1.
1855 in art
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Events from the year 1855 in art. July 3 – John Everett Millais and Effie Gray marry, jean Auguste Dominique Ingres exhibits Venus Anadyomene, which has taken him forty years to complete. William Bell Scott begins painting murals of Northumbrian history at Wallington Hall, the Bavarian National Museum is founded by King Maximilian II of Bavaria. Kelly, American sculptor and illustrator September 8 – William Friese-Greene, English photographer and cinematographer Willis E
2.
1857 in art
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Events from the year 1857 in art. June 22 – The South Kensington Museum, predecessor of the Victoria, lewis Carroll meets John Ruskin and begins to associate with the Pre-Raphaelites. In the same year, Ruskin publishes his Political Economy of Art, may 5 – October 17 – The Art Treasures of Great Britain exhibition is held in Manchester, one of the largest such displays of all time. Emily Mary Osborn – Nameless and Friendless O. G. W
3.
1859 in art
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Events from the year 1859 in art. March 22 – Scottish National Gallery opens to the public in Edinburgh in neoclassical premises designed by W. H. Playfair, april 26 – William Morris marries his model, Jane Burden. Edward Burne-Jones presents them with a self-painted wardrobe, frederic E. Churchs The Heart of the Andes is exhibited in New York and draws 12,000 paying visitors. The Artists Rifles set up in London as a unit of the British Army
4.
1861 in art
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Events from the year 1861 in art. February – Hilda Sjölin opens a studio in Malmö, making her one of the first known Swedish female professional photographers. Paul Cézanne and his friend Émile Zola arrive in Paris, berthe Morisot becomes a pupil of Corot. Édouard Manet has his first paintings accepted by the Salon, william Bell Scott concludes his series of murals of Northumbrian history at Wallington Hall with Iron and Coal, the Nineteenth Century
5.
1863 in art
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Events from the year 1863 in art. March – American-born painter James McNeill Whistler settles close to the River Thames in Chelsea, London, the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris becomes independent of the Académie des Beaux-Arts. Julia Margaret Cameron takes up photography, alexander Gilchrists Life of William Blake, Pictor Ignotus is published in London, edited posthumously by Anne Gilchrist. May 17 – Opening of first exhibition of the Salon des Refusés in Paris, and coining of the term avant-garde
6.
1864 in art
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Events from the year 1864 in art. January 30 – National Gallery of Ireland opens to the public in Dublin in a designed by Francis Fowke based on early plans by Charles Lanyon. February 20 – Painter George Frederic Watts marries his 16-year-old model and she elopes less than a year later. December 30 – Julia Margaret Cameron sends John Herschel an album of her first years photography including her iconic portrait of him, stanisław Chlebowski takes up a post as master painter to Sultan Abdülaziz in Istanbul. The National Gallery in London acquires The Annunciation, with Saint Emidius from Lord Taunton, F. Watts – Choosing James McNeill Whistler Caprice in Purple and Gold, The Golden Screen Symphony in White, No
7.
1870 in art
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Events from the year 1870 in art. June 28 – Claude Monet marries his mistress and model Camille Doncieux in Paris, july – Franco-Prussian War breaks out, Monet and Pissarro flee to London, Cézanne and his mistress, Marie-Hortense Fiquet, leave Paris for LEstaque where he predominantly paints landscapes. In September the Dutch painter Lourens Alma Tadema moves permanently to London where he adopts the name Lawrence Alma-Tadema, Édouard Manet and Louis Edmond Duranty fight a duel at Café Guerbois, Paris. Russian industrialist and patron of the arts Savva Mamontov acquires the Abramtsevo Colony, dante Gabriel Rossettis Poems are published, exhumed from Elizabeth Siddals grave. Daoud Corm goes to Rome to study under Roberto Bompiani at the Accademia di San Luca
8.
1871 in art
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Events from the year 1871 in art. March – Edward Lear settles at his villa in Sanremo, spring – James McNeill Whistler publishes Sixteen etchings of scenes on the Thames and paints his first moonlights of the river. May – James Tissot flees Paris for London, june 14 – Camille Pissarro marries his mistress Julie Vellay in the London borough of Croydon and moves to Pontoise. Summer – Claude Monet visits Zaandam, december – Monet and his wife Camille move to Argenteuil. William Morris and Dante Gabriel Rossetti become tenants of Kelmscott Manor, marie Spartali marries William James Stillman. Crocker establishes the Crocker Art Museum in Sacramento, California, the Apotheosis of War George Frederic Watts – Portrait of Frederic Leighton Alfred Waud – A Home on the Mississippi James McNeill Whistler Arrangement in Grey and Black No
9.
1872 in art
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Events from the year 1872 in art. February 20 – The Metropolitan Museum of Art opens in New York City. A, november 13 – Claude Monet begins painting Impression, Sunrise as viewed from his hotel room at Le Havre. November – Edward Lear acquires his cat Foss, date unknown William De Morgan sets up an art pottery in Chelsea, London. The first Wallace fountains, to the design of sculptor Charles-Auguste Lebourg, are installed in Paris
10.
1873 in art
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Events from the year 1873 in art. Early – Pre-Raphaelite painter Simeon Solomon is arrested in a urinal in London. May – Vincent van Gogh is re-located to London by his employer, monet, Renoir, Pissarro, and Sisley organize the Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs, etc. for the purpose of exhibiting artworks independently. The collection forming the Galleria Nazionale dellUmbria is moved to the Palazzo dei Priori, new Accademia delle Arti del Disegno established in Florence. Leslie Ward, as Spy, begins producing caricatures for the British magazine Vanity Fair
11.
1874 in art
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Events from the year 1874 in art. August 22 – English illustrator Helen Paterson marries Irish poet and editor William Allingham, december 19 – Monet begins painting his Snow at Argenteuil series. December 22 – Berthe Morisot, who has exhibited at the first Impressionist exhibition, marries Eugène, brother of Édouard Manet, goyas Black Paintings are transferred to canvas
12.
1865 in architecture
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The year 1865 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. George Gilbert Scott wins the competition to design the St Pancras railway station hotel, Amhuinnsuidhe Castle, Harris, Scotland, built for Charles Murray, 7th Earl of Dunmore, by David Bryce. In 2003 Amhuinnsuidhe Castle Estate purchases the castle and the fishing rights, cefn Coed Viaduct, Wales, designed by Alexander Sutherland and Henry Conybeare. Government House, Brisbane, Australia, designed by Benjamin Backhouse, bataclan theatre in Paris, designed by Charles Duval. Iron-framed shipping warehouses at Saint-Ouen in Paris, designed by engineer Hippolyte Fontaine, Stowford and Magnolia Cottages, Stowford, Cheshire, England, designed by William Eden Nesfield. Royal Gold Medal - James Pennethorne, grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Jules Machard, André Hennebicq, Gustave Huberti
13.
