1.
1851 in science
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The year 1851 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. February – First public exhibition of a Foucault pendulum, at the Meridian of the Paris Observatory, a few weeks later Foucault installs one at the Panthéon. July 28 – Solar eclipse of July 28,1851, Total solar eclipse, the first correctly exposed photograph, a daguerrotype, of the solar corona is made during the total phase of the eclipse by Berkowski at Koenigsberg Observatory in Prussia. October 24 – Ariel and Umbriel, moons of Uranus, are discovered by William Lassell, the William Brydone Jack Observatory is completed at Fredericton, New Brunswick. March – English sculptor Frederick Scott Archer makes public the wet collodion photographic process. George Wilson publishes The Life of the Hon. Henry Cavendish, bernhard Riemann provides a proof of Greens theorem in his inaugural dissertation. The Royal Marsden is established as the Free Cancer Hospital by surgeon William Marsden in London, hippolyte Fizeau carries out the Fizeau experiment to measure the relative speeds of light in moving water. November 13 – First protected submarine telegraph cable laid, across the English Channel, William Armstrong introduces the weight-loaded hydraulic accumulator. Copley Medal, Richard Owen Wollaston Medal for geology, Adam Sedgwick January 19 – Jacobus Kapteyn, march 16 – Martinus Beijerinck, Dutch microbiologist and botanist. April 12 – E. Walter Maunder, astronomer, July 8 – Arthur Evans, archaeologist. July 20 – Arnold Pick, neurologist, august 3 – George FitzGerald, mathematician. January 27 – John James Audubon, naturalist and illustrator, february 18 – Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi, mathematician. March 9 – Hans Christian Ørsted, physicist, July 6 – Thomas Davenport, electrical engineer. July 17 – John Farey, mechanical engineer and technical writer, september 2 – William Nicol, geologist
2.
1852 in science
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The year 1852 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. September 24 – French engineer Henri Giffard makes the first airship trip, last recognised sighting of a great auk, on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. August Beer proposes Beers law, which explains the relationship between the composition of a mixture and the amount of light it will absorb, based partly on earlier work by Pierre Bouguer and Johann Heinrich Lambert, it establishes the analytical technique known as spectrophotometry. October 23 – Francis Guthrie poses the four colour problem to Augustus De Morgan, january 15 – Nine representatives of Hebrew charitable organizations come together to form what will become the Mount Sinai Hospital, New York. February 15 – The Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children, London, march 2 – The first American experimental steam fire engine is tested. The mechanical semaphore line in France is superseded by the electric telegraph, captain E. M. Boxer of the Royal Arsenal devizes an improvement to the shrapnel shell by insertion of an iron diaphragm, preventing premature ignition. Copley Medal, Alexander von Humboldt Wollaston Medal for Geology, William Henry Fitton April 10 – Arthur Vierendeel, may 1 – Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Spanish neuroscientist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. August 4 – Catharine van Tussenbroek, Dutch physician, august 30 – Jacobus van t Hoff, Dutch chemist. September 9 – John Henry Poynting, English physicist, discoverer of the Poynting–Robertson effect, september 28 – Isis Pogson, English astronomer and meteorologist. October 2 – William Ramsay, Scottish winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, october 9 – Hermann Emil Fischer, German winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. December 15 – Henri Becquerel, French physicist, january 6 – Louis Braille, French inventor. August 15 – Johan Gadolin, Finnish chemist, september 8 – Anna Maria Walker, Scottish botanist. November 10 – Gideon Mantell, English paleontologist, november 27 – Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace, English computing pioneer
3.
1854 in science
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The year 1854 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. July 22 – Discovery of the asteroid 30 Urania by John Russell Hind, George Airy calculates the mean density of the Earth by measuring the gravity in a coal mine in South Shields. Benjamin Silliman of Yale University is the first person to fractionate petroleum into its components by distillation. George Booles work on logic, An Investigation of the Laws of Thought on Which are Founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities. Arthur Cayley states the version of Cayleys theorem and produces the first Cayley table. Bernhard Riemann, a German mathematician, submits his habilitation thesis Ueber die Darstellbarkeit einer Function durch eine trigonometrische Reihe and it is published by Richard Dedekind in 1867. November – Florence Nightingale and her team of trained volunteer nurses arrive at Selimiye Barracks in Scutari in the Ottoman Empire to care for British Army troops invalided from the Crimean War, spanish-born vocal pedagogist Manuel García observes his own functioning glottis using a form of laryngoscope incorporating mirrors. Claude Bernard introduces the term Milieu intérieur in physiology, filippo Pacini, an Italian anatomist, discovers Vibrio cholerae, the bacterium that causes cholera. Louis Pasteur begins studying fermentation at the request of brewers, may 9 – Albert Fink patents the Fink truss in the United States. May 17 – Deck of Wheeling Suspension Bridge in the United States destroyed through torsional movement, July – First voyage by a seagoing steamship fitted with a compound steam engine, the screw steamer Brandon, built on the River Clyde in Scotland by John Elder. December 20 – In the case of Talbot v. Laroche, james Ambrose Cutting takes out three United States patents for improvements to the wet plate collodion process. Elisha Otis completes work on the safety elevator,10 June – The Crystal Palace reopens in Sydenham, South London with life-size dinosaur models in the grounds. Copley Medal, Johannes Peter Müller Wollaston Medal for Geology, Richard John Griffith January 27 – George Alexander Gibson, Scottish physician, January 29 – Fred Baker, American physician and naturalist. March 4 – Napier Shaw, English meteorologist, march 15 – Emil Adolf von Behring, German physiologist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1901. March 31 – Dugald Clerk, Scottish mechanical engineer, april 28 – Phoebe Marks, later Hertha Ayrton, English electrical engineer. April 29 – Henri Poincaré, French mathematician, may 11 – Ottmar Mergenthaler, German-born inventor. June 13 – Charles Algernon Parsons, British inventor of the steam turbine, July 12 – George Eastman, American photographic inventor. July 23 – Birt Acres, American-born cinematographic inventor, october 3 – Hermann Struve, Russian-born astronomer
4.
