1.
Auguste Toulmouche
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Auguste Toulmouche was a French painter who painted in the academic realism style. This trend in art was towards realism but also towards greater idealism, the figures depicted were made more abstract and idealized. His themes were in the Regency revival style of genre painting and this would involve both generalizing the forms seen in nature, and subordinating them to the unity and theme of the artwork. He studied with Charles Gleyre and is mainly for his portraits of Parisian women. He was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, works of Toulmouche at Artrenewal. org Artwork by Auguste Toulmouche
2.
Clothing
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Clothing is fiber and textile material worn on the body. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on type, social. Some clothing types can be gender-specific, physically, clothing serves many purposes, it can serve as protection from the elements, and can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects the wearer from rough surfaces, rash-causing plants, insect bites, splinters, thorns, Clothes can insulate against cold or hot conditions. Further, they can provide a barrier, keeping infectious. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation, there is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice. The body louse specifically lives in clothing, and diverge from head lice about 170 millennia ago, another theory is that modern humans are the only survivors of several species of primates who may have worn clothes and that clothing may have been used as long ago as 650 millennia. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42, the most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other layers are normally removed when entering a warm home. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials, Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status. In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style. Clothing can and has in history been made from a wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to materials, to elaborate and exotic natural. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing, Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, however, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc. offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport, some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances
3.
Crinoline
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A crinoline /krɪn. əl. ɪn/ is a stiffened or structured petticoat designed to hold out a womans skirt, popular at various times since the mid-19th century. Originally, crinoline described a stiff fabric made of horsehair and cotton or linen which was used to make underskirts, by the 1850s the term crinoline was more usually applied to the fashionable silhouette provided by horsehair petticoats, and to the hoop skirts that replaced them in the mid-1850s. In form and function these hoop skirts were similar to the 16th- and 17th-century farthingale and to 18th-century panniers, in that they too enabled skirts to spread even wider, the steel-hooped cage crinoline, first patented in April 1856 by R. C. Milliet in Paris, and by their agent in Britain a few months later, steel cage crinolines were mass-produced in huge quantity, with factories across the Western world producing tens of thousands in a year. Alternative materials, such as whalebone, cane, gutta-percha and even inflatable caoutchouc were all used for hoops, at its widest point, the crinoline could reach a circumference of up to six yards, although by the late 1860s, crinolines were beginning to reduce in size. By the early 1870s, the smaller crinolette and the bustle had largely replaced the crinoline, crinolines were worn by women of every social standing and class across the Western world, from royalty to factory workers. This led to media scrutiny and criticism, particularly in satirical magazines such as Punch. They were also hazardous if worn without due care, thousands of women died in the mid-19th century as a result of their hooped skirts catching fire. Alongside fire, other hazards included the hoops being caught in machinery, carriage wheels, gusts of wind, the crinoline silhouette was revived several times in the 20th century, particularly in the late 1940s as a result of Christian Diors New Look of 1947. The flounced nylon and net petticoats worn in the 1950s and 1960s to poof out skirts also became known as even when there were no hoops in their construction. In the mid-1980s Vivienne Westwood designed the mini-crini, a mini-length crinoline which was influential on 1980s fashion. Late 20th and early 21st century designers such as John Galliano, since the 1980s and well into the 21st century the crinoline has remained a popular option for formal evening dresses, wedding dresses, and ball gowns. The name crinoline is often described as a combination of the Latin word crinis and/or the French word crin, with the Latin word linum, the crinoline was not the first garment designed to support the wearers skirts in a fashionable shape. The horsehair fabric called crinoline was first noted by 1829, when it was offered for lining and dress-making, petticoats made of horsehair crinoline appeared around 1839, proving so successful that the name crinoline began to refer to supportive petticoats in general, rather than solely to the material. One alternative to horsehair crinoline was the quilted petticoat stuffed with down or feathers, however, quilted skirts were not widely produced until the early 1850s. In about 1849, it was possible to buy stiffened and corded cotton fabric for making petticoats, marketed as crinoline, the artificial crinoline with hoops did not emerge until the 1850s. The cage crinoline made out of spring steel wire was first introduced in the 1850s, alison Gernsheim suggests that the unidentified French inventor was probably R. C. Milliet of Besançon, as the July 1856 patent was filed by their British agent, milliet had already patented a tournure de femme in Paris on 24 April 1856 which was described as comprising elastic extensible circles joined together by vertical bands
4.
Hoop skirt
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A hoop skirt or hoopskirt is a womens undergarment worn in various periods to hold the skirt extended into a fashionable shape. Its Tudor name was a farthingale and it originated as a modest-sized mechanism for holding long skirts away from ones legs, to stay cooler in hot climates and to keep from tripping on the skirt during various activities. Small hoops might be worn by farmers and while working in the garden, hoops were then adopted as a fashion item, and the size and scale of the hoops grew in grandeur. They can sometimes be seen in the fashion scene. Reproduction hoop skirts are a part of living history costuming, including American Civil War reenactment. Arnold, Janet, Patterns of Fashion, the cut and construction of clothes for men and women 1560-1620, ISBN 0-89676-083-9 Arnold, Janet, Patterns of Fashion 1, Wace 1964, Macmillan 1972. Revised metric edition, Drama Books 1977, Arnold, Janet, Patterns of Fashion 2, Englishwomens Dresses and Their Construction C. 1860-1940, Wace 1966, Macmillan 1972. Revised metric edition, Drama Books 1977, ISBN 0-89676-027-8 Arnold, Janet, Queen Elizabeths Wardrobe Unlockd, W S Maney and Son Ltd, Leeds 1988
5.
Artistic Dress movement
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Artistic Dress was a fashion movement circa 1850-1900 that rejected highly structured and heavily trimmed Victorian trends in favour of beautiful materials and simplicity of design. It arguably developed in Britain in the early 1850s, influenced by artistic circles such as the Pre-Raphaelites and it subsequently developed into more specific categories such as Aesthetic Dress and Künstlerkleid on the continent. Dante Gabriel Rossetti and other members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood were conscious archaizers, emulating the work of the old masters and choosing romantic and they dressed their models in long flowing gowns loosely inspired by styles of the Middle Ages. These styles were adopted by the painters wives and models for everyday dress. Artistic dress was an extreme contrast to the tight corsets, hoop skirts and bustles, bright synthetic aniline dyes, the Aesthetes belief that the Arts should provide refined sensuous pleasure was a direct rejection of the reverence for simplicity and handwork propounded by William Morris. From artistic circles, artistic and aesthetic dress spread to fashionable ones, the delicate, lightly corseted tea gowns of the turn of the 20th century echo the lines of late aesthetic dress, and in their turn paved the way for the early Art Deco creations of Paul Poiret. Liberty & Co. tea gown of figured silk twill, c, los Angeles County Museum of Art, M.2007.211. Ashelford, Jane, The Art of Dress, Clothing and Society 1500-1914, Abrams,1996
6.
History of suits
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The mans suit of clothes, in the sense of a lounge or business or office suit, is a set of garments which are crafted from the same cloth. This article discusses the history of the suit, often called a business suit when made in dark colours. The current styles were founded in a period of revolution during the early 19th century. This sharply changed the elaborately embroidered and jeweled formal clothing into the clothing of the Regency period. It was in the search for more comfort that the loosening of rules gave rise in the late 19th century to the lounge suit. The suit is a form of mens formal clothes in the Western world. For some four hundred years, suits of matching coat, trousers, the modern lounge suits derivation is visible in the outline of the brightly coloured, elaborately crafted royal court dress of the 17th century, which was shed because of the French Revolution. The modern lounge suit appeared in the late 19th century, but traces its origins to the simplified, the simplicity of the new clothes and their sombre colours contrasted strongly with the extravagant, foppish styles just before. Brummells influence introduced the era of mens clothing which now includes the modern suit. Moreover, he introduced a new era of grooming and style. Towards the start of the Victorian period, the coat, initially not just black, became popular. From the middle of the 19th century, a new coat and it was a less formal garment, with a cut away front, making it suitable for wearing while riding. The frock coat was still the standard garment for all formal or business occasions, towards the end of the 19th century, the modern lounge suit was born as a very informal garment meant only to be worn for sports, in the country, or at the seaside. Parallel to this, the jacket was invented and came to be worn for informal evening events. It was descended from white tie but quickly became a new garment. When it was imported to the United States, it known as the tuxedo. The dress lounge was originally only for small private gatherings. The dress lounge slowly became popular for larger events as an alternative to full evening dress in white tie
7.
Croquet
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Croquet is a sport that involves hitting plastic or wooden balls with a mallet through hoops embedded in a grass playing court. The oldest document to bear the word croquet with a description of the game is the set of rules registered by Isaac Spratt in November 1856 with the Stationers Company in London. This record is now in the Public Record Office, in 1868, the first croquet all-comers meet was held at Moreton-in-Marsh, Gloucestershire and in the same year the All England Croquet Club was formed at Wimbledon, London. In the book Queen of Games, The History of Croquet, Nicky Smith presents two theories of the origin of the game of croquet, which took England by storm in the 1860s. This was the explanation given in the edition of Encyclopædia Britannica. It is to be observed, that there are two of these arches, that is one at end of the alley. The images caption describes the game as a curious ancient pastime, in Samuel Johnsons 1755 dictionary, his definition of pall-mall clearly describes a game with similarities to modern croquet, A play in which the ball is struck with a mallet through an iron ring. However, there is no evidence that pall-mall involved the croquet stroke which is the characteristic of the modern game. Regular contact between Ireland and France had continued since the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169. By no later than the early 15th century, the game jeu de mail was popular in France, including in the courts of Henry II in the 16th century, at least one version of it, rouët was a multi-ball lawn game. There is, however, no pre-1858 Irish document that describes the way game was played, whatever the truth of the matter, Jaques certainly played an important role in popularising the game, producing editions of the rules in 1857,1860, and 1864. Croquet became highly popular as a pastime in England during the 1860s. By 1867, Jaques had printed 65,000 copies of his Laws and it quickly spread to other Anglophone countries, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States. No doubt one of the attractions was that the game could be played by both sexes, this ensured a certain amount of adverse comment. There was a revival in the 1890s, but from then onwards, croquet was always a minority sport, the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club still has a croquet lawn, but has not hosted any significant tournaments. The English headquarters for the game is now in Cheltenham, on the page facing the title page is a picture of Eglinton Castle with a game of croquet in full swing. The croquet lawn existed on the terrace, between Eglinton Castle and the Lugton Water. In 1865 the Rules of the Eglinton Castle and Cassiobury Croquet was published by Edmund Routledge, several incomplete sets of this form of croquet are known to exist, and one complete set is still used for demonstration games in the West of Scotland
8.
