Romans, the town suffered setbacks, the Beauport site had been abandoned, and natural and man-made attacks began. The Sussex coast has suffered from occasional violent storms, with the additional hazard of longshore drift. The original Roman port could well now be under the sea, Bulverhythe was probably a harbour used by Danish invaders, which suggests that -hythe or hithe means a port or small haven. It worked to retain its cultural identity until the 11th century. In 771 King Offa of Mercia invaded Southern England, and over the next decade gradually seized control of Sussex and Kent. Symeon of Durham records a battle fought at a location near Hastings in 771, at which Offa defeated the Haestingas tribe. By 790, Offa controlled Hastings effectively enough to confirm grants of land in Hastings to the Abbey of St Denis, during the reign of Athelstan, he established a royal mint in Hastings in AD928. It is thought that the Norman encampment was on the outskirts, where there was open ground
19.
Warsaw
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Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It stands on the Vistula River in east-central Poland, roughly 260 kilometres from the Baltic Sea and 300 kilometres from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population is estimated at 1.750 million residents within a metropolitan area of 3.101 million residents. The city limits cover 516.9 square kilometres, while the area covers 6,100.43 square kilometres. Once described as Paris of the East, Warsaw was believed to be one of the most beautiful cities in the world until World War II. On 9 November 1939, the city was awarded Polands highest military decoration for heroism, Warsaw is one of Europe’s most dynamic metropolitan cities. In 2012 the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked Warsaw as the 32nd most liveable city in the world, in 2017 the city came 4th in the “Business-friendly” category and 8th in the “Human capital and life style”. It was also ranked as one of the most liveable cities in Central, Warsaw is considered an Alpha– global city, a major international tourist destination and a significant cultural, political and economic hub. The city is a significant centre of research and development, BPO, ITO, the Warsaw Stock Exchange is the largest and most important in Central and Eastern Europe. Frontex, the European Union agency for external security, has its headquarters in Warsaw. Together with Frankfurt, London and Paris, Warsaw is also one of the cities with the highest number of skyscrapers in the European Union, the city is the seat of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw National Philharmonic Orchestra and the University of Warsaw. The historic city-centre of Warsaw with its picturesque Old Town in 1980 was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, buildings represent examples of nearly every European architectural style and historical period. Warsaw provides many examples of architecture from the gothic, renaissance, baroque, neoclassical and modern periods, furthermore, the city is positioning itself as Europes chic cultural capital with thriving art and club scenes and renowned restaurants. Folk etymology attributes the city name to a fisherman, Wars, according to legend, Sawa was a mermaid living in the Vistula River with whom Wars fell in love. In actuality, Warsz was a 12th/13th-century nobleman who owned a village located at the site of Mariensztat neighbourhood. See also the Vršovci family which had escaped to Poland, the official city name in full is miasto stołeczne Warszawa. A native or resident of Warsaw is known as a Varsovian – in Polish warszawiak, warszawianin, warszawianka, warszawiacy, other names for Warsaw include Varsovia and Varsóvia, Varsovie, Varsavia, Warschau, װאַרשע /Varshe, Варшава /Varšava /Varshava, Varšuva, Varsó. The first fortified settlements on the site of todays Warsaw were located in Bródno, after Jazdów was raided by nearby clans and dukes, a new similar settlement was established on the site of a small fishing village called Warszowa
20.