1858 in science
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The year 1858 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. In Luxor, Egypt, the Rhind papyrus is found, it is called the Ahmes papyrus for the scribe who wrote it around 1650 BC. Donatis Comet, the first comet to be photographed, is discovered by Giovanni Battista Donati on 2 June, william Herschel initiates fingerprinting as a means of identification, in Bengal. George Benthams Handbook of the British flora is published and this will be in use for a century. Publication of Darwins theory, June 18 – Charles Darwin receives papers from Alfred Russel Wallace setting out the theory of natural selection which he forwards to Charles Lyell. They are first published on August 20, february 13 – Richard Francis Burton and John Hanning Speke become the first Europeans to discover Lake Tanganyika. August 3 – John Hanning Speke discovers Lake Victoria, source of the River Nile, the Möbius strip is discovered independently by German mathematicians August Ferdinand Möbius and Johann Benedict Listing. Arthur Cayley publishes A memoir on the theory of matrices, introducing the concept of the matrix in mathematics. August 2 – Medical Act 1858 passed to Regulate the Qualifications of Practitioners in Medicine, publication in London of Thomas B. Peacocks On Malformations, &c. of the Human Heart, with cases which becomes a standard cardiology textbook. French pediatrician Eugène Bouchut develops a new technique for non-surgical orotracheal intubation to bypass laryngeal obstruction resulting from a diphtheria-related pseudomembrane, first treatise on postpartum psychiatric disturbances, by Louis-Victor Marcé, MD. January 31 – I. K. Brunels SS Great Eastern, August – The first aerial photography is carried out by Nadar from a moored balloon in France using the collodion process. Hoffmann kiln patented in Germany by Friedrich Hoffmann for continuous production brickmaking, copley Medal, Charles Lyell Wollaston Medal for geology, James Hall January 28 – Eugène Dubois, Dutch paleoanthropologist. February 7 – Herman Frederik Carel ten Kate, Dutch anthropologist, march 18 – Rudolf Diesel, German mechanical engineer. April 23 – Max Planck, German theoretical physicist, may 19 – Thomas Allinson, English physician and dietetic reformer. August 11 – Christiaan Eijkman, Dutch physiologist, August 19 – Ellen Willmott, English horticulturist. August 27 – Giuseppe Peano, Italian mathematician, october 4 – Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin, Banat-born physicist. November 1 – Ludwig Struve, Russian astronomer, november 30 – Jagadish Chandra Bose, Bengali physicist
5.
1859 in science
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The year 1859 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. This is also called the Carrington event, Richard Carrington being the first known person to observe solar flares and it is also the first major solar radiation storm to be recorded. Marian Albertovich Kowalski publishes the first usable method to deduce the rotation of the Milky Way, English clergyman Thomas William Webb publishes the first edition of his popular amateur guide Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes. November 3 – Alfred Russel Wallaces paper On the Zoological geography of the Malay Archipelago, november 24 – Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species. December – Joseph Dalton Hookers Introductory Essay to the Flora Tasmaniae supports Darwins theories, isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, in the second volume of Histoire naturelle générale des Règnes organiques, introduces the term ethology. Wilhelm Peters first describes the guppy from Venezuela, rudolf Virchow publishes Vorlesungen über Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologischer und pathologischer Gewebelehre, a major textbook on cellular pathology. Benjamin Collins Brodie reports the highly lamellar structure of thermally reduced graphite oxide, august von Hofmann isolates sorbic acid. Gustav Robert Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen invent an improved spectroscope, John Tyndall discovers that some gases block infrared radiation. He suggests that changes in the concentration of gases could bring climate change. The Royal Geographical Society of London is granted a Royal Charter by Queen Victoria, arthur Cayley produces the first Cayley–Klein metric. Bernhard Riemann publishes his paper on number theory, Ueber die Anzahl der Primzahlen unter einer gegebenen Grösse including the Riemann zeta function, florence Nightingale publishes Notes on Nursing, What it is and What it is Not in London. District nursing begins in Liverpool, England, when philanthropist William Rathbone employs Mary Robinson to nurse the sick poor in their own homes, may 2 – Isambard Kingdom Brunels Royal Albert Bridge for the Cornwall Railway at Saltash in England is officially opened. November 24 – French ironclad Gloire launched, the first ocean-going ironclad battleship, Thomas Aveling of Rochester, Kent, England, produces the first traction engine, by modification of an existing machine. Étienne Lenoir, working in Paris, produces the first single-cylinder two-stroke Lenoir cycle gas engine with an ignition system. January 19 – Alice Eastwood, Canadian-born botanist, february 14 George Washington Gale Ferris Jr. American civil engineer, inventor of the Ferris wheel, henry Valentine Knaggs, English practitioner of naturopathic medicine. February 19 – Svante Arrhenius, Swedish winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, february 28 – Florian Cajori, Swiss historian of mathematics. March 4 – Alexander Stepanovich Popov, Russian physicist, march 10 – Frank Leverett, American glaciologist
6.
1860 in science
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The year 1860 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. July 18 – Total solar eclipse, june 30 – Debate about evolution at the new Oxford University Museum of Natural History. John Curtis publishes Farm Insects, being the history and economy of the insects injurious to the field crops of Great Britain. With suggestions for their destruction in Glasgow, joseph Dalton Hooker concludes publication of The Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of H. M. 1839–1843 with issue of the part of Flora Tasmaniae in London. September 3–5 – Karlsruhe Congress, the first international meeting of chemists, marcellin Berthelot rediscovers and names acetylene. Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff, using their newly improved spectroscope, discover and name caesium in mineral water from Bad Dürkheim, albert Niemann makes a detailed analysis of the coca leaf, isolating and purifying the crystalline alkaloid which he calls cocaine. Carl Wilhelm Borchardt first discovers and proves Cayleys formula in graph theory, july 9 – The Nightingale Training School and Home for Nurses, the first nursing school based on the ideas of Florence Nightingale, is opened at St Thomas Hospital in London. Gustav Fechner publishes Elemente der Psychophysik, establishing the discipline of psychophysics, april 9 – Earliest known decipherable sound recording of the human voice, a phonautogram, produced by Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville. Playback is impossible at this time, wollaston Medal for geology, Searles Valentine Wood. February 29 – Herman Hollerith, American statistician, punched card data processing inventor, may 2 John Scott Haldane, Scottish physiologist. May 25 – James McKeen Cattell, American psychologist, january 27 – János Bolyai, mathematician. January 27 – Thomas Brisbane, astronomer, june 29 – Thomas Addison, physician and scientist. July 1 – Charles Goodyear, inventor of the vulcanization process
7.