1865 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1865. January – Our Young Folks, an American monthly for children produced by Ticknor and Fields in Boston, february – Publication of Leo Tolstoys 1805, an early version of War and Peace, begins in the magazine Russkiy Vestnik. June 9 – Charles Dickens is involved in the Staplehurst rail crash in England, June 14 – Karl May begins a 4-year prison sentence for thefts and frauds at Osterstein Castle. July – The American magazine for children The Little Corporal publishes its first issue, July 4 – Lewis Carrolls childrens book Alices Adventures in Wonderland is published by Macmillan in London for Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, three years after it was first narrated. November 18 – Mark Twains story The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County is published in the New York weekly The Saturday Press in its version as Jim Smiley. English writer Edwin Abbott Abbott becomes headmaster of the City of London School at the age of 26, frederick Warne & Co established as publishers in London. José de Alencar – Iracema R. M. Facey Romfords Hounds Anthony Trollope – Can You Forgive Her, swinburne Atalanta in Calydon Chastelard, a tragedy Annals of the Joseon Dynasty Matthew Arnold – Essays in Criticism P. T. B. Yeats, Irish poet June 20 – Enrico Corradini, Italian novelist and essayist June 26 – Bernard Berenson, American art historian July 21 – M. P
14.
Lewis Carroll
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Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, better known by his pen name Lewis Carroll, was an English writer, mathematician, logician, Anglican deacon, and photographer. He is noted for his facility at word play, logic, There are societies in many parts of the world dedicated to the enjoyment and promotion of his works and the investigation of his life. Dodgsons family was predominantly northern English, with Irish connections, conservative, most of Dodgsons male ancestors were army officers or Church of England clergy. His great-grandfather, also named Charles Dodgson, had risen through the ranks of the church to become the Bishop of Elphin. His paternal grandfather, another Charles, had been an army captain, the older of these sons – yet another Charles Dodgson – was Carrolls father. He went to Westminster School and then to Christ Church, Oxford and he reverted to the other family tradition and took holy orders. He was mathematically gifted and won a double first degree, which could have been the prelude to a brilliant academic career, instead, he married his first cousin Frances Jane Lutwidge in 1830 and became a country parson. Dodgson was born in the parsonage at Daresbury in Cheshire near the towns of Warrington and Runcorn. When Charles was 11, his father was given the living of Croft-on-Tees in North Yorkshire, and this remained their home for the next 25 years. He was High Church, inclining to Anglo-Catholicism, an admirer of John Henry Newman and the Tractarian movement, Young Charles was to develop an ambiguous relationship with his fathers values and with the Church of England as a whole. During his early youth, Dodgson was educated at home and his reading lists preserved in the family archives testify to a precocious intellect, at the age of seven, he was reading books such as The Pilgrims Progress. He also suffered from a stammer – a condition shared by most of his siblings – that often influenced his life throughout his years. At the age of twelve, he was sent to Richmond Grammar School at nearby Richmond, in 1846, Dodgson entered Rugby School where he was evidently unhappy, as he wrote some years after leaving, I cannot say. That any earthly considerations would induce me to go through my three years again, I can honestly say that if I could have been. Secure from annoyance at night, the hardships of the daily life would have been comparative trifles to bear, scholastically, though, he excelled with apparent ease. I have not had a promising boy at his age since I came to Rugby. He left Rugby at the end of 1849 and matriculated at Oxford in May 1850 as a member of his fathers old college, after waiting for rooms in college to become available, he went into residence in January 1851. He had been at Oxford only two days when he received a summons home and his mother had died of inflammation of the brain – perhaps meningitis or a stroke – at the age of 47
15.
Effie Gray
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Euphemia Chalmers Effie Millais, Lady Millais née Gray was the wife of the critic John Ruskin, but she left her husband without the marriage being consummated. She later married his protégé, the Pre-Raphaelite painter John Everett Millais and this famous Victorian love triangle has been dramatised in plays, films and an opera. Effie Gray, initially known by the pet name of Phemy, was born in Perth, Scotland, and lived in Bowerswell and her family knew Ruskins father, who encouraged a match between them. Ruskin wrote the fantasy novel The King of the Golden River for her in 1841, after their marriage in 1848, they travelled to Venice, where Ruskin was researching his book The Stones of Venice. Their different personalities are thrown into relief by their contrasting priorities. For Effie, Venice provided an opportunity to socialise while Ruskin was engaged in solitary studies, in particular, he made a point of drawing the Ca dOro and the Palazzo Ducale, because he feared they would soon be destroyed by the occupying Austrian troops. One of the troops, Lieutenant Charles Paulizza, made friends with Effie and her brother, among others, later claimed that Ruskin was deliberately encouraging the friendship to compromise her, as an excuse to separate. When she met Millais five years later, she was still a virgin and his reasons are unclear, but they involved disgust with some aspect of her body. As she later wrote to her father, He alleged various reasons, hatred to children, religious motives, a desire to preserve my beauty, and, finally this last year he told me his true reason. That he had imagined women were different to what he saw I was. Ruskin confirmed this in his statement to his lawyer during the annulment proceedings, but though her face was beautiful, her person was not formed to excite passion. On the contrary, there were circumstances in her person which completely checked it. The reason for Ruskins disgust with circumstances in her person is unknown, various suggestions have been made, including revulsion at either her pubic hair, or menstrual blood. While married to Ruskin, she modelled for Millais painting The Order of Release and she then became close to Millais when he accompanied the couple on a trip to Scotland in order to paint Ruskins portrait according to the critics artistic principles. During this time, spent in Brig o Turk in the Trossachs, while working on the portrait of her husband, Millais made many drawings and sketches of her. He also sent humorous cartoons of himself, Effie and Ruskin to friends and she copied some of his works. After their return to London, she left Ruskin, nominally to visit her family and she sent back her wedding ring with a note announcing her intention to file for an annulment. Their youngest son, John Guille Millais, was a bird artist
16.