Elizabeth Bacon Custer
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Elizabeth Clift Bacon Custer was an American author and public speaker, and the wife of Brevet Major General George Armstrong Custer, United States Army. Left nearly destitute in the aftermath of her husbands death, she became an advocate for his legacy through her popular books. Elizabeth Libbie Bacon was born in Monroe, Michigan, in 1842, tragedy marked much of her childhood, with her three siblings and mother all dying before Elizabeths thirteenth year. As the only one of the children that would live to adulthood. Elizabeth was both beautiful and intelligent, graduating from a seminary in June 1862 at the head of her class. Her father hoped she would make a marriage with a man from her own elevated social status. She met her husband in fall 1862, in the midst of the American Civil War. Custer later wrote that he fell deeply in love as of their first formal meeting, Custer was from a poor, undistinguished family, and the Judge hoped Libbie would have better than the life of an army wife. After Custer, just prior to the Battle of Gettysburg, was promoted to Brevet brigadier general, Judge Bacon finally relented, Libbie and George had a loving but tumultuous relationship. Both were stubborn, opinionated, and ambitious and their private correspondences were filled with sexually charged double entendres. Despite hardships, they were devoted to each other. She followed him to every assignment, even during the days of the Civil War. The depth of their relationship has been the subject of considerable interest in books, unlike many, Libbie was one of the only wives to follow their husbands wherever the army took them. She refused to be left behind, and joined Custer at the expense of the lifestyle to which shed become accustomed as the child of a judge. Life on the frontier outposts was difficult, and Custers career was plagued by problems including a court martial, the 1876 campaign against the Sioux seemed like a chance for glory to George Armstrong Custer. The couples final home together was at Fort Abraham Lincoln near what is now Bismarck, from there Libbies husband led the Seventh Cavalry in pursuit of Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse and the Sioux and Northern Cheyenne who refused to be confined to the reservation system. After her husbands column was wiped out at the Battle of the Little Big Horn in June 1876, many in the press, Army, President Ulysses S. Grant publicly blamed Custer for the disaster. Fearing that her husband was to be made a scapegoat by history and she began writing articles and making speaking engagements praising the glory of what she presented as her martyred husband
9.
Italian unification
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The process began in 1815 with the Congress of Vienna and was completed in 1871 when Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. The memory of the Risorgimento is central to both Italian politics and Italian historiography, for short period is one of the most contested. Italian nationalism was based among intellectuals and political activists, often operating from exile, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Roman province of Italy remained united under the Ostrogothic Kingdom and later disputed between the Kingdom of the Lombards and the Byzantine Empire. Following conquest by the Frankish Empire, the title of King of Italy merged with the office of Holy Roman Emperor. However, the emperor was a foreigner who had little concern for the governance of Italy as a state, as a result. This situation persisted through the Renaissance but began to deteriorate with the rise of modern nation-states in the modern period. Italy, including the Papal States, then became the site of proxy wars between the powers, notably the Holy Roman Empire, Spain and France. Harbingers of national unity appeared in the treaty of the Italic League, in 1454, leading Renaissance Italian writers Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini expressed opposition to foreign domination. Petrarch stated that the ancient valour in Italian hearts is not yet dead in Italia Mia, Niccolò Machiavelli later quoted four verses from Italia Mia in The Prince, which looked forward to a political leader who would unite Italy to free her from the barbarians. I am an Italian, he explained, the French Republic spread republican principles, and the institutions of republican governments promoted citizenship over the rule of the Bourbons and Habsburgs and other dynasties. The reaction against any outside control challenged Napoleons choice of rulers, as Napoleons reign began to fail, the rulers he had installed tried to keep their thrones further feeding nationalistic sentiments. After Napoleon fell, the Congress of Vienna restored the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of independent governments, vincenzo Gioberti, a Piedmontese priest, had suggested a confederation of Italian states under leadership of the Pope in his 1842 book, Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians. Pope Pius IX at first appeared interested but he turned reactionary, Giuseppe Mazzini and Carlo Cattaneo wanted the unification of Italy under a federal republic. That proved too extreme for most nationalists, the middle position was proposed by Cesare Balbo as a confederation of separate Italian states led by Piedmont. One of the most influential revolutionary groups was the Carbonari, a political discussion group formed in Southern Italy early in the 19th century. After 1815, Freemasonry in Italy was repressed and discredited due to its French connections, a void was left that the Carbonari filled with a movement that closely resembled Freemasonry but with a commitment to Italian nationalism and no association with Napoleon and his government. The response came from middle class professionals and business men and some intellectuals, the Carbonari disowned Napoleon but nevertheless were inspired by the principles of the French Revolution regarding liberty, equality and fraternity. They developed their own rituals, and were strongly anticlerical, the Carbonari movement spread across Italy
10.
Magenta
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Magenta is a color that is variously defined as purplish-red, reddish-purple, or mauvish-crimson. On computer screens, it is made by mixing equal amounts of blue, on color wheels of the RGB and CMY color models, it is located midway between red and blue. It is the color of green. It is one of the four colors of ink used in printing and by an inkjet printer, along with cyan, yellow. The tone of magenta used in printing is called printers magenta, Magenta was first introduced as the color of a new aniline dye called fuchsine, patented in 1859 by the French chemist François-Emmanuel Verguin. Its name was changed the year to magenta, to celebrate a victory of the French and Sardinian army at the Battle of Magenta on June 4,1859. The web color magenta is called fuchsia. Magenta is a color, meaning that it is not found in the visible spectrum of light. Rather, it is physiologically and psychologically perceived as the mixture of red and violet/blue light, with the absence of green. In the RGB color system, used to all the colors on a television or computer display, magenta is a secondary color, made by combining equal amounts of red. In this system, magenta is the color of green. In the CMYK color model, used in printing, it is one of the three primary colors, along with cyan and yellow, used to print all the rest of the colors. If magenta, cyan, and yellow are printed on top of each other on a page, in this model, magenta is the complementary color of green, and these two colors have the highest contrast and the greatest harmony. If combined, green and magenta ink will look dark gray or black, the magenta used in color printing, sometimes called process magenta, is a darker shade than the color used on computer screens. A purple hue in terms of theory, magenta is evoked by light having less power in green wavelengths than in blue/violet. In the Munsell color system, magenta is called red–purple, if the spectrum is wrapped to form a color wheel, magenta appears midway between red and violet. Violet and red, the two components of magenta, are at opposite ends of the spectrum and have very different wavelengths. The additive secondary color magenta, as noted above, is made by combining violet and red light at equal intensity, in optics, fuchsia and magenta are essentially the same color
11.
Magenta, Lombardy
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Magenta is a town and comune in the province of Milan in Lombardy, northern Italy. It is notable as the site of the Battle of Magenta, the colour magenta is named after the battle, most likely referring to the uniforms used by Zouave French troops. Magenta is the birthplace of St. Gianna Beretta Molla, Magenta was probably a settlement of the Insubres, a Celtic tribe, who founded it around the 5th century BC. The area was conquered by the Romans in 222 BC, the name is traditionally connected to castrum Maxentiae, meaning castle of Maxentius. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it was ruled by the Lombards, objects, jewelry and weapons were found here. In the Middle Ages, it was destroyed twice, in 1162 by Frederick Barbarossa, in 1310, according to a legend, the emperor Henry VII was stopped here by a snowstorm during his march to Milan. In 1398 Gian Galeazzo Visconti donated the town territories to the monks of the Certosa di Pavia, on June 4,1859, it was the site of an important battle of the Second War of Italian Independence. The Franco-Piedmontese victory in the fight gave them the chance to conquer Austrian Lombardy, Magenta received the honorary title of city with a presidential decree on May 25,1947. Church of San Martino, built to commemorate the dead of the 1859 battle, monastery of Santa Maria Assunta, probably dating from the 14th century. The church, of Romanesque origin but with Baroque interiors, houses two works by il Bergognone, casa Crivelli Boisio Beretta, an example of 15th-century noble house. Casa Giacobbe Monument to general Patrice de MacMahon, la Fagiana natural park, a former hunting resort of King Victor Emmanuel II. Magenta is twinned with, Magenta, Marne, France SantAnna di Stazzema, Italy
12.