1867 in science
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The year 1867 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below. April – First clear recorded use of the science in English with todays usage as restricted to the natural and physical sciences. Gorse naturalises in New Zealand and soon becomes the worst invasive weed, swiss botanist Simon Schwendener proposes his dual theory of lichens. Rosa La France, the first hybrid tea rose, is cultivated by Jean-Baptiste Guillot, the Big Trees Ranch at Felton, California, is bought by San Francisco businessman Joseph Warren Welch to preserve the giant redwoods from logging. Publication of the first volume of Das Kapital by Karl Marx, at Fountain Point, Michigan, an artesian water spring begins to gush continuously. Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel established in the United States under the directorship of Clarence King, English mathematician Rev. William Allen Whitworth publishes the first edition of his Choice and Chance, An Elementary Treatise on Permutations, Combinations, and Probability. March 16 – First publication of an article by Joseph Lister outlining the discovery of antiseptic surgery, july 17 – In Boston, Massachusetts, the Harvard School of Dental Medicine is established as the first dental school in the United States. Yellow fever kills 3093 in New Orleans, henry Maudsley publishes The Physiology and Pathology of Mind. It will be renamed after its designer, John A. Roebling, february 17 – The first ship passes through the Suez Canal. July 2 – First elevated railroad in the United States begins service in New York, december 14 – Spanish inventor Narcís Monturiol submerges his submarine Ictineo II at Barcelona, demonstrating its chemically-fired anaerobic steam propulsion system. Pierre Michaux invents the front wheel-driven velocipede, the first mass-produced bicycle, copley Medal, Karl Ernst von Baer Wollaston Medal, George Poulett Scrope January 11 – Edward B. January 22 – Gisela Januszewska, Moravian-born public health physician, april 16 – Wilbur Wright, American pioneer aviator. June 11 – Charles Fabry, French optical physicist, october 21 – Aldred Scott Warthin, American cancer geneticist. November 7 – Maria Skłodowska, later Marie Curie, Polish-born physicist, november 26 – Emil von Dungern, German serologist. December 1 – Ignacy Mościcki, chemist and President of Poland, december 26 – John Bradfield, Australian civil engineer. January 16 – William Marsden, English surgeon, february 9 – Filippo de Filippi, Italian zoologist. March 27 – Prideaux John Selby, English ornithologist, may 29 – Margaretta Morris, American entomologist. August 25 – Michael Faraday, English chemist and physicist
8.
1869 in science
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The year 1869 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. November 4 – The first issue of scientific journal Nature is published in London, march 6 – Dmitri Mendeleev makes a formal presentation of his periodic table to the Russian Chemical Society. June 15 – John Wesley Hyatt patents celluloid, in Albany, hippolyte Mège-Mouriès patents margarine in France as a beef tallow and skimmed milk substitute for butter. Publication of Adolphe Wurtzs Dictionnaire de chimie pure et appliquée begins in Paris, april 6 – The American Museum of Natural History is founded in New York. Paul Langerhans discovers the pancreatic islets, friedrich Miescher discovers deoxyribonucleic acid in the pus of discarded surgical bandages. Found in the nuclei of cells, Miescher names it nuclein, alfred Russel Wallace publishes The Malay Archipelago. W. Stanley Jevons publishes The Substitution of Similars and has a Logic Piano constructed to work out problems in symbolic logic. Copley Medal, Henri Victor Regnault Wollaston Medal for Geology, Henry Clifton Sorby February 14 – C. T. R. Wilson, april 8 – Harvey Cushing, American neurosurgeon. July 18 – Maria von Linden, German bacteriologist and zoologist, august 23 – Robert Gunther, English historian of science. October 3 – Robert W. Paul, English pioneer of cinematography, december 16 – Bertha Lamme, American electrical engineer. Helen Boyle, British physician and psychologist, july 22 – John A. Roebling, German American bridge engineer. September 11 – Thomas Graham, Scottish chemist
9.
1861 in art
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Events from the year 1861 in art. February – Hilda Sjölin opens a studio in Malmö, making her one of the first known Swedish female professional photographers. Paul Cézanne and his friend Émile Zola arrive in Paris, berthe Morisot becomes a pupil of Corot. Édouard Manet has his first paintings accepted by the Salon, william Bell Scott concludes his series of murals of Northumbrian history at Wallington Hall with Iron and Coal, the Nineteenth Century
10.
1861 in architecture
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The year 1861 in architecture involved some significant architectural event and new buildings. Arlington Street Church in Boston, Massachusetts, United States, designed by Arthur Gilman, st James the Less, Pimlico, London, designed by George Edmund Street. St. Michaels Church, Berlin, designed by August Soller in 1845 and completed by Richard Lucae, Andreas Simons, tromsø Cathedral, Norway, designed by Christian Heinrich Grosch. Palácio do Grão-Pará, Petrópolis, Brazil, designed by Theodore Marx with de Araújo Porto Alegre, mary Birdsall House in Richmond, Indiana. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Constant Moyaux
11.
Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
12.
Technology
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Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, the human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The steady progress of technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power. It has helped develop more advanced economies and has allowed the rise of a leisure class, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earths environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and raise new questions of the ethics of technology, examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics. Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the condition or worsens it. The use of the technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, the term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution, the terms meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into technology. In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which translates both terms as technology. By the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of the industrial arts, dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another definition of the concept, it is practice, the way we do things around here. The term is used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,1, defines technology in two ways, as the pursuit of life by other than life, and as organized inorganic matter. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems and it is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material, virtual technology, such as software and business methods. W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a broad way as a means to fulfill a human purpose
13.