John Everett Millais
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Sir John Everett Millais, 1st Baronet, PRA was an English painter and illustrator who was one of the founders of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. A child prodigy, at the age of eleven Millais became the youngest student to enter the Royal Academy Schools, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was founded at his family home in London, at 83 Gower Street. Millais became the most famous exponent of the style, his painting Christ in the House of His Parents generating considerable controversy, by the mid-1850s Millais was moving away from the Pre-Raphaelite style and developing a new and powerful form of realism in his art. His later works were successful, making Millais one of the wealthiest artists of his day. Millaiss personal life has played a significant role in his reputation. His wife Effie was formerly married to the critic John Ruskin, Millais was born in Southampton, England in 1829, of a prominent Jersey-based family. His parents were John William Millais and Emily Mary Millais, most of his early childhood was spent in Jersey, to which he retained a strong devotion throughout his life. The author Thackeray once asked him when England conquered Jersey, the family moved to Dinan in Brittany for a few years in his childhood. His mothers forceful personality was the most powerful influence on his early life and she had a keen interest in art and music, and encouraged her sons artistic bent, promoting the relocating of the family to London to help develop contacts at the Royal Academy of Art. He later said I owe everything to my mother and his prodigious artistic talent won him a place at the Royal Academy schools at the unprecedented age of eleven. While there, he met William Holman Hunt and Dante Gabriel Rossetti with whom he formed the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in September 1848 in his home on Gower Street. Millaiss Christ in the House of His Parents was highly controversial because of its portrayal of a working class Holy Family labouring in a messy carpentry workshop. Later works were controversial, though less so. Millais achieved popular success with A Huguenot, which depicts a couple about to be separated because of religious conflicts. He repeated this theme in later works. All these early works were painted with great attention to detail, in paintings such as Ophelia Millais created dense and elaborate pictorial surfaces based on the integration of naturalistic elements. This approach has been described as a kind of pictorial eco-system, Mariana is a painting that Millais painted in 1850-51 based on the play Measure for Measure by William Shakespeare and the poem of the same name by Alfred, Lord Tennyson from 1830. In the play, the young Mariana was to be married and this style was promoted by the critic John Ruskin, who had defended the Pre-Raphaelites against their critics
17.
Ford Madox Brown
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Ford Madox Brown was an English painter of moral and historical subjects, notable for his distinctively graphic and often Hogarthian version of the Pre-Raphaelite style. Arguably, his most notable painting was Work, Brown spent the latter years of his life painting the Manchester Murals, depicting Mancunian history, for Manchester Town Hall. Brown was the grandson of the medical theorist John Brown, founder of the Brunonian system of medicine and his great grandfather was a Scottish labourer. His father Ford Brown served as a purser in the Royal Navy, including a period serving under Sir Isaac Coffin and he left the Navy after the end of the Napoleonic Wars. In 1818, Ford Brown married Caroline Madox, of an old Kentish family, Browns parents had limited financial resources, and they moved to Calais to seek cheaper lodgings, where their daughter Elizabeth Coffin was born in 1819 and their son Ford Madox Brown in 1821. Browns education was limited, as the family moved between lodgings in the Pas-de-Calais and relatives in Kent, but he showed artistic talent in copying of old master prints. His father initially sought a career for his son, writing to his former captain Sir Isaac Coffin. The family moved to Bruges in 1835 so Brown could study at the academy under Albert Gregorius, Brown moved to Ghent in 1836 to continue his studies under Pieter van Hanselaere. He moved to Antwerp in 1837 to study under Gustaf Wappers and he continued to study in Antwerp after his mothers death in 1839. His sister died in 1840, and then his father in 1842, the Tate Gallery holds an early example of Browns work, a portrait of his father. He lived in Montmartre with his new wife and aging father in 1841 and he painted Manfred on the Jungfrau, inspired by Lord Byrons poem Manfred while he was in Paris. In 1843 he submitted work to the Westminster Cartoon Competition, for compositions to decorate the new Palace of Westminster and his entry, The Body of Harold Brought before William, was not successful. His early works were, however, greatly admired by the young Dante Gabriel Rossetti, through Rossetti, Brown came into contact with the artists who went on to form the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Though closely linked to them, he was never actually a member of the brotherhood itself and he was also influenced by the works of Holbein that he saw in Basel in 1845, and by Friedrich Overbeck and Peter Cornelius, whom he met in Rome in 1845-46. Brown struggled to make his mark in the 1850s, with his paintings failing to find buyers, in 1852 he started work on two of his most significant works. One of his most famous images is The Last of England, painted from 1852 to 1855 and it depicts a pair of stricken emigrants as they sail away on the ship that will take them from England forever. It was inspired by the departure of the Pre-Raphaelite sculptor Thomas Woolner, the husband and wife are portraits of Brown and his second wife Emma. Browns most important painting was Work, begun in Hampstead in 1852, Thomas Plint advanced funds to enable Brown to complete the work, in anticipation of obtaining the finished painting, but died in 1861 before the painting had been completed
18.
Work (painting)
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Work is a painting by Ford Madox Brown that is generally considered to be his most important achievement. The painting attempts to portray, both literally and analytically, the totality of the Victorian social system and the transition from a rural to an urban economy. Brown began the painting in 1852 and completed it in 1865 and he wrote a detailed catalogue explaining the significance of the picture. The painting was commissioned by Thomas Plint, a collector of Pre-Raphaelite art. A second version, smaller at 684 ×990 mm, was commissioned in 1859 and this is now in the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery. It is closely similar, though for the lady with a blue parasol the face of Maria Leathart, the picture depicts a group of so-called navvies digging up the road to build an underground tunnel. It is typically assumed that this was part of the extensions of Londons sewerage system, the workers are in the centre of the painting. On either side of them are individuals who are unemployed or represent the leisured classes. Behind the workers are two figures on horseback, whose progress along the road has been halted by the excavations. The painting also portrays an election campaign, evidenced by posters, a poster also draws attention to the potential presence of a burglar. The setting is a depiction of The Mount on Heath Street in Hampstead, London. Brown made a study of the location in 1852. Brown explained that he had intended to demonstrate that the modern British workman could be as fit a subject for art as the more supposedly picturesque Italian lazarone and he set the painting on Heath Street in Hampstead, of which he made a detailed study. Hampstead was at the time an area on the outskirts of London. The development of the new sewerage and drainage systems in the city was widely discussed in the press as an agent of modernisation. The character of Bobus appears in the writings of Thomas Carlyle as the epitome of a businessman who uses his money to market himself as a politician. Browns principal artistic model was the work of William Hogarth, in particular his paintings Humours of an Election and his prints Beer Street, the Election paintings depicted both the vitality and the corruption of British society, while the prints set up a contrast between poverty and prosperity. While working on the painting Brown founded the Hogarth club to link artists who saw themselves as Hogarths admirers and followers, the rustic aspects of the composition draw on the established tradition of the picturesque, epitomised by the work of artists such as John Constable and William Collins
19.
