1.
1857 in art
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Events from the year 1857 in art. June 22 – The South Kensington Museum, predecessor of the Victoria, lewis Carroll meets John Ruskin and begins to associate with the Pre-Raphaelites. In the same year, Ruskin publishes his Political Economy of Art, may 5 – October 17 – The Art Treasures of Great Britain exhibition is held in Manchester, one of the largest such displays of all time. Emily Mary Osborn – Nameless and Friendless O. G. W
2.
1859 in art
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Events from the year 1859 in art. March 22 – Scottish National Gallery opens to the public in Edinburgh in neoclassical premises designed by W. H. Playfair, april 26 – William Morris marries his model, Jane Burden. Edward Burne-Jones presents them with a self-painted wardrobe, frederic E. Churchs The Heart of the Andes is exhibited in New York and draws 12,000 paying visitors. The Artists Rifles set up in London as a unit of the British Army
3.
1861 in art
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Events from the year 1861 in art. February – Hilda Sjölin opens a studio in Malmö, making her one of the first known Swedish female professional photographers. Paul Cézanne and his friend Émile Zola arrive in Paris, berthe Morisot becomes a pupil of Corot. Édouard Manet has his first paintings accepted by the Salon, william Bell Scott concludes his series of murals of Northumbrian history at Wallington Hall with Iron and Coal, the Nineteenth Century
4.
1863 in art
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Events from the year 1863 in art. March – American-born painter James McNeill Whistler settles close to the River Thames in Chelsea, London, the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris becomes independent of the Académie des Beaux-Arts. Julia Margaret Cameron takes up photography, alexander Gilchrists Life of William Blake, Pictor Ignotus is published in London, edited posthumously by Anne Gilchrist. May 17 – Opening of first exhibition of the Salon des Refusés in Paris, and coining of the term avant-garde
5.
1864 in art
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Events from the year 1864 in art. January 30 – National Gallery of Ireland opens to the public in Dublin in a designed by Francis Fowke based on early plans by Charles Lanyon. February 20 – Painter George Frederic Watts marries his 16-year-old model and she elopes less than a year later. December 30 – Julia Margaret Cameron sends John Herschel an album of her first years photography including her iconic portrait of him, stanisław Chlebowski takes up a post as master painter to Sultan Abdülaziz in Istanbul. The National Gallery in London acquires The Annunciation, with Saint Emidius from Lord Taunton, F. Watts – Choosing James McNeill Whistler Caprice in Purple and Gold, The Golden Screen Symphony in White, No
6.
1865 in art
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Events from the year 1865 in art. July 21 – Charles Dodgson photographs Effie Gray Millais, John Everett Millais, ford Madox Brown completes his painting Work after thirteen years. Édouard Manets painting Olympia is first exhibited, at the Salon, jean-François Millets painting The Angelus is first exhibited and becomes very popular in France. The Bargello in Florence becomes an art museum
7.
1870 in art
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Events from the year 1870 in art. June 28 – Claude Monet marries his mistress and model Camille Doncieux in Paris, july – Franco-Prussian War breaks out, Monet and Pissarro flee to London, Cézanne and his mistress, Marie-Hortense Fiquet, leave Paris for LEstaque where he predominantly paints landscapes. In September the Dutch painter Lourens Alma Tadema moves permanently to London where he adopts the name Lawrence Alma-Tadema, Édouard Manet and Louis Edmond Duranty fight a duel at Café Guerbois, Paris. Russian industrialist and patron of the arts Savva Mamontov acquires the Abramtsevo Colony, dante Gabriel Rossettis Poems are published, exhumed from Elizabeth Siddals grave. Daoud Corm goes to Rome to study under Roberto Bompiani at the Accademia di San Luca
8.
1871 in art
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Events from the year 1871 in art. March – Edward Lear settles at his villa in Sanremo, spring – James McNeill Whistler publishes Sixteen etchings of scenes on the Thames and paints his first moonlights of the river. May – James Tissot flees Paris for London, june 14 – Camille Pissarro marries his mistress Julie Vellay in the London borough of Croydon and moves to Pontoise. Summer – Claude Monet visits Zaandam, december – Monet and his wife Camille move to Argenteuil. William Morris and Dante Gabriel Rossetti become tenants of Kelmscott Manor, marie Spartali marries William James Stillman. Crocker establishes the Crocker Art Museum in Sacramento, California, the Apotheosis of War George Frederic Watts – Portrait of Frederic Leighton Alfred Waud – A Home on the Mississippi James McNeill Whistler Arrangement in Grey and Black No
9.