Comet
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A comet is an icy small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to evolve gasses, a process called outgassing. This produces an atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail. These phenomena are due to the effects of radiation and the solar wind acting upon the nucleus of the comet. Comet nuclei range from a few hundred metres to tens of kilometres across and are composed of collections of ice, dust. The coma may be up to 15 times the Earths diameter, if sufficiently bright, a comet may be seen from the Earth without the aid of a telescope and may subtend an arc of 30° across the sky. Comets have been observed and recorded since ancient times by many cultures, Comets usually have highly eccentric elliptical orbits, and they have a wide range of orbital periods, ranging from several years to potentially several millions of years. Short-period comets originate in the Kuiper belt or its associated scattered disc, long-period comets are thought to originate in the Oort cloud, a spherical cloud of icy bodies extending from outside the Kuiper belt to halfway to the nearest star. Long-period comets are set in motion towards the Sun from the Oort cloud by gravitational perturbations caused by passing stars, hyperbolic comets may pass once through the inner Solar System before being flung to interstellar space. The appearance of a comet is called an apparition, Comets are distinguished from asteroids by the presence of an extended, gravitationally unbound atmosphere surrounding their central nucleus. This atmosphere has parts termed the coma and the tail, however, extinct comets that have passed close to the Sun many times have lost nearly all of their volatile ices and dust and may come to resemble small asteroids. Asteroids are thought to have a different origin from comets, having formed inside the orbit of Jupiter rather than in the outer Solar System, the discovery of main-belt comets and active centaur minor planets has blurred the distinction between asteroids and comets. As of November 2014 there are 5,253 known comets, however, this represents only a tiny fraction of the total potential comet population, as the reservoir of comet-like bodies in the outer Solar System is estimated to be one trillion. Roughly one comet per year is visible to the eye, though many of those are faint. Particularly bright examples are called Great Comets, the word comet derives from the Old English cometa from the Latin comēta or comētēs. That, in turn, is a latinisation of the Greek κομήτης, Κομήτης was derived from κομᾶν, which was itself derived from κόμη and was used to mean the tail of a comet. The astronomical symbol for comets is ☄, consisting of a disc with three hairlike extensions. The solid, core structure of a comet is known as the nucleus, cometary nuclei are composed of an amalgamation of rock, dust, water ice, and frozen gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, and ammonia. As such, they are described as dirty snowballs after Fred Whipples model
14.
C/1861 J1
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The Great Comet of 1861 formally designated C/1861 J1 and 1861 II, is a long-period comet that was visible to the naked eye for approximately 3 months. It was categorized as a Great Comet, one of the eight greatest comets of the 19th century and it was discovered by John Tebbutt of Windsor, New South Wales, Australia, on May 13,1861, with an apparent magnitude of +4, a month before perihelion. It was not visible in the northern hemisphere until June 29, on June 29,1861, comet C/1861 J1 passed 11.5 degrees from the Sun. On the following day, June 30,1861, the comet made its closest approach to the Earth at a distance of 0.1326 AU, during the Earth close approach the comet was estimated to be between magnitude 0 and −2 with a tail of over 90 degrees. As a result of forward scattering C/1861 J1 even cast shadows at night. During the night of 1861 June 30 – July 1, the famed comet observer J. F. Julius Schmidt watched in awe as the great comet C/1861 J1 cast shadows on the walls of the Athens Observatory. The comet may have interacted with the Earth in an almost unprecedented way, for two days, when the comet was at its closest, the Earth was actually within the comets tail, and streams of cometary material converging towards the distant nucleus could be seen. By the middle of August the comet was no longer visible to the naked eye, an elliptical orbit with a period of about 400 years was calculated, which would indicate a previous appearance about the middle of the 15th century, and a return in the 23rd century. Hasegawa and S. Nakano suggest that this comet is identical with C/1500 H1 that came to perihelion on 1500 April 20, by 1992 this Great Comet had traveled more than 100 AU from the Sun, making it even farther away than dwarf planet Eris. It will come to aphelion around 2063 and it is possible that C/1861 G1 and this comet are related, and that in a previous perihelion and that C/1861 G1 broke off of this comet, as the two comets have many similar orbital characteristics. In his Astronomical Memoirs Tebbutt gave an account of his discovery, the entry reads as follows, Saw a huge comet last night in the northwest. Its tail reached half across the heavens and it has probably been visible for sometime, but as it has been cloudy lately I had not observed it before. June 30 July 1 July 5,1861, I awoke in the night at 1 o’clock, when I had a glorious sight of the largest comet I ever beheld. It was a most wonderful sight, james Riley Robinson, on the schooner Conchita, in the Mexican harbor of Agiabampo. C/1861 J1 on Cometography. com The Comet of 1861, Gallery of Natural Phenomena JPL DASTCOM Comet Orbital Elements Orbital simulation from JPL / Ephemeris
15.
Great comet
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A great comet is a comet that becomes exceptionally bright. Great comets are rare, on average, only one will appear in a decade, although comets are officially named after their discoverers, great comets are sometimes also referred to by the year in which they appeared great, using the formulation The Great Comet of. The vast majority of comets are never enough to be seen by the naked eye. However, occasionally a comet may brighten to naked eye visibility, the requirements for this to occur are, a large and active nucleus, a close approach to the Sun, and a close approach to the Earth. A comet fulfilling all three of these criteria will certainly be spectacular, sometimes, a comet failing on one criterion will still be extremely impressive. For example, Comet Hale–Bopp had a large and active nucleus. Equally, Comet Hyakutake was a small comet, but appeared bright because it passed extremely close to the Earth. Cometary nuclei vary in size from a few hundreds of metres across or less to many kilometres across, when they approach the Sun, large amounts of gas and dust are ejected by cometary nuclei, due to solar heating. A crucial factor in how bright a comet becomes is how large, the sudden brightening of comet 17P/Holmes in 2007 showed the importance of the activity of the nucleus in the comets brightness. On October 23–24,2007, the comet suffered a sudden outburst which caused it to brighten by factor of about half a million. It unexpectedly brightened from an apparent magnitude of about 17 to about 2.8 in a period of only 42 hours, all these temporarily made comet 17P the largest object in the Solar System although its nucleus is estimated to be only about 3.4 km in diameter. The brightness of a simple reflective body varies with the square of its distance from the Sun. That is, if a distance from the Sun is halved. However, comets behave differently, due to their ejection of large amounts of gas which then also reflect sunlight. Their brightness varies roughly as the cube of their distance from the Sun, meaning that if a comets distance from the Sun is halved. This means that the brightness of a comet depends significantly on its distance from the Sun. For most comets, the perihelion of their orbit lies outside the Earths orbit, any comet approaching the Sun to within 0.5 AU or less may have a chance of becoming a great comet. For a comet to become spectacular, it needs to pass close to the Earth
16.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
17.
John Tebbutt
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John Tebbutt was an Australian astronomer, famous for discovering the Great Comet of 1861. Tebbutt was born at Windsor, New South Wales, the son of John Tebbutt. His grandfather, John Tebbutt, was one of the settlers in Australia. In 1845 Tebbutts father purchased a tract of land at the end of the town of Windsor known as the peninsula. In 1853 John Tebutt purchased a sextant and using this along with a marine telescope. About nine years later, on 13 May 1861, Tebbutt discovered the 1861 comet, there was no means then of telegraphing the intelligence to England where it became visible on 29 June. Tebbutt was acknowledged as the first discoverer of this comet, and he continued the publication of these records at intervals for more than 30 years. He contributed to scientific journals, and made an immense number of contributions to the Australian press. He published in 1887 History and description of Mr. Tebbutts observatory, Windsor, New South Wales, a branch of the British Astronomical Association was established at Sydney in 1895 and Tebbutt was elected its first president. He died at Windsor on 29 November 1916, the year after his death his son delivered John Tebbutt’s working library and manuscripts to the State Library of New South Wales. The John Tebbutt Memorial Collection is made up of 3,676 printed volumes,117 volumes of manuscripts and 235 pamphlets and he was commemorated on the reverse side of the Australian one hundred-dollar note
18.