Morris & Co.
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Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. was a furnishings and decorative arts manufacturer and retailer founded by the artist and designer William Morris with friends from the Pre-Raphaelites. The firms designs are sold today under licences given to Sanderson and Sons. The prospectus set forth that the firm would undertake carving, stained glass, metal-work, paper-hangings, chintzes, the first headquarters of the firm were at 8 Red Lion Square in London. The work shown by the firm at the 1862 International Exhibition attracted much notice, in the autumn of 1864 a severe illness obliged Morris to choose between giving up his home at Red House in Kent and giving up his work in London. With great reluctance he gave up Red House, and in 1865 established himself under the roof with his workshops, now relocated to larger premises in Queen Square. The decoration of churches was from the first an important part of the business, a great wave of church-building and remodelling by the Church of England in the 1840s and 1850s increased the demand for ecclesiastical decoration of all kinds, especially stained glass. But this market shrank in the depression of the later 1860s. Morris was producing repeating patterns for wallpaper as early as 1862, in August 1874, Morris determined to restructure the partnership, generating a dispute with Marshall, Rossetti, and Madox Brown over the return on their shares. The company was dissolved and reorganized under Morriss sole ownership as Morris & Co. on 31 March 1875, during these years, Morris took up the practical art of dyeing as a necessary adjunct of his manufacturing business. He spent much of his time at the Staffordshire dye works of Thomas Wardle, mastering the processes of that art and making experiments in the revival of old or discovery of new methods. The complex, on 7 acres, included buildings and a dyeworks, and the various buildings were soon adapted for stained-glass, textile printing. In 1879, Morris had taught himself tapestry weaving in the medieval style, Dearle executed Morris and Co. s first figural tapestry from a design by Walter Crane in 1883. and animal figures by Philip Webb. Two significant secular commissions helped establish the reputation in the late 1860s, a royal project at St. Jamess Palace. The green dining room featured stained glass windows and panel figures by Burne-Jones, panels with branches of fruit or flowers by Morris, and olive branches and a frieze by Philip Webb. The St. Jamess commission comprised decorative schemes for the Armoury and the Tapestry Room, and included panels of stylized floral patterns painted on ceilings, cornices, dados, windows, and doors. In 1871 Morris & Co. were responsible for the windows at All Saints church in the village of Wilden near to Stourport-on-Severn and they were designed by Edward Burne-Jones for Alfred Baldwin, his wifes brother-in-law. Standen near East Grinstead, West Sussex, was designed between 1892 and 1894 by Philip Webb for a prosperous London solicitor, James Beale, his wife Margaret and it is decorated with Morris carpets, fabrics and wallpapers. Stanmore Hall was the last major decorating commission executed by Morris & Co. before Morriss death in 1896, as Morris pursued other interests, notably socialism and the Kelmscott Press, day-to-day work at the firm was delegated
20.
St Edmund Hall, Oxford
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St Edmund Hall is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England. The college has a claim to be the oldest academical society for the education of undergraduates in any university and is the last surviving medieval hall at the University, the college is located just off Queens Lane, near the High Street, in central Oxford. Like the University of Oxford itself, the date of establishment of St Edmund Hall is not certain, it is usually estimated at 1236. It is named after St Edmund of Abingdon, Oxfordshire, the first known Oxford Master of Arts and the first Oxford-educated Archbishop of Canterbury, the name St Edmund Hall first appears in a 1317 rental agreement. St Edmund Hall began life as one of Oxfords ancient Aularian houses, as the only surviving medieval hall, its members are known as Aularians. St Edmund Hall acquired the status of a college in 1957, the college has a history of independent thought, which brought it into frequent conflict with both Church and State. In 1978, women were first admitted as members of the Hall, maroon and gold are believed to be the official college colours and most of the colleges sporting wear is in maroon and gold, leading many to believe that these are in fact the college colours. Confusion may also be caused because the coat of arms has a yellow/gold field. The college coat of arms depicts a red cross patonce against a field surrounded by four Cornish Choughs and is blazoned Or. The choughs are often depicted with white wings. In the image shown, the coat of arms is found above the following Latin dedication sanctus edmundus huius aulae lux, or St Edmund. This is usually achieved by choosing certain letters in the text which correspond to Roman numerals which when added, often disregarding the usual subtractive notation and these numerals are then indicated by being rendered in a larger size than that of the surrounding letters. St Edmund Hall is based on a central site on the north side of the High Street. It shares a wall with New College to the North, the front quadrangle is bordered by the porters lodge, the Old Dining Hall, the college bar and buttery, the chapel with the Old Library above, and accommodation for students and fellows. The quad was closed on the side when new buildings were opened in the 1920s. In the centre of the quadrangle is a well, which was uncovered during a renovation during the construction of new buildings in the 20th century. This well is believed to be the original from which St. Edmund himself drew water, a new wellhead was added, with the inscription haurietis aquas in gaudio de fontibus salvatoris, Latin for with joy, draw water from the wells of salvation. These words, from Isaiah 12,3, are believed to be spoken by St. Edmund on his deathbed at Salisbury
21.