Spitalfields
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Spitalfields /ˈspɪtəlfiːldz/ is a former parish in the borough of Tower Hamlets, partly in Central London and partly in the East End of London, near to Liverpool Street station and Brick Lane. The Liberty of Norton Folgate and the neighbouring Liberty of the Old Artillery Ground were merged into Spitalfields in 1921, the area straddles Commercial Street and is home to several markets, including the historic Old Spitalfields Market, Brick Lane Market and Cheshire Street. Petticoat Lane Market lies on the areas south-western boundaries, the name Spitalfields appears in the form Spittellond in 1399, as The spitel Fyeld on the Woodcut map of London of c.1561, and as Spyttlefeildes, also in 1561. The land belonged to St Mary Spital, a priory or hospital erected on the east side of the Bishopsgate thoroughfare in 1197, an alternative, and possibly earlier, name for the area was Lolsworth. The area that is now Spitalfields was mainly fields and nursery gardens until late in the 17th century when streets were laid out for Irish and Huguenot silk weavers. D. In 1197 the site of the cemetery became a priory called The New Hospital of St Mary without Bishopsgate, latterly known as St Mary Spital, founded by Walter Brunus and his wife Roisia. This religious foundation was one of the biggest hospitals in medieval England and was the focus of a medieval cemetery which included a stone charnel house. This latter has recently uncovered by archaeologists and preserved for public viewing. The Priory and Hospital were dissolved in 1539 under Henry VIII, although the chapel and monastic buildings were mostly demolished, the area of the inner precinct of the priory maintained an autonomous administrative status as the Liberty of Norton Folgate. The adjacent outer precincts of the priory, to the south, were re-used as an Artillery Ground, the church of St. Stephen Spitalfields was built in 1860 by public subscription but was demolished in 1930. The adjacent vicarage is all that remains, in 1911 the parish of St. Mary Spital became part of the civil parish of Spitalfields. Spitalfields as a parish was abolished in 1965 upon the establishment of the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. Spitalfields historic association with the industry was established by French Protestant refugees who settled in this area after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. By settling here, outside the bounds of the City of London, the Huguenots brought with them little, apart from their skills, and an Order in Council of 16 April 1687 raised £200,000 for the relief of their poverty. More humble weavers dwellings were congregated in the Tenterground, the Spitalfields Mathematical Society was established in 1717. In 1846, it merged with the Royal Astronomical Society, there has been a market on the site since 1638 when Charles I gave a licence for flesh, fowl and roots to be sold in what was then known as Spittle Fields. The Market currently receives around 25,000 visitors every week, see also, Huguenots of Spitalfields a registered charity promoting public understanding of the Huguenot heritage and culture in Spitalfields, the City of London and beyond. They arrange tours, talks, events and schools programmes to raise the Huguenot profile in Spitalfields, from the 1730s Irish weavers came here, after a decline in the Irish linen industry to take up work in the silk trade
13.
Skirt
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A skirt is the lower part of a dress or gown, covering the person from the waist downwards, or a separate outer garment serving this purpose. Most skirts are self-standing garments, but some skirt-looking panels may be part of another garment such as leggings, shorts, some fashion designers, such as Jean Paul Gaultier, have shown mens skirts. Modern skirts are made of light to mid-weight fabrics, such as denim, jersey, worsted. Skirts of thin or clingy fabrics are often worn with slips to make the material of the skirt drape better, a straw-woven skirt dating to 3900 BC was discovered in Armenia at the Areni-1 cave complex. Skirts have been worn by men and women from many cultures, such as the lungi, lehnga, kanga and sarong worn in South Asia and Southeast Asia, and the kilt worn in Scotland and Ireland. The earliest known culture to have females wear clothing resembling miniskirts were the Duan Qun Miao and this was in reference to the short miniskirts that barely cover the buttocks worn by women of the tribe, and which were probably shocking to observers in medieval and early modern times. In the Middle Ages, some upper-class women wore skirts over three metres in diameter at the bottom, at the other extreme, the miniskirts of the 1960s were minimal garments that may have barely covered the underwear when seated. Costume historians typically use the word petticoat to describe skirt-like garments of the 18th century or earlier, during the 19th century, the cut of womens dresses in western culture varied more widely than in any other century. Waistlines started just below the bust and gradually sank to the natural waist, skirts started fairly narrow and increased dramatically to the hoopskirt and crinoline-supported styles of the 1860s, then fullness was draped and drawn to the back by means of bustles. In the 1890s the rainy daisy skirt was introduced for walking or sportswear and it had a significantly shorter hemline measuring as much as six inches off the ground and would eventually influence the wider introduction of shorter hemlines in the early 20th century. Beginning around 1915, hemlines for daytime dresses left the floor for good, broomstick skirt, a light-weight ankle-length skirt with many crumpled pleats formed by compressing and twisting the garment while wet, such as around a broomstick. Bubble dress/skirt, a voluminous skirt whose hem is tucked back under to create a “bubble effect” at the bottom, Cargo skirt, a plain utilitarian skirt with belt loops and numerous large pockets, based on the military style of Cargo pants and popularised in the 1990s. Crinoline, a full skirt supported by hoops or multiple petticoats. Hobble skirt, a long and tight skirt with a hem narrow enough to impede the wearers stride Kilt-skirt. Though traditionally designed as womens wear, it is fashioned to mimic the appearance of a mans kilt. Leather skirt, a made of leather Lehenga, a long, pleated skirt, often embroidered, worn mostly as the bottom part of the Gagra choli in North India. Mini-crini, a version of the crinoline, designed by Vivienne Westwood in the mid 1980s. Poodle skirt, a circle or near-circle skirt with an appliqued poodle or other decoration Puffball skirt, popular in the mid-late 1980s when it was inspired by Westwoods mini-crini
14.
Sleeve
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A sleeve is the part of a garment that covers the arm, or through which the arm passes or slips. The pattern of the sleeve is one of the characteristics of fashion in dress, varying in every country, various survivals of the early forms of sleeve are still found in the different types of academic or other robes. Where the long hanging sleeve is worn it has, as still in China and Japan, been used as a pocket, whence has come the phrase to have up ones sleeve, to have something concealed ready to produce. There are many other proverbial and metaphorical expressions associated with the sleeve, such as to ones heart upon ones sleeve. Sleeve length varies from barely over the shoulder to floor-length, most contemporary shirt sleeves end somewhere between the mid-upper arm and the wrist. Early medieval sleeves were cut straight, and underarm triangle-shaped gussets were used to ease of movement. In the 14th century, the sleeve cap was invented. Often the names applied to sleeves in historical costume are modern, oxford English Dictionary Picken, Mary Brooks, The Fashion Dictionary, Funk and Wagnalls,1957. Media related to Sleeves at Wikimedia Commons
15.
Engageante
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Engageantes are false sleeves worn with womens clothing. They were worn during the 18th and 19th centuries, with a revival in the 20th century. In the 18th century, engageantes took the form of ruffles or flounces of linen, cotton, or lace, tacked to the elbow-length sleeves then fashionable. In the mid-19th century, the term engageante was used for separate false sleeves, usually with fullness gathered tight at the wrist, the fashion reappeared briefly just after the turn of the 20th century. Glossary of 18th century dress terms 18th Century Womens Engageantes Fashion in the Edwardian Era
16.
Lace
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Lace is a delicate fabric made of yarn or thread in an open weblike pattern, made by machine or by hand. Originally linen, silk, gold, or silver threads were used, now lace is often made with cotton thread, although linen and silk threads are still available. Manufactured lace may be made of synthetic fiber, a few modern artists make lace with a fine copper or silver wire instead of thread. The word lace is from Middle English, from Old French las, noose, strin, from Vulgar Latin *laceum, from Latin laqueus, noose, probably akin to lacere, there are many types of lace, classified by how they are made. These include, Needle lace, such as Venetian Gros Point, is using a needle. This is the most flexible of the lace-making arts, while some types can be made more quickly than the finest of bobbin laces, others are very time-consuming. Some purists regard needle lace as the height of lace-making, the finest antique needle laces were made from a very fine thread that is not manufactured today. Cutwork, or whitework, is constructed by removing threads from a woven background. Bobbin lace, as the name suggests, is made with bobbins, the bobbins, turned from wood, bone, or plastic, hold threads which are woven together and held in place with pins stuck in the pattern on the pillow. The pillow contains straw, preferably oat straw or other such as sawdust, insulation styrofoam. Chantilly lace is a type of bobbin lace, tape lace makes the tape in the lace as it is worked, or uses a machine- or hand-made textile strip formed into a design, then joined and embellished with needle or bobbin lace. Knotted lace includes macramé and tatting, tatted lace is made with a shuttle or a tatting needle. Crocheted lace includes Irish crochet, pineapple crochet, and filet crochet, knitted lace includes Shetland lace, such as the wedding ring shawl, a lace shawl so fine that it can be pulled through a wedding ring. Machine-made lace is any style of lace created or replicated using mechanical means, chemical lace, the stitching area is stitched with embroidery threads that form a continuous motif. Afterwards, the areas are removed and only the embroidery remains. The stitching ground is made of a water-soluble or non-heat-resistant material, the origin of lace is disputed by historians. An Italian claim is a will of 1493 by the Milanese Sforza family, a Flemish claim is lace on the alb of a worshiping priest in a painting about 1485 by Hans Memling. But since lace evolved from techniques, it is impossible to say that it originated in any one place
17.