Montreal Museum of Fine Arts
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The Montreal Museum of Fine Arts is an art museum in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It is Montreals largest museum and is amongst the most prominent in Canada, the museum is located on the historic Golden Square Mile stretch of Sherbrooke Street. The MMFA is spread across four pavilions, and occupies a surface area of 45,067 square metres. A fifth pavilion is currently under construction, which will have an area of 3,460 square metres. This expansion will make it the eighteenth largest art museum in North America, the permanent collection includes approximately 42,000 works. The original reading room of the Art Association of Montreal was the precursor of the current library of the museum and it is the oldest library in Canada dedicated to art. The Museum is affiliated with, CMA, CHIN, and Virtual Museum of Canada, founded in 1860 by Bishop Fulford, the Art Association of Montreal was created to encourage the appreciation of fine arts among the people of the city. Since it did not have a permanent place to store acquisitions the Art Association was not able to acquire works to display nor to seek works from collectors. During the following twenty years, the organization had an itinerant existence during which its shows, in 1877, the Art Association received an exceptional gift from Benaiah Gibb, a Montreal businessman. He gave the core of his art collection consisting of 72 canvases and 4 bronzes, in addition he donated to the Montreal institution a building site on the north-east corner of Phillips Square and further the sum of money of $8,000. This latter gift was on condition that a new museum be constructed on the site three years. The Art Gallery at Phillips Square comprised an exhibition room, another smaller room reserved for works as well as a lecture hall. The museum was enlarged in 1893, the Art Association held an annual show of works created by its members as well as a Spring Salon devoted to the works of living Canadian Artists. The gift made by Benaiah Gibb was an event in the founding of the museums collection. The generous gift engaged a keen interest in the public and, because of it and they settled on the site of the abandoned Holton House, on Sherbrooke Street West, for the construction of the new museum. Senator Robert Mackay, the owner of the property, was convinced to sell the house for a good price, a committee responsible for the construction of the museum was formed consisting of James Ross, Richard B. Angus, Vincent Meredith, Louis-Joseph Forget and David Morrice, most members of this committee offered a considerable amount of their own money for the construction of the museum. This included a donation by businessman James Ross
21.
Lawrence Alma-Tadema
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Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, OM, RA was a Dutch painter of special British denizenship. Born in Dronrijp, the Netherlands, and trained at the Royal Academy of Antwerp, Belgium, he settled in England in 1870, Lourens Alma Tadema was born on 8 January 1836 in the village of Dronrijp in the province of Friesland in the north of the Netherlands. The surname Tadema is an old Frisian patronymic, meaning son of Tade, while the names Lourens and he was the sixth child of Pieter Jiltes Tadema, the village notary, and the third child of Hinke Dirks Brouwer. His father had three sons from a previous marriage and his parents first child died young, and the second was Atje, Lourens sister, for whom he had great affection. The Tadema family moved in 1838 to the city of Leeuwarden. His father died when Lourens was four, leaving his mother with five children, Lourens, his sister and his mother had artistic leanings, and decided that drawing lessons should be incorporated into the childrens education. He received his first art training with a drawing master hired to teach his older half-brothers. It was intended that the boy would become a lawyer, diagnosed as consumptive and given only a short time to live, he was allowed to spend his remaining days at his leisure, drawing and painting. Left to his own devices he regained his health and decided to pursue a career as an artist, in 1852 he entered the Royal Academy of Antwerp in Belgium where he studied early Dutch and Flemish art, under Gustaf Wappers. During Alma-Tademas four years as a student at the Academy. Although de Taeye was not a painter, Alma-Tadema respected him and became his studio assistant. De Taeye introduced him to books that influenced his desire to portray Merovingian subjects early in his career and he was encouraged to depict historical accuracy in his paintings, a trait for which the artist became known. Under his guidance Alma-Tadema painted his first major work, The Education of the children of Clovis and this painting created a sensation among critics and artists when it was exhibited that year at the Artistic Congress in Antwerp. It is said to have laid the foundation of his fame, Alma-Tadema related that although Leys thought the completed painting better than he had expected, he was critical of the treatment of marble, which he compared to cheese. Alma-Tadema took this very seriously, and it led him to improve his technique and to become the worlds foremost painter of marble. Merovingian themes were the favourite subject up to the mid-1860s. It is perhaps in this series that we find the artist moved by the deepest feeling, however Merovingian subjects did not have a wide international appeal, so he switched to themes of life in ancient Egypt that were more popular. On these scenes of Frankish and Egyptian life Alma-Tadema spent great energy, in 1862 Alma-Tadema left Leyss studio and started his own career, establishing himself as a significant classical-subject European artist
22.