1872 in art
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Events from the year 1872 in art. February 20 – The Metropolitan Museum of Art opens in New York City. A, november 13 – Claude Monet begins painting Impression, Sunrise as viewed from his hotel room at Le Havre. November – Edward Lear acquires his cat Foss, date unknown William De Morgan sets up an art pottery in Chelsea, London. The first Wallace fountains, to the design of sculptor Charles-Auguste Lebourg, are installed in Paris
10.
1873 in art
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Events from the year 1873 in art. Early – Pre-Raphaelite painter Simeon Solomon is arrested in a urinal in London. May – Vincent van Gogh is re-located to London by his employer, monet, Renoir, Pissarro, and Sisley organize the Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs, etc. for the purpose of exhibiting artworks independently. The collection forming the Galleria Nazionale dellUmbria is moved to the Palazzo dei Priori, new Accademia delle Arti del Disegno established in Florence. Leslie Ward, as Spy, begins producing caricatures for the British magazine Vanity Fair
11.
1874 in art
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Events from the year 1874 in art. August 22 – English illustrator Helen Paterson marries Irish poet and editor William Allingham, december 19 – Monet begins painting his Snow at Argenteuil series. December 22 – Berthe Morisot, who has exhibited at the first Impressionist exhibition, marries Eugène, brother of Édouard Manet, goyas Black Paintings are transferred to canvas
12.
1876 in art
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Events from the year 1876 in art. April – Impressionist exhibition at the house of Paul Durand-Ruel,11 rue Peletier, may 16 – German American Napoleon of crime Adam Worth steals Gainsboroughs portrait Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire from Agnews gallery in Old Bond Street, London. Henrietta Montalba exhibits at the Royal Academy for the first time, kathleen Newton moves into the London home of James Tissot, becoming his mistress and model
13.
1866 in architecture
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The year 1866 in architecture involved some significant events. The New Synagogue, Berlin, Germany is completed by Friedrich August Stüler to the design of Eduard Knoblauch, marks Church, Royal Tunbridge Wells, England, designed by Robert Lewis Roumieu, is consecrated. The Princess Theatre, Melbourne, Australia by architect William Pitt is completed, the Plaka Bridge in Greece is completed by Kostas Bekas. Royal Gold Medal - Matthew Digby Wyatt, grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Jean-Louis Pascal
14.
1866 in music
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January – Gabriel Fauré becomes organist at the Church of Saint-Sauveur, at Rennes in Brittany. March–December – Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky writes his Symphony No, may 30 – Bedřich Smetanas opera The Bartered Bride debuts at the Provisional Theatre. August – Sir William Sterndale Bennett becomes Principal of the Royal Academy of Music in London, august 4 – First performance of Gabriel Faurés Cantique de Jean Racine. August 9 – Marie Trautmann marries fellow musician Alfred Jaëll, october 21 – Jacques Offenbachs operetta La Vie parisienne debuts in Paris at the Théâtre du Palais Royale. November 17 – Ambroise Thomass opera] Mignon debuts in Paris at the Opéra-Comique, theodore Thomas conducts the New York Philharmonic in the American premiere of the Prelude to Act 1 of Wagners Tristan und Isolde. Georges Bizet completes the opera La jolie fille de Perth, it is premiered the following year, claribel We Parted By The River w. m. William Shakespeare Hays When You and I Were Young, Maggie by James A. Butterfield & George Washington Johnson Write Me A Letter Home w. m
15.
Vinnie Ream
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Lavinia Ellen Vinnie Ream Hoxie was an American sculptor. Her most famous work is the statue of Abraham Lincoln in the U. S. Capitol rotunda, Ream was born September 25,1847, in a log cabin in Madison, Wisconsin, as Lavinia Ellen Ream. She was the youngest daughter of Lavinia and Robert Ream, Robert Ream was a surveyor and a Wisconsin Territory civil servant. Her mother was a McDonald of Scottish ancestry, the Reams also operated a stage coach stop, one of the first hotels in Madison, from their home. Her brother Robert Ream enlisted in the Confederate army, in Arkansas, Vinnie Ream attended Christian College in Columbia, Missouri, now known as Columbia College. A portrait of Martha Washington by Ream hangs in St. Clair Hall, in 1861, her family moved to Washington, D. C. After her fathers health began to fail, she began working outside the home to support her family. Vinnie Ream was one of the first women to be employed by the federal government and she sang at the E Street Baptist Church, and for the wounded at Washington, D. C. hospitals. She collected materials for the Grand Sanitary Commission, in 1863, James S. Rollins introduced Ream to sculptor Clark Mills. She became an apprentice in Millss sculpting studio the next year, in 1864, President Lincoln agreed to model for her in the morning for five months, and she created a bust of his figure. During this time, Ream also began intense public relations efforts, selling photographs of herself, Vinnie Ream was the youngest artist and first woman to receive a commission as an artist from the United States government for a statue. She was awarded the commission for the full-size Carrara marble statue of Lincoln by a vote of Congress on July 28,1866 and she had used her previous bust of Lincoln as her entry into the selection contest for the full-size sculpture. She was notorious for her beauty and her skills, which likely contributed to these accusations. She worked in a studio in Room A of the basement of the Capitol, senator Edmund G. Ross boarded with Reams family during the impeachment of Andrew Johnson. Ross cast the vote against the removal of President Johnson from office. She was almost thrown out of the Capitol with her unfinished Lincoln statue, once the U. S. government had approved the plaster model, Ream traveled to Paris, Munich, Florence, then Rome, to produce a finished marble figure. She studied with Léon Bonnat in Paris, also producing busts of Gustave Doré, Père Hyacynthe, Franz Liszt and her studio in Rome was at 45 Via de San Basile. She met Georg Brandes at that time, while in Rome, she faced controversial rumors that claimed that it was the Italian workmen and not Ream who were responsible for her successful sculpture of Lincoln
16.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
17.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
18.