Tatting
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Tatting is a technique for handcrafting a particularly durable lace from a series of knots and loops. Tatting can be used to make lace edging as well as doilies, collars, accessories such as earrings and necklaces, and other decorative pieces. The lace is formed by a pattern of rings and chains formed from a series of cow hitch or half-hitch knots, called double stitches, gaps can be left between the stitches to form picots, which are used for practical construction as well as decorative effect. Tatting dates to the early 19th century, gaining popularity in the 1860s through 1880s, the term for tatting in most European languages is derived from French frivolité, which refers to the purely decorative nature of the textiles produced by this technique. Tatting with a shuttle is the earliest method of creating tatted lace, a tatting shuttle facilitates tatting by holding a length of wound thread and guiding it through loops to make the requisite knots. Historically, it was a metal or ivory pointed-oval shape less than 3 inches long, shuttles often have a point or hook on one end to aid in the construction of the lace. Antique shuttles and unique shuttles have become sought after by collectors — even those who do not tat, to make the lace, the tatter wraps the thread around one hand and manipulates the shuttle with the other hand. No tools other than the thread, the hands and the shuttle are used, traditional shuttle tatting may be simulated using a tatting needle or doll needle instead of a shuttle. There are two techniques for needle tatting. With the more widely disseminated technique, a double thread passes through the stitches, the result is similar to shuttle tatting but is slightly thicker and looser. The second technique more closely approximates shuttle tatting because a single thread passes through the stitches, needle tatting originated in the early twentieth century, but did not become popular until much later. A tatting needle is a long, blunt needle that does not change thickness at the eye of the needle, the needle used must match the thickness of the thread chosen for the project. Rather than winding the shuttle, the needle is threaded with a length of thread, to work with a second color, a second needle is used. Although needle tatting looks similar to shuttle tatting, it differs in structure and is thicker and looser because both the needle and the thread must pass through the stitches. However, it may be seen that the Victorian tatting pin would function as a tatting needle, as well, Florence Hartley refers in The Ladies Hand Book of Fancy and Ornamental Work to the use of the tatting needle, so it must have originated prior to the mid-1800s. In the late 20th century, tatting needles became commercially available in a variety of sizes, few patterns are written specifically for needle tatting, some shuttle tatting patterns may be used without modification. There are currently two manufacturers of tatting needles, cro-tatting combines needle tatting with crochet. The cro-tatting tool is a needle with a crochet hook at the end
18.
Collar (clothing)
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In clothing, a collar is the part of a shirt, dress, coat or blouse that fastens around or frames the neck. A collar may be attached to the main body of the garment or detachable. The Oxford English Dictionary traces collar in its meaning to c. Todays shirt collars descend from the created by the drawstring at the neck of the medieval chemise, through the Elizabethan ruff and its successors. Separate collars exist alongside attached collars since the century, usually to allow starching. During the Edwardian period and sporadically thereafter, ornamental collars were worn as a form of jewelry, band - a strip of fabric that fastens around the neck, perpendicular to the body of the garment, to which a collar proper may be attached. Points - the corners of a collar, in a buttoned-down collar, spread - the distance between the points of a shirt collar. Stand - the band on a coat or shirt collar that supports the collar itself, Collars can be categorized as, Standing or stand-up, fitting up around the neck and not lying on the shoulders. Turnover, standing around the neck and then folded or rolled over, flat or falling, lying flat on the shoulders. Collars may also be stiffened, traditionally with starch, modern wash-and-wear shirt collars may be stiffened with interfacing or may include metal or plastic collar stays, shirt collars which are not starched are described as soft collars. The shape of collars is also controlled by the shape of the neckline to which they are attached, names for specific styles of collars vary with the vagaries of fashion. Some specific styles of collars include, Conventions on fastening the buttons on a collar differ globally. In the United States and the United Kingdom, the top button is always left unbuttoned, unless one is wearing a necktie. By contrast, in Slavic countries, including at least Poland, and Ukraine, examples are blue-collar, pink-collar and white-collar. Media related to Collars at Wikimedia Commons Collars on Boys Shirts and Blouses, From the Historical Boys Clothing website
19.
Chemisette
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A chemisette is an article of womens clothing worn to fill in the front and neckline of any garment. Chemisettes give the appearance of a blouse or shirt worn under the garment without adding bulk at the waist or upper arm. Chemisettes of linen or cotton were often worn with day dresses in the mid-19th century, when wide pagoda sleeves were fashionable, chemisettes might have matching engageantes. Godeys Ladys Book 1850s in fashion 1860s in fashion Trim Victorian fashion S. F. A, saward, The Dictionary of Needlework,1885. Picken, Mary Brooks, The Fashion Dictionary, Funk and Wagnalls,1957, apparel Search glossary of textile and apparel terms
20.
Glove
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A glove is a garment covering the whole hand. Gloves have separate sheaths or openings for each finger and the thumb, if there is an opening, fingerless gloves having one large opening rather than individual openings for each finger are sometimes called gauntlets, though gauntlets are not necessarily fingerless. Gloves which cover the entire hand or fist but do not have separate finger openings or sheaths are called mittens, Mittens are warmer than other styles of gloves made of the same material because fingers maintain their warmth better when they are in contact with each other. Reduced surface area reduces heat loss, a hybrid of glove and mitten contains open-ended sheaths for the four fingers and an additional compartment encapsulating the four fingers. This compartment can be lifted off the fingers and folded back to allow the individual fingers ease of movement and access while the hand remains covered. The usual design is for the cavity to be stitched onto the back of the fingerless glove only. These hybrids are called convertible mittens or glittens, a combination of glove, Gloves protect and comfort hands against cold or heat, damage by friction, abrasion or chemicals, and disease, or in turn to provide a guard for what a bare hand should not touch. Latex, nitrile rubber or vinyl gloves are often worn by health care professionals as hygiene. Police officers often wear them to work in crime scenes to prevent destroying evidence in the scene, many criminals wear gloves to avoid leaving fingerprints, which makes the crime investigation more difficult. However, the gloves themselves can leave prints that are just as unique as human fingerprints, after collecting glove prints, law enforcement can then match them to gloves that they have collected as evidence. In many jurisdictions the act of wearing gloves itself while committing a crime can be prosecuted as an inchoate offense, fingerless gloves are useful where dexterity is required that gloves would restrict. Cigarette smokers and church organists often use fingerless gloves, some gloves include a gauntlet that extends partway up the arm. Cycling gloves for road racing or touring are usually fingerless, guitar players often use fingerless gloves in circumstances when weather is much too cold to play with an un-covered hand. Gloves are made of materials including cloth, knitted or felted wool, leather, rubber, latex, neoprene, Gloves of kevlar protect the wearer from cuts. Gloves and gauntlets are integral components of pressure suits and spacesuits such as the Apollo/Skylab A7L which went to the moon, spacesuit gloves combine toughness and environmental protection with a degree of sensitivity and flexibility. Gloves appear to be of great antiquity, according to some translations of Homers The Odyssey, Laërtes is described as wearing gloves while walking in his garden so as to avoid the brambles. Herodotus, in The History of Herodotus, tells how Leotychides was incriminated by a full of silver that he received as a bribe. There are occasional references to the use of gloves among the Romans as well, pliny the Younger, his uncles shorthand writer wore gloves in winter so as not to impede the elder Plinys work
21.
Crochet
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Crochet is a process of creating fabric by interlocking loops of yarn, thread, or strands of other materials using a crochet hook. The name is derived from the French term crochet, meaning small hook and these are made of materials such as metal, wood, or plastic and are manufactured commercially and produced in artisan workshops. The word crochet is derived from the Old French crochet, a diminutive of croche, in turn from the Germanic croc, although that fabric is not known to be crochet in the present sense, a genealogical relationship between the techniques sharing that name appears likely. Knitted textiles survive from early periods but the first substantive evidence of crocheted fabric relates to its appearance in Europe during the 19th century, earlier work identified as crochet was commonly made by nålebinding, a separate looped yarn technique. The first known published instructions for crochet explicitly using that term to designate the craft in its present sense and this includes a color plate showing five different style purses of which three were intended to be crocheted with silk thread. The first is simple open crochet, a mesh of chain-stitch arches, the second starts in a semi-open form, where chain-stitch arches alternate with equally long segments of slip-stitch crochet, and closes with a star made with double-crochet stitches. The third purse is made entirely in double-crochet, the instructions prescribe the use of a tambour needle and introduce a number of decorative techniques. The earliest dated English reference to garments made of cloth produced by looping yarn with a hook — shepherds knitting — is in, The Memoirs of a Highland Lady, by Elizabeth Grant. The journal entry, itself, is dated 1812 but was not recorded in its published form until some time between 1845 and 1867, and the actual date of publication was first in 1898. Nonetheless, the 1833 volume of Penélopé describes and illustrates a shepherds hook, in 1842, one of the numerous books discussing crochet that began to appear in the 1840s states, Crochet needles, sometimes called Shepherds hooks, are made of steel, ivory, or box-wood. They have a hook at one end similar in shape to a fish-hook, by which the wool or silk is caught and these instruments are to be procured of various sizes. It derives its present name from the French, the instrument with which it is worked being by them, from its crooked shape, termed crochet. This art has attained its highest degree of perfection in England, whence it has been transplanted to France and Germany, an instruction book from 1846 describes Shepherd or Single Crochet as what in current British usage is either called single crochet or slip-stitch crochet, with U. S. American terminology always using the latter and it similarly equates Double and French crochet. Notwithstanding the categorical assertion of a purely British origin, there is evidence of a connection between French tambour embroidery and crochet. The former method of production was illustrated in detail in 1763 in Diderots Encyclopedia, the 1823 Penélopé instructions unequivocally state that the tambour tool was used for crochet and the first of the 1840s instruction books uses the terms tambour and crochet as synonyms. This equivalence is retained in the 4th edition of work,1847. The strong taper of the shepherds hook eases the production of slip-stitch crochet but is less amenable to stitches that require multiple loops on the hook at the same time, early yarn hooks were also continuously tapered but gradually enough to accommodate multiple loops
22.