Heinrich Anton de Bary
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Heinrich Anton de Bary was a German surgeon, botanist, microbiologist, and mycologist. He is considered a father of plant pathology as well as the founder of modern mycology. His extensive and careful studies of the history of fungi and contribution to the understanding of algae. Born in Frankfurt, Anton de Bary was one of ten born to physician August Theodor de Bary. His father encouraged him to join the excursions of the group of naturalists who collected specimens in the nearby countryside. De Bary’s youthful interest in plants and in examination of fungi and algae were inspired by George Fresenius, a physician, Fresenius was an expert on thallophytes. In 1848, de Bary graduated from the Gymnasium at Frankfurt, in 1850, he went to Berlin to continue pursuing his study of medicine, and also continued to explore and develop his interest in plant science. He received his degree in medicine at Berlin in 1853, but his title was De plantarum generatione sexuali. The same year, he published a book on the fungi that caused rusts and smuts in plants, after the graduation, de Bary practiced medicine in Frankfurt, but only for a very short period of time. He was drawn back to botany and became Privatdozent in botany at the University of Tübingen, in 1855, he succeeded the position of the well-known botanist Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli at Freiburg, where he established the most advanced botanical laboratory at the time and directed many students. De Bary married Antonie Einert in 1861, they raised four children, De Bary became its coeditor and later sole editor. As an editor of and contributor to the journal, he exercised great influence upon the development of botany and he conducted much research in the university botanical institute, attracted many students from Europe and America, and made a large contribution to the development of botany. De Bary was devoted to the study of the history of fungi. At that time, various fungi were still considered to arise through spontaneous generation and he proved that pathogeng In de Bary’s time, potato late blight had caused sweeping crop devastation and economic loss. He studied the pathogen Phytophthora infestans and elucidated its life cycle, the origin of plant diseases was not known at that time. He concluded that Uredinales and Ustilaginales were parasites, De Bary studied the developmental history of Myxomycetes, and thought it was necessary to reclassify the lower animals. He first coined the term Mycetozoa to include animals and slime molds. In his work on Myxomycetes, he pointed out that at one stage of their cycle, they were little more than formless
19.
Fungus
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A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants, a characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria and some protists, is chitin in their cell walls. Similar to animals, fungi are heterotrophs, they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, growth is their means of mobility, except for spores, which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems and this fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes and oomycetes. The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology, in the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants. Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the size of their structures. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and they may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform a role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, the fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans, losses of crops due to fungal diseases or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies. The fungus kingdom encompasses a diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies. However, little is known of the biodiversity of Kingdom Fungi. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, phylogenetic studies published in the last decade have helped reshape the classification within Kingdom Fungi, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla. The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus, used in the writings of Horace, a group of all the fungi present in a particular area or geographic region is known as mycobiota, e. g. the mycobiota of Ireland. Like plants, fungi grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies. The fungi are now considered a kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago. Fungi have membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria, sterol-containing membranes and they have a characteristic range of soluble carbohydrates and storage compounds, including sugar alcohols, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
20.
Peronospora
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Peronospora is a genus of plant pathogens, belonging to the class of water moulds. Water moulds are not true fungi since they belong to the kingdom of chromalveolates, there are about 75 species in the genus, mostly specific to genera or families of herbaceous dicotyledonous plants. One of the best known Peronospora species has now shown to be a species complex in the genus Hyaloperonospora. The most important plant pathogen in this complex, on Brassica, is now known as Hyaloperonospora brassicae. sp
21.
William Crookes
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Sir William Crookes OM PRS was an English chemist and physicist who attended the Royal College of Chemistry in London, and worked on spectroscopy. He was a pioneer of vacuum tubes, inventing the Crookes tube which was made in 1875, Crookes was the inventor of the Crookes radiometer, which today is made and sold as a novelty item. Late in life, he interested in spiritualism, and became the president of the Society for Psychical Research. Crookes made a career of being a meteorologist and fierce lecture giver at multiple studies and courses, Crookes worked in chemistry and physics. His experiments were notable for the originality of their design and his interests, ranging over pure and applied science, economic and practical problems, and psychiatric research, made him a well-known personality. He received many public and academic honors, Crookess life was one of unbroken scientific activity. William Crookes was born in London, the eldest of 16 siblings and his father, Joseph Crookes, was a tailor of north-country origin, at that time living with his second wife, Mary Scott Lewis Rutherford Johnson. From 1850 to 1854 he filled the position of assistant in the college and it wasnt in organic chemistry which the focus of his teacher, August Wilhelm von Hofmann, might have been expected to lead him towards, but into new compounds of selenium. These were the subject of his first published papers,1851, in 1855 he was appointed lecturer in chemistry at the Chester Diocesan Training College. In 1856 he married Ellen, daughter of William Humphrey of Darlington and they had three sons and a daughter. Married and living in London, he was devoted mainly to independent work, in 1859, he founded the Chemical News, a science magazine which he edited for many years and conducted on much less formal lines than was usual for the journals of scientific societies. In 1861, Crookes discovered an unknown element with a bright green emission line in its spectrum and named the element thallium, from the Greek thallos. Crookes wrote a treatise on Select Methods in Chemical Analysis in 1871. The method of analysis, introduced by Bunsen and Kirchhoff, was received by Crookes with great enthusiasm. His first important discovery was that of the element thallium, announced in 1861, by this work his reputation became firmly established, and he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1863. He developed the Crookes tubes, investigating cathode rays and he published numerous papers on spectroscopy and conducted research on a variety of minor subjects. In his investigations of the conduction of electricity in low pressure gases, he discovered that as the pressure was lowered, as these examples indicate, he was a pioneer in the construction and use of vacuum tubes for the study of physical phenomena. He was, as a consequence, one of the first scientists to investigate what is now called a plasma and he also devised one of the first instruments for studying nuclear radioactivity, the spinthariscope
22.