United States Capitol rotunda
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The United States Capitol rotunda is the central rotunda of the United States Capitol in Washington, D. C. Located below the Capitol dome, it is the tallest part of the Capitol and has described as its symbolic. The rotunda is surrounded by corridors connecting the House of Representatives, to the south of the rotunda is the semi-circular National Statuary Hall, which until 1857 was the House of Representatives chamber. To the northeast of the rotunda is the Old Senate Chamber, used by the Senate until 1859 and by the Supreme Court of the United States until 1935. The rotunda is 96 feet in diameter and rises 48 feet to the top of its walls and 180 feet 3 inches to the canopy of the dome, the dome is surmounted by the American Statue of Freedom. It is also used for ceremonial events authorized by concurrent resolution, the doctor and architect William Thornton was the winner of the contest to design the Capitol in 1793. Thornton had first conceived the idea of a central rotunda, however, due to lack of funds or resources, oft-interrupted construction, and the British attack on Washington during the War of 1812, work on the rotunda did not begin until 1818. The rotunda was designed in the style and was intended to evoke the design of the Pantheon. The sandstone rotunda walls rise 48 feet above the floor, everything above this—the Capitol dome–was designed in 1854 by Thomas U, Walter, the fourth Architect of the Capitol. Walter had also designed the Capitols north and south extensions, in 1862, Walter asked painter Constantino Brumidi to design a picture 65 feet in diameter, painted in fresco, on the concave canopy over the eye of the New Dome of the U. S. Capitol. At this time, Brumidi may have added a watercolor canopy design over Walters tentative 1859 sketch, the dome was being finished in the middle of the American Civil War and was constructed from fireproof cast iron. During the Civil War, the rotunda was used as a hospital for Union soldiers. The dome was completed in 1866. Originally the crypt had an open ceiling into the rotunda, visitors can still see the holes in the stone circle that marked the rim of the open space in the rotunda floor. In January 2013, the Architect of the Capitol announced a four-year, $10 million project to repair and conserve the Capitol Domes exterior, the dome and rotunda, which were last conserved in 1960, are showing significant signs of rust and disrepair. There is a danger that decorative ironwork could fall from the rotunda to the space below, without immediate repair, safety netting will be installed. Eight niches in the rotunda hold large, framed historical paintings, all are oil-on-canvas and measure 12 by 18 feet. Four of these are scenes from the American Revolution, painted by John Trumbull and these are Declaration of Independence, Surrender of General Burgoyne, Surrender of Lord Cornwallis, and General George Washington Resigning his Commission
19.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
20.
Nationalmuseum
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Nationalmuseum is the national gallery of Sweden, located on the peninsula Blasieholmen in central Stockholm. The museums benefactors include King Gustav III and Carl Gustaf Tessin, the museum also has an art library, open to the public and academics alike. The current building, built between 1844 and 1866, was inspired by North Italian Renaissance architecture and it is the design of the German architect Friedrich August Stüler, who also designed the Neues Museum in Berlin. The relatively closed exterior, save for the entrance, gives no hint of the spacious interior dominated by the huge flight of stairs leading up to the topmost galleries. The museum was enlarged in 1961 to accommodate the museum workshops, the present restaurant was instated in 1996. The museum building closed for renovation in 2013 and is scheduled to reopen in 2018, the Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis by Rembrandt Midvinterblot by Carl Larsson Vid bäcken by Peter Adolf Persson Hallwyl Palace Swedish Museum of National Antiquities Johan Mårtelius. Stockholm, Arkitektur Förlag AB. p.67
21.