Petticoat
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A petticoat or underskirt is an article of clothing, specifically an undergarment to be worn under a skirt or a dress. The petticoat is a separate garment hanging from the waist, in historical contexts, petticoat refers to any separate skirt worn with a gown, bedgown, bodice or jacket, these petticoats are not, strictly speaking, underwear as they were made to be seen. In both historical and modern contexts, petticoat refers to skirt-like undergarments worn for warmth or to give the skirt or dress the desired fashionable shape, in this context a petticoat may be called a waist slip or underskirt or half slip, with petticoat restricted to extremely full garments. Petticoat can also refer to a slip in the UK. Petticoat is the name in English for any underskirt worn as part of non-Western clothing such as the lehenga with the sari. The practice of wearing petticoats as undergarments was well established by 1585, Petticoats were worn throughout history by women who wanted to have the currently fashionable shape created by their clothing. The petticoats, if sufficiently full or stiff, would hold the overskirt out in a domed shape. It would also complement the large bust. Elaborately decorated petticoats were worn under open-fronted gowns and looped overskirts from the mid-16th century and these ankle-length petticoats remained a rural fashion, especially in the UK, into the 19th century and are a part of the traditional Welsh costume. In the 18th century, among the upper class women of Europe and America, in the early 19th century, dresses became narrower and simpler with much less lingerie. Then, as the waltz became popular in the 1820s, full-skirted gowns with petticoats were revived in Europe, by the mid 19th century, petticoats were worn over hoops, which were placed over other underwear like a corset cover, a corset, and drawers. The popular novel Gone with the Wind provides considerable, detailed descriptions of these fashions, in the 1939 film adaptation, the character played by Vivien Leigh gives a good idea of the layers of petticoats and underwear that were worn in the 1860s. The sheer weight of the clothing, along with the tightness of the corsets, the use of multiple petticoats continued to be popular until the 1870s, when the bustle was introduced, resulting in a return of narrower skirts. Some full-skirted gowns with petticoats were revived in the 1890s into the early 20th century, the Gibson Girl look with white blouses and long, narrow skirts was very popular during the late 19th and early 20th century. For the first two decades of the 20th century, multiple petticoats fell out of fashion, narrow, sometimes tight, then, in the late 1920s, chiffon dresses with several sheer petticoats became fashionable. With the Great Depression in the 1930s, narrow skirts returned and petticoats again were unpopular until the end of the decade when revived for some evening, prom, world War II, with its rationing and general shortage of materials, brought an end to petticoats. Petticoats were revived by Christian Dior in his full-skirted New Look of 1947 and tiered, ruffled, stiffened petticoats remained extremely popular during the 1950s, most of the petticoats were netlike crinoline, sometimes made of horsehair. Increasingly, nylon chiffon, taffeta, and organdy were used in petticoats, many department stores carried an extensive variety of styles and colors of petticoats until the early 1960s
23.
Bouffant gown
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A bouffant gown is a womens dress silhouette made of a wide, full skirt resembling a hoop skirt. It may be tea length or floor length, bouffant gowns were a popular silhouette during the mid-19th century. It fell out of style by the end of the 19th century and it was fully revived in tea-length designs in 1947 by Christian Diors New Look couture collection. The style remained popular at calf or ankle length throughout the 1950s. It again fell out of fashion during the 1960s and 1970s, the resurgence of Victorian styles during the 1980s, as in the wedding dress of Lady Diana Spencer in 1981, brought the bouffant gown back into style. Today, it is seen in wedding gowns, Quinceañera gowns. The shape reaches its full effect if the wearer has a frame, allowing the fabric to drape. Christian Dior History of fashion design Wedding dress
24.
Silk
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Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity, Silk is produced by several insects, but generally only the silk of moth caterpillars has been used for textile manufacturing. There has been research into other types of silk, which differ at the molecular level. Silk is mainly produced by the larvae of insects undergoing complete metamorphosis, Silk production also occurs in Hymenoptera, silverfish, mayflies, thrips, leafhoppers, beetles, lacewings, fleas, flies, and midges. Other types of arthropod produce silk, most notably various arachnids such as spiders, the word silk comes from Old English sioloc, from Greek σηρικός serikos, silken, ultimately from an Asian source. Several kinds of silk, which are produced by caterpillars other than the mulberry silkworm, have been known and used in China, South Asia. However, the scale of production was far smaller than for cultivated silks. Thus, the way to obtain silk suitable for spinning into textiles in areas where commercial silks are not cultivated was by tedious. Commercial silks originate from reared silkworm pupae, which are bred to produce a silk thread with no mineral on the surface. The pupae are killed by either dipping them in boiling water before the adult moths emerge or by piercing them with a needle. These factors all contribute to the ability of the cocoon to be unravelled as one continuous thread. Wild silks also tend to be difficult to dye than silk from the cultivated silkworm. Genetic modification of domesticated silkworms is used to facilitate the production of more types of silk. Silk fabric was first developed in ancient China, the earliest example of silk fabric is from 3630 BC, and it was used as wrapping for the body of a child from a Yangshao culture site in Qingtaicun at Xingyang, Henan. Legend gives credit for developing silk to a Chinese empress, Leizu, because of its texture and lustre, silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many areas accessible to Chinese merchants. Silk was in demand, and became a staple of pre-industrial international trade. In July 2007, archaeologists discovered intricately woven and dyed silk textiles in a tomb in Jiangxi province, Silk is described in a chapter on mulberry planting by Si Shengzhi of the Western Han
25.
Bodice
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A bodice is an article of clothing for women, covering the body from the neck to the waist. The term comes from pair of bodies, in dressmaking, the term waist was also used. During wear, the parts might be connected by hooks and eyes, one-piece construction became more common after 1900 due to the trend for looser, more simply-constructed clothing with narrower skirts. To achieve a shape and support the bust, the bodice was frequently stiffened with bents. The bodice was different from the corset of the time because it was intended to be worn over the other garments, in earlier periods, bodices and corsets were laced in spiral fashion, with one continuous lace. In later periods, both were laced like the tennis shoe, with eyelets facing one another. This was more convenient for women who had to dress themselves, one mid-19th-century style included the Agnes Sorel bodice, named after 15th-century royal mistress Agnes Sorel. This style was a day wear bodice, with a square cut neckline that had a front and back. Bodice continues in use to refer to the portion of a one- or two-piece dress. The bodice of a dress was called the corsage in the 19th century, bodices survive into modern times in the traditional or revived folk dress of many European countries. They are also seen today at Society for Creative Anachronism events or a Renaissance Fair. Dirndl Arnold, Janet, Patterns of Fashion, the cut and construction of clothes for men and women 1560-1620, steele, Valerie, The Corset, A Cultural History Yale University Press,2001
26.
1850s in Western fashion
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1850s fashion in Western and Western-influenced clothing is characterized by an increase in the width of womens skirts supported by crinolines or hoops, and the beginnings of dress reform. Masculine styles began to more in London, while female fashions originated almost exclusively in Paris. In the 1850s, the skirts of the 1840s continued to expand. Skirts were made fuller by means of flounces, usually in tiers of three, gathered tightly at the top and stiffened with horsehair braid at the bottom. Early in the decade, bodices of morning dresses featured panels over the shoulder that were gathered into a blunt point at the dropped waist. These bodices generally fastened in back by means of hooks and eyes, wider bell-shaped or pagoda sleeves were worn over false undersleeves or engageantes of cotton or linen, trimmed in lace, broderie anglaise, or other fancy-work. Separate small collars of lace, tatting, or crochet-work were worn with morning dresses, sometimes with a ribbon bow, evening ball gowns were very low-necked, off-the-shoulder, and had short sleeves. Pantalettes were essential under this new fashion for modestys sake, cape-like jackets were worn over the very wide skirts. Another fashionable outer garment was an Indian shawl or one woven in Paisley, riding habits had fitted jackets with tight sleeves, worn over a collared shirt or chemisette. They were worn long skirts and mannish top hats. The indoor cap became little more than a lace and ribbon frill worn on the back of the head, the style was promoted by editor Amelia Bloomer and was immediately christened a Bloomer suit by the press. Despite its practicality, the Bloomer suit was the subject of ridicule in the press and had little impact on mainstream fashion. The Bloomer suit, a dress worn over full trousers gathered at the ankle. Male outdoors attire and female riding-habit of 1850,1851 Parisian fashion plate shows the fashionable use of fabrics printed â la disposition on skirt flounces and for bodices and sleeves. Madame Moitessier wears a black evening gown with ruffles. She wears a brooch and bracelets on both wrists, mrs. Coventry Patmore wears a small fancy-work collar and a ribbon at her throat. Her thick, wavy hair is parted in the center and poufed over her ears,1851, matilde Juva-Branca wears a dark morning dress with a lace blouse or chemisette and cuffs and short leather gloves. Her hair is parted and worn in long curls,1851
27.
Bustle
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A bustle is a type of framework used to expand the fullness or support the drapery of the back of a womans dress, occurring predominantly in the mid-to-late 19th century. Bustles were worn under the skirt in the back, just below the waist, heavy fabric tended to pull the back of a skirt down and flatten it. Thus, a womans petticoated or crinolined skirt would lose its shape during everyday wear, the word bustle has become synonymous with the fashion to which the bustle was integral. As the fashion for crinolines wore on, their shape changed, instead of the large bell-like silhouette previously in vogue, they began to flatten out at the front and sides, creating more fullness at the back of the skirts. One type of crinoline, the crinolette, created a very similar to the one produced by a bustle. Fullness of some sort was considered necessary to make the waist look smaller. The bustle was worn in different shapes for most of the 1870s and 1880s, in the early stages of the fashion for the bustle, the fullness to the back of the skirts was carried quite low and often fanned out to create a train. The transition from the voluminous crinoline enhanced skirts of the 1850s and 1860s can be seen in the loops and gathers of fabric, the fashion for large bustles ended in 1889. The bustle had completely disappeared by 1905, as the corset of the early 20th century was now successful in shaping the body to protrude behind. The bustle was a typically Victorian fashion, a notable comparison is with the exaggerated images of the South African woman known as Hottentot Venus exhibited throughout Europe in the first part of the 19th century. Bustles and bustle gowns are worn in contemporary society. Notable exceptions occur in the realm of couture, bridal fashion. A dress in the style may be worn as a costume. For example, in 1993 Eiko Ishioka won an Academy Award for her designs from Bram Stokers Dracula. The film features several extravagant bustle gowns created for female leads Winona Ryder and its positioning on the vehicle resembling the similar placement of the bustle as used on the dress item. 1870s in fashion 1880s in fashion Corset Crinoline Victorian fashion Media related to Bustle at Wikimedia Commons
28.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
29.