Edward Burne-Jones
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Burne-Joness early paintings show the heavy inspiration of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, but by the 1860s Burne-Jones was discovering his own artistic voice. In 1877, he was persuaded to show eight oil paintings at the Grosvenor Gallery and these included The Beguiling of Merlin. The timing was right, and he was taken up as a herald, Edward Coley Burne Jones was born in Birmingham, the son of a Welshman, Edward Richard Jones, a frame-maker at Bennetts Hill, where a blue plaque commemorates the painters childhood. He attended Birminghams King Edward VI grammar school from 1844 and the Birmingham School of Art from 1848 to 1852, before studying theology at Exeter College, at Oxford he became a friend of William Morris as a consequence of a mutual interest in poetry. The members of the Brotherhood read John Ruskin and Tennyson, visited churches, at this time Burne-Jones discovered Thomas Malorys Le Morte dArthur which was to be so influential in his life. In February 1857, Rossetti wrote to William Bell Scott In 1856 Burne-Jones became engaged to Georgiana Georgie MacDonald and she was training to be a painter, and was the sister of Burne-Joness old school friend. The couple married in 1860, after which she made her own work in woodcuts, Georgiana bore a son, Philip, in 1861. A second son, born in the winter of 1864 while Georgiana was gravely ill with scarlet fever, the family soon moved to 41 Kensington Square, and their daughter Margaret was born there in 1866. In 1867 Burne-Jones and his family settled at the Grange, an 18th-century house set in a garden in North End, Fulham. During these difficult years Georgiana developed a friendship with Morris. Morris and Georgie may have been in love, but if he asked her to leave her husband, in the end, the Burne-Joneses remained together, as did the Morrises, but Morris and Georgiana were close for the rest of their lives. His troubled son Philip, who became a portrait painter. His adored daughter Margaret married John William Mackail, the friend and biographer of Morris and their children were the novelists Angela Thirkell and Denis Mackail. In an edition of the magazine, Chums, an article on Burne-Jones stated that. his pet grandson used to be punished by being sent to stand in a corner with his face to the wall. One day on being sent there he was delighted to find the wall prettily decorated with fairies, flowers, birds and his indulgent grandfather had utilised his talent to alleviate the tedium of his favourites period of penance. Burne-Jones once admitted that after leaving Oxford he found himself at five-and-twenty what he ought to have been at fifteen and he had had no regular training as a draughtsman, and lacked the confidence of science. Many are pen-and-ink drawings on vellum, exquisitely finished, of which his Waxen Image is one of the earliest and best examples, although the subject, medium and manner derive from Rossettis inspiration, it is not the hand of a pupil merely, but of a potential master. This was recognized by Rossetti himself, who before long avowed that he had nothing more to teach him
22.
William Morris
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William Morris was an English textile designer, poet, novelist, translator, and socialist activist. Associated with the British Arts and Crafts Movement, he was a contributor to the revival of traditional British textile arts. His literary contributions helped to establish the modern fantasy genre, while he played a significant role in propagating the early socialist movement in Britain. Born in Walthamstow, Essex, to a wealthy family, Morris came under the strong influence of medievalism while studying Classics at Oxford University. Webb and Morris designed a home, Red House, then in Kent. In 1861, Morris founded a decorative arts firm with Burne-Jones, Rossetti, Webb, and others, in 1875, Morris assumed total control of the company, which was renamed Morris & Co. Although retaining a main home in London, from 1871 Morris rented the rural retreat of Kelmscott Manor, greatly influenced by visits to Iceland, with Eiríkr Magnússon he produced a series of English-language translations of Icelandic Sagas. In 1877 he founded the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings to campaign against the damage caused by architectural restoration, in 1891 he founded the Kelmscott Press to publish limited-edition, illuminated-style print books, a cause to which he devoted his final years. Morris is recognised as one of the most significant cultural figures of Victorian Britain, though best known in his lifetime as a poet, founded in 1955, the William Morris Society is devoted to his legacy, while multiple biographies and studies of his work have seen publication. Many of the associated with his life are open to visitors, much of his work can be found in art galleries and museums. Morris was born at Elm House in Walthamstow, Essex, on 24 March 1834. Raised into a wealthy family, he was named after his father. His mother was Emma Morris, who came from Woodford Hall in Woodford, Essex and he also took rides through the Essex countryside on his pony, and visited the various churches and cathedrals throughout the country, marveling at their architecture. His father took him on visits outside of the county, for instance to Canterbury Cathedral, the Chiswick Horticultural Gardens, and to the Isle of Wight, where he adored Blackgang Chine. In February 1848 Morris began his studies at Marlborough College in Marlborough, Wiltshire and he despised his time there, being bullied, bored, and homesick. He did use the opportunity to many of the prehistoric sites of Wiltshire, such as Avebury and Silbury Hill. At Christmas 1851, Morris was removed from the school and returned to Water House, guy, Assistant Master at the nearby Forest School. In June 1852 Morris entered Oxford Universitys Exeter College, although since the college was full and he disliked the college and was bored by the manner in which they taught him Classics
23.
Philip Webb
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Philip Speakman Webb was an English architect sometimes called the Father of Arts and Crafts Architecture. Born in Oxford, Webb studied at Aynho in Northamptonshire and was articled to firms of builder-architects in Wolverhampton and Reading. He then moved to London where he became a junior assistant for George Edmund Street. While there he met William Morris in 1856 and then started his own practice in 1858 and he is particularly noted as the designer of Red House at Bexleyheath, southeast London in 1859 for William Morris, and – towards the end of his career – the house Standen. These were among several works in his niche, country houses. A Greater London Council blue plaque commemorates Webb and Morris at the Red House, with Morris he wrote the SPAB Manifesto, one of the key documents in the history of building conservation. He attended over 700 SPAB Committee meetings as well as undertaking numerous site visits, Webb also joined Morriss revolutionary Socialist League, becoming its treasurer. George Howard of Naworth Castle near Brampton in Cumbria was an able artist and friend of the Pre-Raphaelites, Webb had built two houses for his Naworth Castle Estate, Four Gables and Green Lane House, as well as his London house at 1 Palace Green. Much financial help was offered towards building a new church in Brampton by Charles Howard MP on condition that he chose the architect, webbs plan for St Martins Church is quite unlike most other Victorian churches, with the body of the church being almost square. It is the church designed by Webb, and contains an exquisite set of stained glass windows designed by Burne-Jones. An additional commission in the Cleveland area was Briarmead completed in 1883, located north of Greatham village, the adjoining St Francis Cottage was completed by W. F Linton in 1895 in the style of Webb. In 1901 Philip Webb retired to the country and ceased practising, ISBN9780906997000 Kirk, Sheila. Philip Webb, Pioneer of the Arts and Crafts Movement. Wiley-Academy ISBN 0-470-86808-2 Miele, Chris. From William Morris, Building Conservation, ISBN 0-300-10730-7 Media related to Philip Webb at Wikimedia Commons
24.