Edward Burne-Jones
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Burne-Joness early paintings show the heavy inspiration of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, but by the 1860s Burne-Jones was discovering his own artistic voice. In 1877, he was persuaded to show eight oil paintings at the Grosvenor Gallery and these included The Beguiling of Merlin. The timing was right, and he was taken up as a herald, Edward Coley Burne Jones was born in Birmingham, the son of a Welshman, Edward Richard Jones, a frame-maker at Bennetts Hill, where a blue plaque commemorates the painters childhood. He attended Birminghams King Edward VI grammar school from 1844 and the Birmingham School of Art from 1848 to 1852, before studying theology at Exeter College, at Oxford he became a friend of William Morris as a consequence of a mutual interest in poetry. The members of the Brotherhood read John Ruskin and Tennyson, visited churches, at this time Burne-Jones discovered Thomas Malorys Le Morte dArthur which was to be so influential in his life. In February 1857, Rossetti wrote to William Bell Scott In 1856 Burne-Jones became engaged to Georgiana Georgie MacDonald and she was training to be a painter, and was the sister of Burne-Joness old school friend. The couple married in 1860, after which she made her own work in woodcuts, Georgiana bore a son, Philip, in 1861. A second son, born in the winter of 1864 while Georgiana was gravely ill with scarlet fever, the family soon moved to 41 Kensington Square, and their daughter Margaret was born there in 1866. In 1867 Burne-Jones and his family settled at the Grange, an 18th-century house set in a garden in North End, Fulham. During these difficult years Georgiana developed a friendship with Morris. Morris and Georgie may have been in love, but if he asked her to leave her husband, in the end, the Burne-Joneses remained together, as did the Morrises, but Morris and Georgiana were close for the rest of their lives. His troubled son Philip, who became a portrait painter. His adored daughter Margaret married John William Mackail, the friend and biographer of Morris and their children were the novelists Angela Thirkell and Denis Mackail. In an edition of the magazine, Chums, an article on Burne-Jones stated that. his pet grandson used to be punished by being sent to stand in a corner with his face to the wall. One day on being sent there he was delighted to find the wall prettily decorated with fairies, flowers, birds and his indulgent grandfather had utilised his talent to alleviate the tedium of his favourites period of penance. Burne-Jones once admitted that after leaving Oxford he found himself at five-and-twenty what he ought to have been at fifteen and he had had no regular training as a draughtsman, and lacked the confidence of science. Many are pen-and-ink drawings on vellum, exquisitely finished, of which his Waxen Image is one of the earliest and best examples, although the subject, medium and manner derive from Rossettis inspiration, it is not the hand of a pupil merely, but of a potential master. This was recognized by Rossetti himself, who before long avowed that he had nothing more to teach him
23.
Edgar Degas
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Edgar Degas was a French artist famous for his paintings, sculptures, prints, and drawings. He is especially identified with the subject of dance, more than half of his works depict dancers and he is regarded as one of the founders of Impressionism, although he rejected the term, preferring to be called a realist. He was a draftsman, and particularly masterly in depicting movement, as can be seen in his rendition of dancers, racecourse subjects. His portraits are notable for their complexity and for their portrayal of human isolation. At the beginning of his career, Degas wanted to be a history painter, in his early thirties, he changed course, and by bringing the traditional methods of a history painter to bear on contemporary subject matter, he became a classical painter of modern life. Degas was born in Paris, France, into a wealthy family. He was the oldest of five children of Célestine Musson De Gas, a Creole from New Orleans, Louisiana, and Augustin De Gas and his maternal grandfather Germain Musson, was born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti of French descent and had settled in New Orleans in 1810. Degas began his schooling at age eleven, enrolling in the Lycée Louis-le-Grand and his mother died when he was thirteen, and his father and grandfather became the main influences on him for the remainder of his youth. Degas began to paint early in life, by the time he graduated from the Lycée with a baccalauréat in literature in 1853, at age 18, he had turned a room in his home into an artists studio. Upon graduating, he registered as a copyist in The Louvre Museum, Degas duly enrolled at the Faculty of Law of the University of Paris in November 1853, but applied little effort to his studies. In April of that year Degas was admitted to the École des Beaux-Arts and he studied drawing there with Louis Lamothe, under whose guidance he flourished, following the style of Ingres. In July 1856, Degas traveled to Italy, where he would remain for the three years. In 1858, while staying with his aunts family in Naples and he also began work on several history paintings, Alexander and Bucephalus and The Daughter of Jephthah in 1859–60, Sémiramis Building Babylon in 1860, and Young Spartans around 1860. In 1861 Degas visited his childhood friend Paul Valpinçon in Normandy and he exhibited at the Salon for the first time in 1865, when the jury accepted his painting Scene of War in the Middle Ages, which attracted little attention. The change in his art was influenced primarily by the example of Édouard Manet, upon the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Degas enlisted in the National Guard, where his defense of Paris left him little time for painting. During rifle training his eyesight was found to be defective, after the war, Degas began in 1872 an extended stay in New Orleans, Louisiana, where his brother René and a number of other relatives lived. Staying at the home of his Creole uncle, Michel Musson, on Esplanade Avenue, Degas produced a number of works, many depicting family members. One of Degass New Orleans works, A Cotton Office in New Orleans, garnered favorable attention back in France, Degas returned to Paris in 1873 and his father died the following year, whereupon Degas learned that his brother René had amassed enormous business debts
24.