Fashion plate
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A fashion plate is an illustration demonstrating the highlights of fashionable styles of clothing. Used figuratively, as is most often the case, the term is a reference to a person whose dress conforms to the latest fashions. Portraits, especially portraits, served as the base for the future of fashion plates, as they offered a visual cue as to the popular styles, fabrics. Fashion plates, as they were known during the height of their popularity, were first circulated at the end of the 18th century in England, rather than in France, as would be expected. The Ladys Magazine, one of the first distributors of fashion plates in magazines, began publishing in 1770, in France, La Galerie des Modes was a pioneer in fashion plate publication, and magazines were distributed irregularly during 1778 and 1787. As technology improved, speed of communication and transportation increased, thus allowing access to foreign fashions. The introduction of a middle class also allowed for a more fashion-conscious population that became devoted to fashion plate publications. However, the popularity of photography spelled out the end for fashion plates. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Tomy revived the concept as a toy marketed simply as Fashion Plates, not to be confused with fashion plates, costume plates depict garments after the event, that is, after the epoch of the fashionable style. Le Monument de Costume of Freudenberg and Moreau le Jeune, published in Paris between 1775 and 1783, consisted of costume plates. Fashion Plate Collection, 19th Century in the Claremont Colleges Digital Library Steele, Valerie, Paris Fashion, A Cultural History, Oxford University Press,1988, Fashion Plate Collection at the University of Washington
30.
Magazine
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A magazine is a publication, usually a periodical publication, which is printed or electronically published. Magazines are generally published on a schedule and contain a variety of content. They are generally financed by advertising, by a price, by prepaid subscriptions. At its root, the magazine refers to a collection or storage location. In the case of written publication, it is a collection of written articles and this explains why magazine publications share the word root with gunpowder magazines, artillery magazines, firearms magazines, and, in French, retail stores such as department stores. By definition, a magazine paginates with each issue starting at three, with the standard sizing being 8 3/8 ×10 7/8 inches. However, in the sense a journal has continuous pagination throughout a volume. Some professional or trade publications are also peer-reviewed, an example being the Journal of Accountancy, academic or professional publications that are not peer-reviewed are generally professional magazines. That a publication calls itself a journal does not make it a journal in the technical sense, magazines can be distributed through the mail, through sales by newsstands, bookstores, or other vendors, or through free distribution at selected pick-up locations. The subscription business models for distribution fall into three main categories. In this model, the magazine is sold to readers for a price, either on a basis or by subscription. Paid circulation allows for defined readership statistics and this means that there is no cover price and issues are given away, for example in street dispensers, airline, or included with other products or publications. Because this model involves giving issues away to unspecific populations, the statistics only entail the number of issues distributed and this is the model used by many trade magazines distributed only to qualifying readers, often for free and determined by some form of survey. This allows a level of certainty that advertisements will be received by the advertisers target audience. This latter model was used before the rise of the World Wide Web and is still employed by some titles. For example, in the United Kingdom, a number of computer-industry magazines use this model, including Computer Weekly and Computing, for the global media industry, an example would be VideoAge International. The earliest example of magazines was Erbauliche Monaths Unterredungen, a literary and philosophy magazine, the Gentlemans Magazine, first published in 1731, in London was the first general-interest magazine. Edward Cave, who edited The Gentlemans Magazine under the pen name Sylvanus Urban, was the first to use the term magazine, founded by Herbert Ingram in 1842, The Illustrated London News was the first illustrated magazine
31.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
32.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
33.
Shawl
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A shawl is a simple item of clothing, loosely worn over the shoulders, upper body and arms, and sometimes also over the head. It is usually a rectangular or square piece of cloth, that is folded to make a triangle. Shawl and pashmina name comes from Kashmir, but it originates from Hamedan Persia and he took someof this goat wool and made socks which he gave as a gift to king of Kashmir, Sultan Qutabdin. Afterwards Hamadani suggested to the king that they start a weaving industry in Kashmir using this wool. That is how pashmina shawls began, the skills and knowledge that he brought to Kashmir gave rise to an entire industry. Kashmir was a point through which the wealth, knowledge. Perhaps the most widely known woven textiles are the famed Kashmir shawls, the Kanikar, for instance, has intricately woven designs that are formalized imitations of Nature. The Chenar leaf, apple and cherry blossoms, the rose and tulip, the almond and pear, yet another type of Kashmir shawl is the Jamiavr, which is a brocaded woolen fabric sometimes in pure wool and sometimes with a little cotton added. Still another type of Kashmir shawl is the double-sided Dourukha, a shawl that is so done as to produce the same effect on both sides. The most expensive shawls, called Shahtoosh, are made from under-fleece of the Tibetan antelope or Chiru and these shawls are so fine that even a very tightly woven shawl can be easily pulled through a small finger ring. The naksha, a Persian device like the Jacquard loom invented centuries later, enabled Indian weavers to create floral patterns. The Kashmir shawl that evolved from this expertise in its heyday had greater fame than any other Indian textile, always a luxury commodity, the intricate, tapestry-woven, fine wool shawl had become a fashionable wrap for the ladies of the English and French elite by the 18th century. Supply fell short of demand and manufacturers pressed to produce more, as early as 1803, Kashmiri needlework production was established to increase and hasten output of these shawls, which had been imitated in England since 1784 and even in France. By 1870, the advent of the Jacquard loom in Europe destroyed the exclusivity of the original Kashmir shawl, even the characteristic Kashmiri motif, the mango-shape, began to be known simply as the paisley. The paisley motif is so ubiquitous to Indian fabrics that it is hard to realize that it is only about 250 years old and it evolved from 1600s floral and tree-of-life designs that were created in expensive, tapestry-woven Mughal textiles. The design in India originated from Persian motif called butta-jeghgha which represents a stylized cypress tree, early designs depicted single plants with large flowers and thin wavy stems, small leaves and roots. As the designs became denser over time, more flowers and leaves were compacted within the shape of the tree, by the late 18th century, the archetypal curved point at the top of an elliptical outline had evolved. In the late 18th century and 19th century, the became an important motif in a wide range of Indian textiles
34.
Corset
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A corset is a garment worn to hold and train the torso into a desired shape for aesthetic or medical purposes. Both men and women are known to wear corsets, though this item was for years an integral part of womens wardrobes. Since the late 20th century, the industry has borrowed the term corset to refer to tops which, to varying degrees. While these modern corsets and corset tops often feature lacing or boning and generally imitate a historical style of corsets, they have little, if any. Genuine corsets are made by a corsetmaker and are frequently fitted to the individual wearer. The word corset is derived from the Old French word corps and the diminutive of body, the craft of corset construction is known as corsetry, as is the general wearing of them. Someone who makes corsets is a corsetier or corsetière, or sometimes simply a corsetmaker, in 1828, the word corset came into general use in the English language. The word was used in The Ladies Magazine to describe a quilted waistcoat that the French called un corset and it was used to differentiate the lighter corset from the heavier stays of the period. The most common and well-known use of corsets is to slim the body, for women, this most frequently emphasizes a curvy figure by reducing the waist and thereby exaggerating the bust and hips. However, in some periods, corsets have been worn to achieve a tubular straight-up-and-down shape, for men, corsets are more customarily used to slim the figure. An overbust corset encloses the torso, extending from just under the arms toward the hips, an underbust corset begins just under the breasts and extends down toward the hips. A longline corset – either overbust or underbust – extends past the iliac crest, a longline corset is ideal for those who want increased stability, have longer torsos, or want to smooth out their hips. A standard length corset will stop short of the iliac crest and is ideal for those who want increased flexibility or have a shorter torso, some corsets, in very rare instances, reach the knees. A shorter kind of corset that covers the waist area, is called a waist cincher, a corset may also include garters to hold up stockings, alternatively, a separate garter belt may be worn for that. Traditionally, a corset supports the visible dress and spreads the pressure from large dresses, such as the crinoline, at times, a corset cover is used to protect outer clothes from the corset and to smooth the lines of the corset. The original corset cover was worn under the corset to provide a layer between it and the body. Corsets were not worn next to the skin, possibly due to difficulties with laundering these items during the 19th century, as they had steel boning, the corset cover was generally in the form of a light chemise, made from cotton lawn or silk. Modern corset wearers may wear corset liners for many of the same reasons and those who lace their corsets tightly use the liners to prevent burn on their skin from the laces
35.