Stockholm
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The city is spread across 14 islands on the coast in the southeast of Sweden at the mouth of Lake Mälaren, by the Stockholm archipelago and the Baltic Sea. The area has settled since the Stone Age, in the 6th millennium BC. It is also the capital of Stockholm County, Stockholm is the cultural, media, political, and economic centre of Sweden. The Stockholm region alone accounts for over a third of the countrys GDP and it is an important global city, and the main centre for corporate headquarters in the Nordic region. The city is home to some of Europes top ranking universities, such as the Stockholm School of Economics, Karolinska Institute and it hosts the annual Nobel Prize ceremonies and banquet at the Stockholm Concert Hall and Stockholm City Hall. One of the citys most prized museums, the Vasa Museum, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia. The Stockholm metro, opened in 1950, is known for its decoration of the stations. Swedens national football arena is located north of the city centre, Ericsson Globe, the national indoor arena, is in the southern part of the city. The city was the host of the 1912 Summer Olympics, and hosted the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics otherwise held in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government and most of its agencies, including the highest courts in the judiciary, and the official residencies of the Swedish monarch and the Prime Minister. The government has its seat in the Rosenbad building, the Riksdag is seated in the Parliament House, and the Prime Ministers residence is adjacent at the Sager House. After the Ice Age, around 8,000 BCE, there were already a number of people living in the present-day Stockholm area. Thousands of years later, as the ground thawed, the climate became tolerable, at the intersection of the Baltic Sea and lake Mälaren is an archipelago site where the Old Town of Stockholm was first built from about 1000 CE by Vikings. They had a positive impact on the area because of the trade routes they created. Stockholms location appears in Norse sagas as Agnafit, and in Heimskringla in connection with the legendary king Agne, the earliest written mention of the name Stockholm dates from 1252, by which time the mines in Bergslagen made it an important site in the iron trade. The first part of the name means log in Swedish, although it may also be connected to an old German word meaning fortification, the second part of the name means islet, and is thought to refer to the islet Helgeandsholmen in central Stockholm. Stockholms core, the present Old Town was built on the island next to Helgeandsholmen from the mid 13th century onward. The city originally rose to prominence as a result of the Baltic trade of the Hanseatic League, Stockholm developed strong economic and cultural linkages with Lübeck, Hamburg, Gdańsk, Visby, Reval, and Riga during this time
22.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
23.
Claude Monet
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Monets ambition of documenting the French countryside led him to adopt a method of painting the same scene many times in order to capture the changing of light and the passing of the seasons. From 1883 Monet lived in Giverny, where he purchased a house and property, Claude Monet was born on 14 November 1840 on the fifth floor of 45 rue Laffitte, in the 9th arrondissement of Paris. He was the son of Claude Adolphe Monet and Louise Justine Aubrée Monet. On 20 May 1841, he was baptized in the parish church, Notre-Dame-de-Lorette, as Oscar-Claude. Despite being baptized Catholic, Monet later became an atheist, in 1845, his family moved to Le Havre in Normandy. His father wanted him to go into the familys ship-chandling and grocery business and his mother was a singer, and supported Monets desire for a career in art. On 1 April 1851, Monet entered Le Havre secondary school of the arts, locals knew him well for his charcoal caricatures, which he would sell for ten to twenty francs. Monet also undertook his first drawing lessons from Jacques-François Ochard, a student of Jacques-Louis David. On the beaches of Normandy around 1856 he met fellow artist Eugène Boudin, Boudin taught Monet en plein air techniques for painting. Both received the influence of Johan Barthold Jongkind, on 28 January 1857, his mother died. At the age of sixteen, he left school and went to live with his widowed, childless aunt, when Monet traveled to Paris to visit the Louvre, he witnessed painters copying from the old masters. Having brought his paints and other tools with him, he would go and sit by a window. Monet was in Paris for several years and met other painters, including Édouard Manet and others who would become friends. After drawing a low number in March 1861, Monet was drafted into the First Regiment of African Light Cavalry in Algeria for a seven-year period of military service. His prosperous father could have purchased Monets exemption from conscription but declined to do so when his son refused to give up painting. While in Algeria Monet did only a few sketches of scenes, a single landscape. In a Le Temps interview of 1900 however he commented that the light, after about a year of garrison duty in Algiers, Monet contracted typhoid fever and briefly went absent without leave. Following convalescence, Monets aunt intervened to get him out of the army if he agreed to complete a course at an art school and it is possible that the Dutch painter Johan Barthold Jongkind, whom Monet knew, may have prompted his aunt on this matter
24.