Young Spartans Exercising
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Young Spartans Exercising, also known as Young Spartans and also as Young Spartan Girls Challenging Boys, is an early oil on canvas painting by French impressionist artist Edgar Degas. The work depicts two groups of male and female Spartan youth exercising and challenging each other in some way, the work is now in the permanent collection of the National Gallery in London. The painting depicts as its subject matter two groups of children, four girls and five boys, with the girls apparently taunting or beckoning the boys. The painting was begun in 1860 with Degas returning to the canvas to rework the piece over the following years, though it remained unfinished upon the artists death. The French art historian André Lemoisne, was first to note on this fact, remarking that the subjects had a contemporary Parisian look, more recent critics agree with Lemoisne, believing Degas was attempting to update his painting. A second full-scale version of the painting exists, held by the Art Institute of Chicago, the work also shows how Degas changed the number of foreground figures with an additional boy on the right of the painting. Young Spartans Exercising was purchased by the National Gallery in 1924 and, in a 1985 edition of The Art Bulletin, art critic Carol Salus hypothesises that the work. Has traditionally been interpreted as representing young women challenging young men to wrestle or race, is instead a presentation of Spartan courtship rites and it ends as something much more enigmatic
25.
William Dyce
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He was born on the 19 September 1806 at 48 Marischal Street in Aberdeen, the son of Dr William Dyce of Fonthill and Cuttlehill FRSE and Margaret Chalmers of Westburn. His uncle was General Alexander Dyce FRSE and his older brother was Prof Robert Dyce FRSE. Dyce began his career at the Royal Academy schools, and then travelled to Rome for the first time in 1825, while he was there, he studied the works of Titian and Poussin. He returned to Rome in 1827, this time staying for a year and a half, after these travels, he settled for several years in Edinburgh. He supported himself by painting portraits at first, but soon took to other subjects of art, before taking up this post in 1838 he and a colleague were sent to visit France and Germany to enquire into design education there and prepare a report. He left the school in 1843, to be able to paint more, the ideas that were turned in the following decade into the South Kensington system that dominated English art education for the rest of the century really have their origin in Dyces work. He is less known for, but nevertheless important as, the founder of the Motett Society and he was noted as an able organist, and is also reputed to have composed some musical works. Dyce died in Streatham in Surrey on 14 February 1864 and he is buried in the churchyard of St Leonards Church in Streatham. He is also memorialised on his parents grave in St Nicholas Churchyard on Union Street in Aberdeen and his most highly thought of painting today is his exceptionally detailed seaside landscape of Pegwell Bay in Kent, now in the Tate Gallery. A rather atypical work, it is fully titled Pegwell Bay, Kent – a Recollection of October 5th 1858, the largest collection of William Dyces work is held at Aberdeen Art Gallery, Scotland. Later in his career, Dyce turned to fresco-painting, and was selected to execute a series of murals at the completed the Palace of Westminster. In preparation for work at Westminster, he returned to Italy in 1845–47 and he was particularly impressed by Pinturicchios frescoes in the Piccolomini Library in Siena, and by the works of Perugino. Dyce was commissioned to decorate the Queens Robing Room in the Palace and he chose as his subject the Arthurian legends, He had some difficulty adapting the Courtly love of Malorys tales to Victorian mores. The Arthurian legend became popular later in the Victorian period, but when Dyce received the commission to decorate the room in 1847, the legend soon became a major problem for Dyce, as it turns on the unfaithfulness of a queen, which causes the fall of a kingdom. After initially experimenting with a sequence in which the tale would unfold in the rooms panels. In their finished form, Dyces frescoes depict scenes from the Arthurian legend that are intended to exemplify the virtues inscribed beneath them, the virtues depicted are Mercy, Hospitality, Generosity, Religion, and Courtesy. Two projected frescoes, Courage and Fidelity, were never executed and he was working on the frescoes in Westminster when he collapsed, and later died at his home in Streatham on 14 February 1864. He was buried at St Leonards Church, Streatham, a nearby drinking fountain, designed in the neo-Gothic style by Dyce, was subsequently dedicated to him by the parishioners