Aniline
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Aniline is an organic compound with the formula C6H5NH2. Consisting of a group attached to an amino group, aniline is the prototypical aromatic amine. Its main use is in the manufacture of precursors to polyurethane, like most volatile amines, it possesses the odour of rotten fish. It ignites readily, burning with a smoky flame characteristic of aromatic compounds, the amine is nearly planar owing to conjugation of the lone pair with the aryl substituent. The C-N distance is correspondingly shorter, in aniline, the C-N and C-C distances are close to 1.39 Å, indicating the π-bonding between N and C. Industrial aniline production involves two steps, first, benzene is nitrated with a concentrated mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric acid at 50 to 60 °C to yield nitrobenzene. The nitrobenzene is then hydrogenated in the presence of metal catalysts, the reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline was first performed by Nikolay Zinin in 1842 using inorganic sulfide as a reductant. Aniline can alternatively be prepared from ammonia and phenol derived from the cumene process, many analogues of aniline are known where the phenyl group is further substituted. These include toluidines, xylidines, chloroanilines, aminobenzoic acids, nitroanilines and they often are prepared by nitration of the substituted aromatic compounds followed by reduction. For example, this approach is used to convert toluene into toluidines, the chemistry of aniline is rich because the compound has been cheaply available for many years. Below are some classes of its reactions, the oxidation of aniline has been heavily investigated, and can result in reactions localized at nitrogen or more commonly results in the formation of new C-N bonds. In alkaline solution, azobenzene results, whereas arsenic acid produces the violet-coloring matter violaniline, chromic acid converts it into quinone, whereas chlorates, in the presence of certain metallic salts, give aniline black. Hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate give chloranil, potassium permanganate in neutral solution oxidizes it to nitrobenzene, in alkaline solution to azobenzene, ammonia and oxalic acid, in acid solution to aniline black. Hypochlorous acid gives 4-aminophenol and para-amino diphenylamine, oxidation with persulfate affords a variety of polyanilines compounds. These polymers exhibit rich redox and acid-base properties, like phenols, aniline derivatives are highly susceptible to electrophilic substitution reactions. Its high reactivity reflects that it is an enamine, which enhances the ability of the ring. For example, reaction of aniline with sulfuric acid at 180 °C produces sulfanilic acid, if bromine water is added to aniline, the bromine water is decolourised and a white precipitate of 2,4, 6-tribromophenylamine is formed. The largest scale industrial reaction of aniline involves its alkylation with formaldehyde, an idealized equation is shown,2 C6H5NH2 + CH2O → CH22 + H2O The resulting diamine is the precursor to 4, 4-MDI and related diisocyanates
36.
Chemise
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The term chemise or shift can refer to the classic smock, or else can refer to certain modern types of womens undergarments and dresses. In the classical use it is a garment worn next to the skin to protect clothing from sweat and body oils. The English chemise evolved from French, the word is a cognate of the Italian word camicia, and the Spanish / Portuguese language word camisa, all deriving ultimately from the Latin camisia, itself coming from Celtic. The English called the same shirt a smock, in modern usage, a chemise is generally a womans garment that vaguely resembles the older shirts but is typically more delicate, and usually more revealing. Most commonly the term refers to a loose-fitting, sleeveless undergarment or type of lingerie which is unfitted at the waist and it can also refer to a short, sleeveless dress that hangs straight from the shoulders and fits loosely at the waist. A chemise typically does not have any buttons or other fasteners and is put on by either dropping it over the head or stepping into it, as lingerie, a chemise is similar to a babydoll, which is also a short, loose-fitting, sleeveless garment. Typically, though, babydolls are looser fitting at the hips, the chemise seems to have developed from the Roman tunica and first became popular in Europe in the Middle Ages. Women wore a shift or chemise under their gown or robe, while men wore a chemise with their trousers or braies, until the late 18th century, a chemise referred to an undergarment. It was the underwear worn until the end of Regency period in the 1820s. In the 1810s, the term also to be applied to an outergarment. Mens chemises may be said to have survived as the common T-shirt, the chemise also morphed into the smock-frock, a garment worn by English laborers until the early 20th century. Its loose cut and wide sleeves were well adapted to heavy labor, the name smock is nowadays still used for military combat jackets in the UK, whereas in the Belgian army the term has been corrupted to smoke-vest. A chemise, shift, or smock was usually sewn at home and it was assembled from rectangles and triangles cut from one piece of cloth so as to leave no waste. The poor would wear skimpy chemises pieced from a piece of rough cloth, while the rich might have voluminous chemises pieced from thin. Camisole Kirtle Shalwar kameez Slip Smock Cut My Cote, by Dorothy Burnham, a survey of shirt patterns over the ages, with diagrams. A Plain Linen Shift, Plain Sewing Makes the Most of Your Fabric, by Kathleen R. Smith, Threads Magazine, how to make an 18th-century chemise Womens smocks in the 13th-15th centuries 18th-century womens shifts
37.
Garibaldi shirt
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A Garibaldi shirt was a womans fashion, a red wool shirt named after the Italian patriot Giuseppe Garibaldi first popularized in 1860. It was the ancestor of the modern womens blouse. Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian folk hero, a nationalist in favor of Italian independence from Austrian domination, during the Expedition of the Thousand campaign in 1860, his volunteer followers were known as Redshirts for their uniforms, and it is these who inspired the fashion. According to a history of the shirt waist written in 1902. Its first mention is in 1860, and clothing historian says of it, The Garibaldi jacket and it was extremely popular during the first half of the 1860s. Versions in white and lighter fabrics also appeared, and children frequently wore it, camicia rossa or red shirt is a type of clothing. The century illustrated monthly magazine, Volume 74 explains that One. relic is none other than a veritable camicia rossa, or red shirt, zouave jacket, another military-inspired fashion of the same era
38.
Embroidery
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Embroidery is the handicraft of decorating fabric or other materials with needle and thread or yarn. Embroidery may also incorporate materials such as, pearls, beads, quills. Today, embroidery is most often seen on caps, hats, coats, blankets, dress shirts, denim, stockings, Embroidery is available with a wide variety of thread or yarn color. The process used to tailor, patch, mend and reinforce cloth fostered the development of sewing techniques, indeed, the remarkable stability of basic embroidery stitches has been noted, It is a striking fact that in the development of embroidery. There are no changes of materials or techniques which can be felt or interpreted as advances from a primitive to a later, on the other hand, we often find in early works a technical accomplishment and high standard of craftsmanship rarely attained in later times. The art of embroidery has been found world-wide and several examples have been found. Works in China have been dated to the Warring States period, depending on time, location and materials available, embroidery could be the domain of a few experts or a wide-spread, popular technique. This flexibility led to a variety of works, from the royal to the mundane, in 18th century England and its colonies, samplers employing fine silks were produced by the daughters of wealthy families. Embroidery was a marking a girls path into womanhood as well as conveying rank. Conversely, embroidery is also an art, using materials that were accessible to nonprofessionals. Examples include Hardanger from Norway, Merezhka from Ukraine, Mountmellick embroidery from Ireland, Nakshi kantha from Bangladesh and West Bengal, many techniques had a practical use such as Sashiko from Japan, which was used as a way to reinforce clothing. Embroidery was an important art in the Medieval Islamic world, the 17th century Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi called it the craft of the two hands. Because embroidery was a sign of social status in Muslim societies. Craftsmen embroidered items with gold and silver thread, Embroidery cottage industries, some employing over 800 people, grew to supply these items. Taste for fine material has become general, and the drapery of embroidered fabrics used at feasts surpasses every description. The development of embroidery and its mass production came about in stages in the Industrial Revolution. The earliest machine embroidery used a combination of machine looms and teams of women embroidering the textiles by hand and this was done in France by the mid-1800s. The manufacture of machine-made embroideries in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland flourished in the half of the 19th century
39.
Trim (sewing)
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Trim or trimming in clothing and home decorating is applied ornament, such as gimp, passementerie, ribbon, ruffles, or, as a verb, to apply such ornament. Before the industrial revolution, all trim was made and applied by hand, thus making heavily trimmed furnishings and garments expensive and high-status. As a predictable reaction, high fashion came to emphasize exquisiteness of cut and construction over denseness of trimming, the iconic braid and gold button trim of the Chanel suit are a notable survival of trim in high fashion. In home decorating, the 1980s and 1990s saw a fashion for dense, elaborately layered trimmings on upholstered furniture, today, most trimmings are commercially manufactured. Scalamandré is known for elaborate trim for home furnishings, and Wrights is a manufacturer of trim for home sewing. Trims are used generally to enhance the beauty of the garments, appropriate use of it creates more value of the product
40.
Giuseppe Garibaldi
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Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian general, politician and nationalist who played a large role in the history of Italy. He is considered, with Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy and Giuseppe Mazzini, Garibaldi personally commanded and fought in many military campaigns that led eventually to the Italian unification. He has been called the Hero of Two Worlds because of his enterprises in Brazil, Uruguay. These earned him a reputation in Italy and abroad, aided by exceptional international media coverage at the time. Many of the greatest intellectuals of his time, such as Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, the United Kingdom and the United States helped him a great deal, offering him financial and military support in difficult circumstances. In the popular telling of his story, he is associated with the red worn by his volunteers in lieu of a uniform. In 1814, the Congress of Vienna returned Nice to Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia, Garibaldis familys involvement in coastal trade drew him to a life at sea. He participated actively in the Niçois community and was certified in 1832 as a merchant navy captain, in April 1833 he travelled to Taganrog, Russia, in the schooner Clorinda with a shipment of oranges. During ten days in port he met Giovanni Battista Cuneo from Oneglia, Mazzini was an impassioned proponent of Italian unification as a liberal republic through political and social reform. Garibaldi joined the society and took an oath dedicating himself to the struggle to liberate, in Geneva during November 1833, Garibaldi met Mazzini, starting a long relationship that later became troublesome. He joined the Carbonari revolutionary association, and in February 1834 participated in a failed Mazzinian insurrection in Piedmont, a Genoese court sentenced him to death in absentia, and he fled across the border to Marseille. Garibaldi first sailed to Tunisia before eventually finding his way to the Empire of Brazil, once there he took up the cause of Republic of Rio Grande do Sul in its attempt to separate from Brazil, joining the rebels known as the Ragamuffins in the Ragamuffin War. During this war he met Ana Ribeiro da Silva, commonly known as Anita, in 1841, Garibaldi and Anita moved to Montevideo, Uruguay, where Garibaldi worked as a trader and schoolmaster. The couple married in Montevideo the following year and they had four children – Menotti, Rosita, Teresita, and Ricciotti. A skilled horsewoman, Anita is said to have taught Giuseppe about the culture of southern Brazil. Around this time, he adopted his trademark clothing, which consisted of the red shirt, poncho, and sombrero commonly worn by the gauchos. In 1842 Garibaldi took command of the Uruguayan fleet and raised an Italian Legion, of known as Redshirts. He aligned his forces with a composed of the Uruguayan Colorados led by Fructuoso Rivera
41.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
42.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
43.