Olympia (Manet)
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Olympia is a painting by Édouard Manet, first exhibited at the 1865 Paris Salon, which shows a nude white woman lying on a bed being brought flowers by a black servant. Olympia was modelled by Victorine Meurent and Olympias servant by the art model Laure, Olympias confrontational gaze caused shock and astonishment when the painting was first exhibited because a number of details in the picture identified her as a prostitute. The French government acquired the painting in 1890 after a subscription organized by Claude Monet. The painting is on display at the Musée dOrsay, Paris and these include the orchid in her hair, her bracelet, pearl earrings and the oriental shawl on which she lies, symbols of wealth and sensuality. The black ribbon around her neck, in stark contrast with her pale flesh, Olympia was a name associated with prostitutes in 1860s Paris. The painting is modelled after Titians Venus of Urbino, Manet replaced the little dog in Titians painting with a black cat, which traditionally symbolized prostitution. Olympia disdainfully ignores the flowers presented to her by her servant, some have suggested that she is looking in the direction of the door, as her client barges in unannounced. The painting deviates from the canon in its style, characterized by broad, quick brushstrokes, studio lighting that eliminates mid-tones, large color surfaces. Unlike the smooth idealized nude of Alexandre Cabanels La naissance de Vénus, also painted in 1863, the canvas alone is 51.4 x 74.8 inches, which is rather large for this genre-style painting. Most paintings that were this size depicted historical or mythological events, so the size of the work, among other factors, finally, Olympia is fairly thin by the artistic standards of the time and her relatively undeveloped body is more girlish than womanly. Charles Baudelaire thought thinness more indecent than fatness, the model for Olympia, Victorine Meurent, became an accomplished painter in her own right. In part, the painting was inspired by Titians Venus of Urbino, léonce Bénédite was the first art historian to explicitly acknowledge the similarity to the Venus of Urbino in 1897. There is also similarity to Francisco Goyas La maja desnuda. There were also pictorial precedents for a woman, attended by a black servant, such as Ingres Odalisque with a Slave, Léon Benouvilles Esther with Odalisque. Comparison is also made to Ingres Grande Odalisque, unlike other artists, Manet did not depict a goddess or an odalisque but a high-class prostitute waiting for a client. Though Manets The Luncheon on the Grass sparked controversy in 1863, conservatives condemned the work as immoral and vulgar. Journalist Antonin Proust later recalled, If the canvas of the Olympia was not destroyed, the critics and the public condemned the work alike. He paid tribute to Manets honesty, however, When our artists give us Venuses, they correct nature, Édouard Manet asked himself why lie, why not tell the truth, he introduced us to Olympia, this fille of our time, whom you meet on the sidewalks
25.
Salon (Paris)
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The Salon, or rarely Paris Salon, beginning in 1667 was the official art exhibition of the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Between 1748 and 1890 it was arguably the greatest annual or biennial art event in the Western world, at the 1761 Salon, thirty-three painters, nine sculptors, and eleven engravers contributed. From 1881 onward, it has been managed by the Société des Artistes Français, in 1667, the royally sanctioned French institution of art patronage, the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture, held its first semi-public art exhibit at the Salon Carré. The Salons original focus was the display of the work of recent graduates of the École des Beaux-Arts, exhibition at the Salon de Paris was essential for any artist to achieve success in France for at least the next 200 years. Exhibition in the Salon marked a sign of royal favor, in 1725, the Salon was held in the Palace of the Louvre, when it became known as Salon or Salon de Paris. In 1737, the exhibitions, held from 18 August 1737 to 5 September 1737 at the Grand Salon of the Louvre and they were held, at first, annually, and then biennially, in odd-numbered years. They would start on the feast day of St. Louis, once made regular and public, the Salons status was never seriously in doubt. In 1748 a jury of awarded artists was introduced, from this time forward, the influence of the Salon was undisputed. The Salon exhibited paintings floor-to-ceiling and on every inch of space. The jostling of artwork became the subject of other paintings. Printed catalogues of the Salons are primary documents for art historians, critical descriptions of the exhibitions published in the gazettes mark the beginning of the modern occupation of art critic. The French revolution opened the exhibition to foreign artists, the vernissage of opening night was a grand social occasion, and a crush that gave subject matter to newspaper caricaturists like Honoré Daumier. Charles Baudelaire, Denis Diderot and others wrote reviews of the Salons, the 1848 revolution liberalized the Salon. The amount of refused works was greatly reduced, the increasingly conservative and academic juries were not receptive to the Impressionist painters, whose works were usually rejected, or poorly placed if accepted. The Salon opposed the Impressionists shift away from traditional painting styles, in 1863 the Salon jury turned away an unusually high number of the submitted paintings. An uproar resulted, particularly from regular exhibitors who had been rejected, in order to prove that the Salons were democratic, Napoleon III instituted the Salon des Refusés, containing a selection of the works that the Salon had rejected that year. It opened on 17 May 1863, marking the birth of the avant-garde, the Impressionists held their own independent exhibitions in 1874,1876,1877,1879,1880,1881,1882 and 1886. In 1881, the government withdrew official sponsorship from the annual Salon, in December 1890, the leader of the Société des Artistes Français, William-Adolphe Bouguereau, propagated the idea that Salon should be an exhibition of young, not-yet awarded, artists
26.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
27.
Bargello
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The Bargello, also known as the Palazzo del Bargello, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, or Palazzo del Popolo, is a former barracks and prison, now an art museum, in Florence, Italy. The word bargello appears to come from the late Latin bargillus, during the Italian Middle Ages it was the name given to a military captain in charge of keeping peace and justice during riots and uproars. In Florence he was hired from a foreign city to prevent any appearance of favoritism on the part of the Captain. The position could be compared with that of a current Chief of police, the name Bargello was extended to the building which was the office of the captain. The palace was built to house first the Capitano del Popolo and later, in 1261, the podestà and this Palazzo del Podestà, as it was originally called, is the oldest public building in Florence. This austere crenellated building served as model for the construction of the Palazzo Vecchio, in 1574, the Medici dispensed with the function of the Podestà and housed the bargello, the police chief of Florence, in this building, hence its name. When Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor Peter Leopold was exiled, the makeshift Governor of Tuscany decided that the Bargello should no longer be a jail, the original two-story structure was built alongside the Volognana Tower in 1256. The third story, which can be identified by the blocks used to construct it, was added after the fire of 1323. The building is designed around a courtyard with an external staircase leading to the second floor. An open well is found in the center of the courtyard, the Bargello opened as a national museum in 1865, displaying the largest Italian collection of gothic and Renaissance sculptures. The museum houses masterpieces by Michelangelo, such as his Bacchus, Pitti Tondo, Brutus, benvenuto Cellini is represented with his bronze bust of Cosimo I. There are a few works from the Baroque period, notably Gianlorenzo Berninis 1636-7 Bust of Costanza Bonarelli, the museum also has a fine collection of ceramics, textile, tapestries, ivory, silver, armours and old coins. Honolulu Hales interior courtyard, staircase, and open ceiling were modeled after the Bargello
28.