Thallium
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Thallium is a chemical element with symbol Tl and atomic number 81. This soft gray post-transition metal is not found free in nature, when isolated, thallium resembles tin, but discolors when exposed to air. Chemists William Crookes and Claude-Auguste Lamy discovered thallium independently in 1861, both used the newly developed method of flame spectroscopy, in which thallium produces a notable green spectral line. Thallium, from Greek θαλλός, thallos, meaning a green shoot or twig, was named by Crookes and it was isolated by both Lamy and Crookes in 1862, Lamy by electrolysis and Crookes by precipitation and melting of the resultant powder. Crookes exhibited it as a powder precipitated by zinc at the International exhibition which opened on 1 May, Thallium tends to oxidize to the +3 and +1 oxidation states as ionic salts. The +3 state resembles that of the elements in group 13. Commercially, however, thallium is produced not from potassium ores, approximately 60–70% of thallium production is used in the electronics industry, and the remainder is used in the pharmaceutical industry and in glass manufacturing. It is also used in infrared detectors, the radioisotope thallium-201 is used in small, nontoxic amounts as an agent in a nuclear medicine scan, during one type of nuclear cardiac stress test. Soluble thallium salts are toxic, and they were used in rat poisons. Use of these compounds has been restricted or banned in many countries, notably, thallium poisoning results in hair loss. Because of its popularity as a murder weapon, thallium has gained notoriety as the poisoners poison. A thallium atom has 81 electrons, arranged in the electron configuration 4f145d106s26p1, of these, however, due to the inert pair effect, the 6s electron pair is relativistically stabilised and it is more difficult to get them involved in chemical bonding than for the heavier elements. Thallium is malleable and sectile enough to be cut with a knife at room temperature and it has a metallic luster that, when exposed to air, quickly tarnishes to a bluish-gray tinge, resembling lead. It may be preserved by immersion in oil, a heavy layer of oxide builds up on thallium if left in air. In the presence of water, thallium hydroxide is formed, sulfuric and nitric acid dissolve thallium rapidly to make the sulfate and nitrate salts, while hydrochloric acid forms an insoluble thallium chloride layer. Thallium has 25 isotopes which have atomic masses that range from 184 to 210, 203Tl and 205Tl are the only stable isotopes and make up nearly all of natural thallium. 204Tl is the most stable radioisotope, with a half-life of 3.78 years and it is made by the neutron activation of stable thallium in a nuclear reactor. It is the most popular isotope used for thallium nuclear cardiac stress tests, Thallium compounds resemble the corresponding aluminium compounds
23.
Rubidium
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Rubidium is a chemical element with symbol Rb and atomic number 37. Rubidium is a soft, silvery-white metallic element of the metal group. Elemental rubidium is highly reactive, with similar to those of other alkali metals. German chemists Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff discovered rubidium in 1861 by the developed technique. Rubidiums compounds have various chemical and electronic applications, rubidium metal is easily vaporized and has a convenient spectral absorption range, making it a frequent target for laser manipulation of atoms. Rubidium is not a nutrient for any living organisms. However, rubidium ions have the charge as potassium ions. Rubidium is a soft, ductile, silvery-white metal. It is the second most electropositive of the alkali metals. Similar to other metals, rubidium metal reacts violently with water. As with potassium and caesium, this reaction is vigorous enough to ignite the hydrogen gas it produces. Rubidium has also reported to ignite spontaneously in air. It forms amalgams with mercury and alloys with gold, iron, caesium, sodium, and potassium, rubidium has a very low ionization energy of only 406 kJ/mol. Rubidium and potassium show a very similar purple color in the flame test, rubidium silver iodide has the highest room temperature conductivity of any known ionic crystal, a property exploited in thin film batteries and other applications. Rubidium forms a number of oxides when exposed to air, including rubidium monoxide, Rb6O, rubidium forms salts with halides, producing rubidium fluoride, rubidium chloride, rubidium bromide, and rubidium iodide. Although rubidium is monoisotopic, rubidium in the Earths crust is composed of two isotopes, the stable 85Rb and the radioactive 87Rb, natural rubidium is radioactive, with specific activity of about 670 Bq/g, enough to significantly expose a photographic film in 110 days. Twenty four additional rubidium isotopes have been synthesized with half-lives of less than 3 months, Rubidium-87 has a half-life of 48. 8×109 years, which is more than three times the age of the universe of ×109 years, making it a primordial nuclide. It readily substitutes for potassium in minerals, and is fairly widespread
24.
Robert Bunsen
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Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen was a German chemist. He investigated emission spectra of heated elements, and discovered caesium and rubidium with the physicist Gustav Kirchhoff, Bunsen developed several gas-analytical methods, was a pioneer in photochemistry, and did early work in the field of organoarsenic chemistry. With his laboratory assistant, Peter Desaga, he developed the Bunsen burner, the Bunsen–Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after Bunsen and Kirchhoff. Robert Bunsen was born at Göttingen in 1811, in what is now the state of Lower Saxony in Germany, Bunsen was the youngest of four sons of the University of Göttingens chief librarian and professor of modern philology, Christian Bunsen. Sources disagree on Robert Bunsens exact birth date, according to his biographer Georg Lockemann, Bunsen himself celebrated his birthday on the 31st in his later years. Lockemann nevertheless regarded the 30th as the correct date, in 1833 Bunsen became a lecturer at Göttingen and began experimental studies of the solubility of metal salts of arsenous acid. His discovery of the use of iron oxide hydrate as an agent is still today the most effective antidote against arsenic poisoning. This interdisciplinary research was carried on and published in conjunction with the physician Arnold Adolph Berthold, in 1836, Bunsen succeeded Friedrich Wöhler at the Polytechnic School of Kassel. Bunsen taught there for three years, and then accepted a professorship at the University of Marburg, where he continued his studies on cacodyl derivatives. He was promoted to professorship in 1841. While at University of Marburg, Bunsen participated in the 1846 expedition for the investigation of Icelands volcanoes, Bunsens work brought him quick and wide acclaim, partly because cacodyl, which is extremely toxic and undergoes spontaneous combustion in dry air, is so difficult to work with. Bunsen almost died from poisoning, and an explosion with cacodyl cost him sight in his right eye. In 1841, Bunsen created the Bunsen cell battery, using an electrode instead of the expensive platinum electrode used in William Robert Groves electrochemical cell. Early in 1851 he accepted a professorship at the University of Breslau, in late 1852 Bunsen became the successor of Leopold Gmelin at the University of Heidelberg. There he used electrolysis to produce pure metals, such as chromium, magnesium, aluminum, manganese, a long collaboration with Henry Enfield Roscoe began in 1852, in which they studied the photochemical formation of hydrogen chloride from hydrogen and chlorine. From this work, the reciprocity law of Bunsen and Roscoe originated and he discontinued his work with Roscoe in 1859 and joined Gustav Kirchhoff to study emission spectra of heated elements, a research area called spectrum analysis. For this work, Bunsen and his assistant, Peter Desaga, had perfected a special gas burner by 1855. The newer design of Bunsen and Desaga, which provided a very hot and clean flame, is now called simply the Bunsen burner, there had been earlier studies of the characteristic colors of heated elements, but nothing systematic
25.