Zouave
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The Zouaves were a class of light infantry regiments of the French Army serving between 1830 and 1962 and linked to French North Africa, as well as some units of other countries modelled upon them. The zouaves, along with the indigenous Tirailleurs Algeriens, were among the most decorated units of the French Army, the regiment was to consist of sixteen hundred Zwawa Berbers, French NCOs and French officers. Twelve years later, zouaves began to be recruited exclusively from Europeans, in the 1860s, new units in several other countries called themselves Zouaves. In the 1870s, former Papal zouaves formed the cadre for a short-lived Spanish zouave unit, the zouave title was also used by Brazilian units of black volunteers in the Paraguayan War, possibly due to a perceived link with Africa. In the United States, zouaves were brought to attention by Elmer E. Ellsworth. Zouave units were raised on both sides of the American Civil War of 1861-5, including a regiment under Ellsworths command. The distinctive uniforms of zouave units tended to include short open-fronted jackets, baggy trousers, sashes, the existence of the new corps was formally recognised by a Royal decree dated 7 March 1833. From their beginning the Zouave units included a French European element, initially drawn from the demobilized Garde royal of Charles X, from March 1833 each zouave battalion was organised into ten companies, of which eight were Muslim Berbers and Arabs and two French. In 1838 a third battalion was raised, and the regiment thus formed was commanded by Major de Lamoriciere, shortly afterwards the formation of the Tirailleurs algériens, the Turcos, as the infantry corps for Muslim troops, changed the basis for enlistment of the Zouave battalions. For most of their history the Zouaves became an essentially French body. Initially serving in battalion sized units, the zouaves were reorganized as separated regiments in 1852, The 1st Zouaves were linked to Algiers, the 1st Zouaves had a continuous existence from 1852 to 1949. They were first formed as the Zouaves of the Imperial Guard in 1854 and they remained in existence under this title until 1962. At the end of the Algerian War six zouave regiments were in existence, of which the 1er was disbanded in 1960, other provisional regiments of zouaves were raised in 1914 and 1939 for the First and Second World Wars respectively. During World War I nine regiments de marche of zouaves were created, comprising active, reserve, in World War II the number reached fourteen. The zouave regiments raised in 1914 for the First World War were the 8th and 9th, the 13th Zouaves were raised in 1919 and dissolved in 1940. The zouave regiments raised in 1939 for the Second World War were the 11th, 12th, 14th, other regiments raised later in the Second World War were the 9th, 22nd, 23rd, and 29th. In addition, four mixed zouave and tirailleur regiments were raised for the First World War, the 9th Zouaves were the last French zouave unit. There was no zouave regiment in existence between 1962-82 and none now survive in the French Army, the Zouaves saw extensive service during the French conquest of Algeria, initially at the Mouzaia Pass action, then at Mitidja and the siege of Constantine
44.
Blouse
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A blouse is a loose-fitting upper garment that was formerly worn by workmen, peasants, artists, women, and children. It is typically gathered at the waist or hips so that it hangs loosely over the wearers body, today, the word most commonly refers to a girls or womans dress shirt but can also refer to a mans shirt if it is a loose-fitting style. Traditionally, the term has been used to refer to a shirt which blouses out or has a feminine appearance. The term is used for some mens military uniform jackets. Blouse is a loanword to English from French, blouse means dust coat and it possibly was brought back from their travels by French Crusaders. They moved on their armor a so-called plusisian shirt, a blue-colored gowns to the dust, the derivation may also be from wool, blouso short wool and blos, blouse deprived, naked taken off. It is first officially noted in 1828, from French blouse, blouses are historically a cask style, mostly mail-like garment, that were rarely part of the fashionable womans wardrobe until the 1890s. Before that time, they were popular for informal wear in styles that echoed peasant or traditional clothing. Blouses usually consist of light such as silk or thin cotton fabrics. Sometimes they are decorated with frills, embroidery or loops, the classic of the ladies blouses is the white shirt blouse. Here the combination possibilities are particularly diverse, the open spade or reverse collar is another common type of classic ladies blouse. At the end of the 19th century the sailor blouses derived from sailor suits were popular for girls to the pleated skirt. In the time of National Socialism this piece of clothing was rejected as a bourgeois-decadent, in the 1950s, the sailors look then entered the leisure mode for adults. The high collar in blouses was pushed out during time by the halsferne variant. Specialist shops also offered ladies cloaks, the KdW in Berlin applied in his illustrated main catalog,1913 among other things a backfisch-confection, with eight blouses between 2.75 and 9.50 Marks. The simplest model was a blouse, navy, white spotted. A simple blouse with a plain skirt was the dress for the newly expanded female workforce of the 1890s. In the 1900s and 1910s, elaborate blouses, such as the lingerie blouse, since then, blouses have remained a wardrobe staple, so by now blouses have not ceased to be fixed in the popular cloakroom style
45.
Belt (clothing)
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A belt is a flexible band or strap, typically made of leather or heavy cloth, and worn around the waist. A belt supports trousers or other articles of clothing and it is an item of accessory. Belts have been documented as male clothing since the Bronze Age, both genders have used them off and on, depending on the current fashion. In the western world, belts have been common for men, with the exception of the early Middle Ages, late 17th century Mantua. Art Nouveau belt buckles are now collectors items, in the latter half of the 19th century and until the First World War, the belt was a decorative as well as utilitarian part of military uniform, particularly among officers. These tightly cinched belts served to draw in the waist and give the wearer a trim physique, emphasizing wide shoulders, in modern times, men started wearing belts in the 1920s, as trouser waists fell to a lower line. Before the 1920s, belts served mostly a decorative purpose, and were associated with the military, moreover, prior to that trousers did not even have belt loops. As sportswear, trousers with belt loops were already present in the 19th century, today it is common for men to wear a belt with their trousers. In some countries, especially the United States, a belt can be associated with corporal punishment. Moreover, belts are convenient disciplinary tools, as they are immediately available for use. The belt can symbolize fatherly authority and paternal responsibility for childrens behavior. Since the mid-1990s, the practice of sagging has been practised at times among young men and this practice is sometimes incorrectly believed to have originated with prison gangs and the prohibition of belts in prison. One specialized type of belt is the utility belt or Police duty belt, Police officers, soldiers, and repair personnel are typical roles which use this kind of belt. Duty belts are generally wider than dress belts, and are stiffer to provide for the carry of heavy items such as pistols. It is common practice for such a belt to be a symbol of authority or to indicate that the wearer is on duty. Such belts are worn even if no equipment is carried on them, a notable fictional example is Batmans utility belt. The obi is traditionally part of a Japanese kimono, a common sight in fantasy and role playing characters is the excessive use of belts in all different sizes on the characters person. Usually they are used for securing clothing or armor, but others just have several belts around the arms, legs, neck, waist, hips, sometimes they are used in place of eye patches or to decorate weapons
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Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
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Charles Frederick Worth
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Charles Frederick Worth was an English fashion designer who founded the House of Worth, one of the foremost fashion houses of the 19th and early 20th centuries. He is considered by many historians to be the father of haute couture. Worth is also credited with revolutionising the business of fashion, established in Paris in 1858, his fashion salon soon attracted European royalty, and where they led monied society followed. An innovative designer, he adapted 19th-century dress to make it suited to everyday life. By the end of his career, his house employed 1,200 people. The Metropolitan Museum of Art has said that his aggressive self-promotion earned him the title of the first couturier, certainly, by the 1870s, his name was not just known in court circles, but appeared in womens magazines that were read by wide society. Worth raised the status of dressmaking so that the designer-maker also became arbiter of what women should be wearing. Writing on the history of fashion and, in particular, dandyism, in 2002, George Walden said, Charles Frederick Worth dictated fashion in France a century, Charles Frederick Worth was born on 13 October 1825 in the Lincolnshire market town of Bourne to William and Ann Worth. Some sources say he was their fifth and final child, others say he was the familys third child. Charles’ father was a solicitor – described as dissolute – and left his family in 1836 after ruining its finances, leaving his mother impoverished, at the age of 11, Charles was sent to work in a printers shop. After a year, he moved to London to become an apprentice at the department store of Swan & Edgar in Piccadilly, seven years later, Lewis & Allenby, another leading British textiles store, employed Worth. In 1846, Charles Frederick Worth moved to Paris and he arrived there speaking no French and with £5 in his pocket. It was here that he met Marie Vernet, who became his wife in 1851, Worth began sewing dresses to complement the shawls at Gagelin. Initially, these were designs, but his expert tailoring caught the eye of the stores clients. Eventually, Gagelin granted Worth permission to open a dress department, at the Paris exposition he had displayed a white silk court train embroidered in gold. With a wife and two sons, Gaston Lucien and Jean Philippe, Worth was eager to establish himself, by this stage, he was a known name. He acquired a young Swedish business partner, Otto Gustaf Bobergh, Marie Vernet Worth played a key role from the start, both in the selling of the clothes and in introducing many new customers. In her memoirs, de Metternich commented, And so. Worth was made and I was lost, Worth offered a new approach to the creation of couture dresses, offering a plethora of fabrics and expertise in tailoring
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