Florence
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Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the Metropolitan City of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants, Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of the time. It is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has called the Athens of the Middle Ages. A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family, from 1865 to 1871 the city was the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy. The Historic Centre of Florence attracts 13 million tourists each year and it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture, the city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics. Due to Florences artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world, in 2008, the city had the 17th highest average income in Italy. Florence originated as a Roman city, and later, after a period as a flourishing trading and banking medieval commune. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, it was politically, economically, and culturally one of the most important cities in Europe, the language spoken in the city during the 14th century was, and still is, accepted as the Italian language. Starting from the late Middle Ages, Florentine money—in the form of the gold florin—financed the development of all over Europe, from Britain to Bruges, to Lyon. Florentine bankers financed the English kings during the Hundred Years War and they similarly financed the papacy, including the construction of their provisional capital of Avignon and, after their return to Rome, the reconstruction and Renaissance embellishment of Rome. Florence was home to the Medici, one of European historys most important noble families, Lorenzo de Medici was considered a political and cultural mastermind of Italy in the late 15th century. Two members of the family were popes in the early 16th century, Leo X, catherine de Medici married king Henry II of France and, after his death in 1559, reigned as regent in France. Marie de Medici married Henry IV of France and gave birth to the future king Louis XIII, the Medici reigned as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, starting with Cosimo I de Medici in 1569 and ending with the death of Gian Gastone de Medici in 1737. The Etruscans initially formed in 200 BC the small settlement of Fiesole and it was built in the style of an army camp with the main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, intersecting at the present Piazza della Repubblica. Situated along the Via Cassia, the route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century, Florence was conquered by Charlemagne in 774 and became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as capital. The population began to again and commerce prospered
29.
Lawrence Alma-Tadema
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Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, OM, RA was a Dutch painter of special British denizenship. Born in Dronrijp, the Netherlands, and trained at the Royal Academy of Antwerp, Belgium, he settled in England in 1870, Lourens Alma Tadema was born on 8 January 1836 in the village of Dronrijp in the province of Friesland in the north of the Netherlands. The surname Tadema is an old Frisian patronymic, meaning son of Tade, while the names Lourens and he was the sixth child of Pieter Jiltes Tadema, the village notary, and the third child of Hinke Dirks Brouwer. His father had three sons from a previous marriage and his parents first child died young, and the second was Atje, Lourens sister, for whom he had great affection. The Tadema family moved in 1838 to the city of Leeuwarden. His father died when Lourens was four, leaving his mother with five children, Lourens, his sister and his mother had artistic leanings, and decided that drawing lessons should be incorporated into the childrens education. He received his first art training with a drawing master hired to teach his older half-brothers. It was intended that the boy would become a lawyer, diagnosed as consumptive and given only a short time to live, he was allowed to spend his remaining days at his leisure, drawing and painting. Left to his own devices he regained his health and decided to pursue a career as an artist, in 1852 he entered the Royal Academy of Antwerp in Belgium where he studied early Dutch and Flemish art, under Gustaf Wappers. During Alma-Tademas four years as a student at the Academy. Although de Taeye was not a painter, Alma-Tadema respected him and became his studio assistant. De Taeye introduced him to books that influenced his desire to portray Merovingian subjects early in his career and he was encouraged to depict historical accuracy in his paintings, a trait for which the artist became known. Under his guidance Alma-Tadema painted his first major work, The Education of the children of Clovis and this painting created a sensation among critics and artists when it was exhibited that year at the Artistic Congress in Antwerp. It is said to have laid the foundation of his fame, Alma-Tadema related that although Leys thought the completed painting better than he had expected, he was critical of the treatment of marble, which he compared to cheese. Alma-Tadema took this very seriously, and it led him to improve his technique and to become the worlds foremost painter of marble. Merovingian themes were the favourite subject up to the mid-1860s. It is perhaps in this series that we find the artist moved by the deepest feeling, however Merovingian subjects did not have a wide international appeal, so he switched to themes of life in ancient Egypt that were more popular. On these scenes of Frankish and Egyptian life Alma-Tadema spent great energy, in 1862 Alma-Tadema left Leyss studio and started his own career, establishing himself as a significant classical-subject European artist
30.
Albert Bierstadt
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Albert Bierstadt was an American painter best known for his lavish, sweeping landscapes of the American West. To paint the scenes, Bierstadt joined several journeys of the Westward Expansion, though not the first artist to record these sites, Bierstadt was the foremost painter of these scenes for the remainder of the 19th century. Born in Germany, Bierstadt was brought to the United States at the age of one by his parents and he later returned to study painting for several years in Düsseldorf. He became part of the Hudson River School in New York and their style was based on carefully detailed paintings with romantic, almost glowing lighting, sometimes called luminism. An important interpreter of the landscape, Bierstadt, along with Thomas Moran, is also grouped with the Rocky Mountain School. Bierstadt was born in Solingen, Germany, the son of Christina M. and Henry Bierstadt, the following year, in 1831, his family moved to New Bedford, Massachusetts. At an early age Bierstadt developed a taste for art and made clever crayon sketches in his youth, in 1851, he began to paint in oils. He returned to Germany in 1853 and studied painting for several years in Düsseldorf with members of its school of painting. After returning to New Bedford in 1857, he taught drawing and painting briefly, in 1858 he exhibited a large painting of a Swiss landscape at the National Academy of Design, which gained him positive critical reception and honorary membership in the Academy. Bierstadt began painting scenes in New England and upstate New York, a group of artists known as the Hudson River School portrayed its majestic landscapes and craggy areas, as well as the light affected by the changing waters. In 1859, Bierstadt traveled westward in the company of Frederick W. Lander and he returned to a studio he had taken at the Tenth Street Studio Building in New York with sketches that resulted in numerous finished paintings. In 1863 he traveled west again, this time in the company of the author Fitz Hugh Ludlow, throughout the 1860s, Bierstadt used studies from this trip as the source for large-scale paintings for exhibition. He continued to visit the American West throughout his career, during the American Civil War, Bierstadt paid for a substitute to serve in his place when he was drafted in 1863. He completed one Civil War painting Guerrilla Warfare, Civil War in 1862, Bierstadts painting was based on a stereoscopic photograph taken by his brother Edward Bierstadt, who operated a photography studio at Langleys Tavern in Virginia. Bierstadts painting received a review when it was exhibited at the Brooklyn Art Association at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in December 1861. In 1860, he was elected a member of the National Academy, he received medals in Austria, Bavaria, Belgium, in 1867 he traveled to London, where he exhibited two landscape paintings in a private reception with Queen Victoria. He traveled through Europe for two years, cultivating social and business contacts to sustain the market for his work overseas, Bierstadts technical proficiency, earned through his study of European landscape, was crucial to his success as a painter of the American West. It accounted for his popularity in disseminating views of the Rocky Mountains to those who had not seen them, the immense canvases he produced after his trips with Lander and Ludlow established him as the preeminent painter of the western American landscape
31.