Gustav Kirchhoff
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Gustav Robert Kirchhoff was a German physicist who contributed to the fundamental understanding of electrical circuits, spectroscopy, and the emission of black-body radiation by heated objects. He coined the term black body radiation in 1862, and two different sets of concepts are named Kirchhoffs laws after him, there is also a Kirchhoffs Law in thermochemistry, the Bunsen–Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after him and his colleague, Robert Bunsen. Gustav Kirchhoff was born in Königsberg, Prussia, the son of Friedrich Kirchhoff, a lawyer, in the same year, he moved to Berlin, where he stayed until he received a professorship at Breslau. Later, in 1857, He married Clara Richelot, the daughter of his mathematics professor Richelot and he married Luise Brömmel in 1872. Kirchhoff formulated his laws, which are now ubiquitous in electrical engineering, in 1845. He completed this study as an exercise, it later became his doctoral dissertation. In 1857 he calculated that a signal in a resistanceless wire travels along the wire at the speed of light. He proposed his law of radiation in 1859, and gave a proof in 1861. He was called to the University of Heidelberg in 1854, where he collaborated in work with Robert Bunsen. Together Kirchhoff and Bunsen discovered caesium and rubidium in 1861, at Heidelberg he ran a mathematico-physical seminar, modelled on Neumanns, with the mathematician Leo Koenigsberger. Among those who attended this seminar were Arthur Schuster and Sofia Kovalevskaya, in 1875 Kirchhoff accepted the first chair specifically dedicated to theoretical physics at Berlin. In 1862 he was awarded the Rumford Medal for his researches on the lines of the solar spectrum. He also contributed to optics, carefully solving Maxwells equations to provide a foundation for Huygens principle. In 1884 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts. Kirchhoff died in 1887, and was buried in the St Matthäus Kirchhof Cemetery in Schöneberg, leopold Kronecker is buried in the same cemetery. Kirchhoffs first law is that the sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero. The second law is that in a circuit, the directed sums of the voltages in a closed system is zero. A solid, liquid, or dense gas excited to emit light will radiate at all wavelengths, a low-density gas excited to emit light will do so at specific wavelengths and this produces an emission spectrum
26.
Heidelberg
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Heidelberg is a college town situated on the river Neckar in south-west Germany. At the 2015 census, its population was 156,257, located about 78 km south of Frankfurt, Heidelberg is the fifth-largest city in the German state of Baden-Württemberg. Heidelberg is part of the densely populated Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region, founded in 1386, Heidelberg University is Germanys oldest and one of Europes most reputable universities. A scientific hub in Germany, the city of Heidelberg is home to internationally renowned research facilities adjacent to its university. Heidelberg is in the Rhine Rift Valley, on the bank of the lower part of the Neckar in a steep valley in the Odenwald. It is bordered by the Königsstuhl and the Gaisberg mountains, the Neckar here flows in an east-west direction. On the right bank of the river, the Heiligenberg mountain rises to a height of 445 meters, the Neckar flows into the Rhine approximately 22 kilometres north-west in Mannheim. Villages incorporated during the 20th century stretch from the Neckar Valley along the Bergstraße, Heidelberg is on European walking route E1. Alongside the Philosophenweg on the side of the Old Town. There is a population of African rose-ringed parakeets, and a wild population of Siberian swan geese. Heidelberg is an authority within the Regierungsbezirk Karlsruhe. The Rhein-Neckar-Kreis rural district surrounds it and has its seat in the town, Heidelberg is a part of the Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region, often referred to as the Rhein-Neckar Triangle. The Rhein-Neckar Triangle became a European metropolitan area in 2005, Heidelberg consists of 15 districts distributed in six sectors of the town. The new district will have approximately 5, 000–6,000 residents, Heidelberg has an oceanic climate, defined by the protected valley between the Pfälzerwald and the Odenwald. Year-round, the temperatures are determined by maritime air masses coming from the west. In contrast to the nearby Upper Rhine Plain, Heidelbergs position in the leads to more frequent easterly winds than average. The hillsides of the Odenwald favour clouding and precipitation, the warmest month is July, the coldest is January. Temperatures often rise beyond 30 °C in midsummer, according to the German Meteorological Service, Heidelberg was the warmest place in Germany in 2009
27.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
28.
Mineral
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A mineral is a naturally occurring chemical compound, usually of crystalline form and abiogenic in origin. A mineral has one specific chemical composition, whereas a rock can be an aggregate of different minerals or mineraloids, the study of minerals is called mineralogy. There are over 5,300 known mineral species, over 5,070 of these have been approved by the International Mineralogical Association, the silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earths crust. The diversity and abundance of species is controlled by the Earths chemistry. Silicon and oxygen constitute approximately 75% of the Earths crust, which translates directly into the predominance of silicate minerals, minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species, changes in the temperature, pressure, or bulk composition of a rock mass cause changes in its minerals. Minerals can be described by their various properties, which are related to their chemical structure. Common distinguishing characteristics include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour, streak, tenacity, cleavage, fracture, parting, more specific tests for describing minerals include magnetism, taste or smell, radioactivity and reaction to acid. Minerals are classified by key chemical constituents, the two dominant systems are the Dana classification and the Strunz classification, the silicate class of minerals is subdivided into six subclasses by the degree of polymerization in the chemical structure. All silicate minerals have a unit of a 4− silica tetrahedron—that is, a silicon cation coordinated by four oxygen anions. These tetrahedra can be polymerized to give the subclasses, orthosilicates, disilicates, cyclosilicates, inosilicates, phyllosilicates, other important mineral groups include the native elements, sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates. The first criterion means that a mineral has to form by a natural process, stability at room temperature, in the simplest sense, is synonymous to the mineral being solid. More specifically, a compound has to be stable or metastable at 25 °C, modern advances have included extensive study of liquid crystals, which also extensively involve mineralogy. Minerals are chemical compounds, and as such they can be described by fixed or a variable formula, many mineral groups and species are composed of a solid solution, pure substances are not usually found because of contamination or chemical substitution. Finally, the requirement of an ordered atomic arrangement is usually synonymous with crystallinity, however, crystals are also periodic, an ordered atomic arrangement gives rise to a variety of macroscopic physical properties, such as crystal form, hardness, and cleavage. There have been recent proposals to amend the definition to consider biogenic or amorphous substances as minerals. The formal definition of an approved by the IMA in 1995, A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline. However, if geological processes were involved in the genesis of the compound, Mineral classification schemes and their definitions are evolving to match recent advances in mineral science
29.