Constantino Brumidi
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Constantino Brumidi was a Greek-Italian-American historical painter, best known and honored for his fresco work in the Capitol Building in Washington, DC. Brumidi was born in Rome, his father a Greek from Filiatra in the province of Messinia, Greece and he showed his talent for fresco painting at an early age and painted in several Roman palaces, among them being that of Prince Torlonia. Under Gregory XVI he worked for three years in the Vatican, taking up his residence in New York City, the artist painted a number of portraits. He also executed frescoes at Taylors Chapel, Baltimore, Maryland, in 1854 Brumidi went to Mexico, where he painted an allegorical representation of the Holy Trinity in the Mexico City cathedral. On his way back to New York he stopped at Washington D. C. impressed with the opportunity for decoration presented by its vast interior wall spaces, he offered his services for that purpose to Quartermaster General Montgomery C. This offer was accepted, and about the same time Meigs was commissioned as a captain of cavalry and his first art work in the Capitol Building was in the meeting room of the House Committee on Agriculture. At first he received eight dollars a day, which Jefferson Davis, then Secretary of War of the United States and his work attracting much favourable attention, he was given further commissions, and gradually settled into the position of a Government painter. Brumidis Liberty and Union paintings are mounted near the ceiling of the White House entrance hall, Peter and Paul in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, he pictured St. Peter and St. Paul. Brumidi was a capable, if conventional painter, and his black and white modeling in the work at Washington and he decorated the entrance hall of Saleaudo, located at Frederick, Maryland, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. A Brumidi fresco appears behind the altar in St. Ignatius Church in Baltimore, another, of Saint Aloysius Gonzaga receiving communion from Saint Charles Borromeo, hangs over the high altar of St Aloysius Church in Washington, D. C. Brumidi died in Washington, D. C. and was interred at Glenwood Cemetery, when he was buried, his grave was unmarked. The location of Brumidis grave was lost for 72 years and it was rediscovered, and on February 19,1952, a marker was finally placed above it. Forgotten for many years, Brumidis role was rescued from obscurity by Myrtle Cheney Murdock and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. article name needed. Constantino Brumidi, artist of the Capitol, constantino Brumidi, Il Michelangelo Del Capitol - Dossena, Tiziano Thomas, LIdea Magazine N.24, Vol. II,2005, New York
32.
The Apotheosis of Washington
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The Apotheosis of Washington is the fresco painted by Greek-Italian artist Constantino Brumidi in 1865 and visible through the oculus of the dome in the rotunda of the United States Capitol Building. The fresco is suspended 180 feet above the floor and covers an area of 4,664 square feet. The figures painted are up to 15 feet tall and are visible from the floor below, the dome was completed in 1863, and Brumidi painted it over the course of 11 months at the end of the Civil War. He was paid $40,000 for the fresco, Brumidi had worked for three years in the Vatican under Pope Gregory XVI, and served several aristocrats as an artist for palaces and villas, including the prince Torlonia. He immigrated to the United States in 1852, and spent much of the last 25 years of his working in the Capitol. In addition to The Apotheosis of Washington he designed the Brumidi Corridors, the Apotheosis of Washington depicts George Washington sitting amongst the heavens in an exalted manner, or in literal terms, ascending and becoming a god. Washington, the first U. S. president and commander-in-chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, is represented, surrounded by figures from classical mythology. Washington is draped in purple, a color, with a rainbow arch at his feet, flanked by the goddess Victoria to his left. Liberty wears a red Phrygian cap, symbolizing emancipation, from a Roman tradition where sons leaving the home and/or slaves being emancipated would be given a red cap and she holds a fasces in her right hand and an open book in the other. Forming a circle between Liberty and Victory are 13 maidens, each with a star above her head, representing the original 13 colonies. Several of the maidens have their backs turned to Washington, said to represent the colonies that had seceded from the Union at the time of painting, upside down above Washington is the banner E Pluribus Unum meaning out of many, one. The perimeter scenes are not fully visible from the floor of the Capitol, Apotheosis Panthéon, Paris - building with a dome fresco titled The Apotheosis of Saint Genevieve The Apotheosis of Washington, Architect of the Capitol. The Apotheosis of George Washington, Brumidis fresco & Beyond, The University of Virginia, the Telegraph Field, Valentia Island, Ireland. Study for the Apotheosis of George Washington, c, the Italian presence in American art, 1860-1920. Apotheosisofwashington. com, dedicated website with interactive panorama view Presidents Day and the Apotheosis of Washington, Online Library of Liberty
33.
Fresco
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Fresco is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly-laid, or wet lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the setting of the plaster, the fresco technique has been employed since antiquity and is closely associated with Italian Renaissance painting. Buon fresco pigment mixed with water of temperature on a thin layer of wet, fresh plaster, for which the Italian word for plaster. Because of the makeup of the plaster, a binder is not required, as the pigment mixed solely with the water will sink into the intonaco. The pigment is absorbed by the wet plaster, after a number of hours, many artists sketched their compositions on this underlayer, which would never be seen, in a red pigment called sinopia, a name also used to refer to these under-paintings. Later, new techniques for transferring paper drawings to the wall were developed. The main lines of a drawing made on paper were pricked over with a point, the paper held against the wall, if the painting was to be done over an existing fresco, the surface would be roughened to provide better adhesion. This area is called the giornata, and the different day stages can usually be seen in a large fresco, buon frescoes are difficult to create because of the deadline associated with the drying plaster. Once a giornata is dried, no more buon fresco can be done, if mistakes have been made, it may also be necessary to remove the whole intonaco for that area—or to change them later, a secco. An indispensable component of this process is the carbonatation of the lime, the eyes of the people of the School of Athens are sunken-in using this technique which causes the eyes to seem deeper and more pensive. Michelangelo used this technique as part of his trademark outlining of his central figures within his frescoes, in a wall-sized fresco, there may be ten to twenty or even more giornate, or separate areas of plaster. After five centuries, the giornate, which were nearly invisible, have sometimes become visible, and in many large-scale frescoes. Additionally, the border between giornate was often covered by an a secco painting, which has fallen off. One of the first painters in the period to use this technique was the Isaac Master in the Upper Basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi. A person who creates fresco is called a frescoist, a secco or fresco-secco painting is done on dry plaster. The pigments thus require a medium, such as egg. Blue was a problem, and skies and blue robes were often added a secco, because neither azurite blue nor lapis lazuli. By the end of the century this had largely displaced buon fresco
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