Lepidolite
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Lepidolite is a lilac-gray or rose-colored member of the mica group of minerals with formula K24O102. It is the most abundant lithium-bearing mineral and is a source of this metal. It is a mineral and a member of the polylithionite-trilithionite series. It is associated with other lithium-bearing minerals like spodumene in pegmatite bodies and it is one of the major sources of the rare alkali metals rubidium and caesium. In 1861 Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff extracted 150 kg of lepidolite and yielded a few grams of rubidium salts for analysis and it occurs in granite pegmatites, in some high-temperature quartz veins, greisens and granites. Associated minerals include quartz, feldspar, spodumene, amblygonite, tourmaline, columbite, cassiterite, topaz, notable occurrences include Brazil, Ural Mountains, Russia, California, United States, Tanco Mine, Bernic Lake, Manitoba, Canada, and Madagascar
30.
Optical spectrometer
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An optical spectrometer is an instrument used to measure properties of light over a specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, typically used in spectroscopic analysis to identify materials. The variable measured is most often the lights intensity but could also, for instance, a spectrometer is used in spectroscopy for producing spectral lines and measuring their wavelengths and intensities. Spectrometers may also operate over a range of non-optical wavelengths. If the instrument is designed to measure the spectrum in absolute units rather than relative units, the majority of spectrophotometers are used in spectral regions near the visible spectrum. In general, any particular instrument will operate over a portion of this total range because of the different techniques used to measure different portions of the spectrum. Below optical frequencies, the analyzer is a closely related electronic device. Spectrometers are used in many fields, for example, they are used in astronomy to analyze the radiation from astronomical objects and deduce chemical composition. The spectrometer uses a prism or a grating to spread the light from a distant object into a spectrum and this allows astronomers to detect many of the chemical elements by their characteristic spectral fingerprints. If the object is glowing by itself, it will show spectral lines caused by the gas itself. These lines are named for the elements which cause them, such as the alpha, beta. Chemical compounds may also be identified by absorption, typically these are dark bands in specific locations in the spectrum caused by energy being absorbed as light from other objects passes through a gas cloud. Much of our knowledge of the makeup of the universe comes from spectra. Spectroscopes are often used in astronomy and some branches of chemistry, early spectroscopes were simply prisms with graduations marking wavelengths of light. Modern spectroscopes generally use a diffraction grating, a movable slit, Fraunhofer also went on to invent the first diffraction spectroscope. Gustav Robert Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen discovered the application of spectroscopes to chemical analysis, Kirchhoff and Bunsens analysis also enabled a chemical explanation of stellar spectra, including Fraunhofer lines. When a material is heated to incandescence it emits light that is characteristic of the makeup of the material. Particular light frequencies give rise to sharply defined bands on the scale which can be thought of as fingerprints, in the original spectroscope design in the early 19th century, light entered a slit and a collimating lens transformed the light into a thin beam of parallel rays. The light then passed through a prism that refracted the beam into a spectrum because different wavelengths were refracted different amounts due to dispersion and this image was then viewed through a tube with a scale that was transposed upon the spectral image, enabling its direct measurement
31.
Alexander Butlerov
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He first proposed the idea of possible tetrahedral arrangement of valence bonds in carbon compounds in 1862. The crater Butlerov on the Moon is named after him, Alexander Butlerov was born in Chistopol into a landowning family. Leicester, Henry M. Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov, arbuzov, B. A. 150th Anniversary of the birth of A. M. Butlerov. Rocke, Alan J. Kekulé, Butlerov, and the Historiography of the Theory of Chemical Structure, british Journal for the History of Science. Alexander Butlerov and the Professionalization of Science in Russia
32.
Johann Josef Loschmidt
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Jan or Johann Josef Loschmidt, who referred to himself mostly as Josef Loschmidt, was a notable Austrian scientist who performed ground-breaking work in chemistry, physics, and crystal forms. Born in Karlsbad, a located in the Austrian Empire. This was followed by two years of philosophy and mathematics at Pragues Charles University, where Loschmidt met his second important mentor and this was the philosophy professor Franz S. Exner, whose eyesight was failing, and who asked Loschmidt to be his personal reader. Exner was known for his school reforms, which included promoting mathematics. He suggested to Loschmidt, who became a personal friend. In the process of doing this, he became an able mathematician. The era, when Loschmidt gradually developed his ideas on molecular structures, was to be an epoch in science. It was the time when the Kinetic Theory of Gases was being developed and his 1861 booklet, Chemische Studien, proposed two-dimensional representations for over 300 molecules in a style remarkably similar to that used by modern chemists. Among these were aromatic molecules such as benzene, and related triazines, Loschmidt symbolized the benzene nucleus by a large circle, which he said was to indicate the yet-undetermined structure of the compound. In 1865, Loschmidt was the first to estimate the size of the molecules make up the air, his result was only twice the true size. His method allowed the size of any gas molecules to be related to measurable phenomena and this latter quantity is now known as the Loschmidt constant in his honour, and its modern value is 2.69 x 1019 molecules per cubic centimetre at standard temperature and pressure. Loschmidt and his university colleague Ludwig Boltzmann became good friends. His critique of Boltzmanns attempt to derive the law of thermodynamics from kinetic theory became famous as the reversibility paradox. It led Boltzmann to his concept of entropy as a logarithmic tally of the number of microstates corresponding to a given thermodynamic state. Loschmidt retired from university in 1891 and died in 1895 in Vienna and his only child had died before him at the age of ten. - ISBN 0-306-45684-2 John Buckingham, Chasing the Molecule, Sutton Publishing,2004, Gloucestershire