Camille Doncieux
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Camille Doncieux was the first wife of French painter Claude Monet. She was the subject of a number of paintings by Monet, as well as Pierre-Auguste Renoir and she was mother to two sons with Monet. Camille-Léonie Doncieux was born in the town of La Guillotiere, now part of Lyons, France and her father, Charles Claude Doncieux, was a merchant. He moved with his wife and daughter to Paris, near the Sorbonne, a few years after the birth of her sister, Geneviève-François in 1857, the family moved to Batignolles, now a part of the northwestern section of Paris. While in her teens, Doncieux began work as a model and she met Monet, seven years her senior, in 1865 and became his model posing for numerous paintings. She was Monets mistress, living in poverty at the beginning of his career and his aunt and father did not approve of the relationship with Camille. She was left behind in Paris without funds for her care, in Paris on 8 August 1867, Camille Doncieux gave birth to Jean, her first son with Claude Monet. He returned to Paris at the end of the year for the holidays, in 1868 Monet went to live with Camille and Jean in Paris, hiding the fact from his father and aunt who thought he abandoned his mistress and child. To escape his creditors and live in an expensive place. They were thrown out of the inn they were staying in for non-payment, Camille and Jean were able to stay with someone in the country, while Monet tried to obtain monies for survival. Camille and Monet were married on 28 June 1870 in the 8th arrondissement of Paris during a civil ceremony, painter Gustave Courbet was a witness. Although Monets father was not present because he did not approve of his marriage, upon her marriage, Camille received a 1,200 franc dowry, which represented two years interest on a principal investment that she would receive upon her fathers death. Her parents stipulated that the money should be kept in a separate account in Camilles name. This was done to protect the money from Claude Monets creditors, the couple took their son Jean with them on their honeymoon to Trouville-sur-Mer and stayed at the Hotel Trivoli. Continuing to avoid creditors, Monet also sought to avoid being drafted to serve during the Franco-Prussian War. He left his bride and son to go to Le Havre, France to visit his father and then on to England. Camille and Jean met up with him in England in October 1870 and they lived at Bath Place, now Kensington High Street, by early 1871. It was here that Monet made the painting of Camille that he made in London
25.
Albert Bierstadt
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Albert Bierstadt was an American painter best known for his lavish, sweeping landscapes of the American West. To paint the scenes, Bierstadt joined several journeys of the Westward Expansion, though not the first artist to record these sites, Bierstadt was the foremost painter of these scenes for the remainder of the 19th century. Born in Germany, Bierstadt was brought to the United States at the age of one by his parents and he later returned to study painting for several years in Düsseldorf. He became part of the Hudson River School in New York and their style was based on carefully detailed paintings with romantic, almost glowing lighting, sometimes called luminism. An important interpreter of the landscape, Bierstadt, along with Thomas Moran, is also grouped with the Rocky Mountain School. Bierstadt was born in Solingen, Germany, the son of Christina M. and Henry Bierstadt, the following year, in 1831, his family moved to New Bedford, Massachusetts. At an early age Bierstadt developed a taste for art and made clever crayon sketches in his youth, in 1851, he began to paint in oils. He returned to Germany in 1853 and studied painting for several years in Düsseldorf with members of its school of painting. After returning to New Bedford in 1857, he taught drawing and painting briefly, in 1858 he exhibited a large painting of a Swiss landscape at the National Academy of Design, which gained him positive critical reception and honorary membership in the Academy. Bierstadt began painting scenes in New England and upstate New York, a group of artists known as the Hudson River School portrayed its majestic landscapes and craggy areas, as well as the light affected by the changing waters. In 1859, Bierstadt traveled westward in the company of Frederick W. Lander and he returned to a studio he had taken at the Tenth Street Studio Building in New York with sketches that resulted in numerous finished paintings. In 1863 he traveled west again, this time in the company of the author Fitz Hugh Ludlow, throughout the 1860s, Bierstadt used studies from this trip as the source for large-scale paintings for exhibition. He continued to visit the American West throughout his career, during the American Civil War, Bierstadt paid for a substitute to serve in his place when he was drafted in 1863. He completed one Civil War painting Guerrilla Warfare, Civil War in 1862, Bierstadts painting was based on a stereoscopic photograph taken by his brother Edward Bierstadt, who operated a photography studio at Langleys Tavern in Virginia. Bierstadts painting received a review when it was exhibited at the Brooklyn Art Association at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in December 1861. In 1860, he was elected a member of the National Academy, he received medals in Austria, Bavaria, Belgium, in 1867 he traveled to London, where he exhibited two landscape paintings in a private reception with Queen Victoria. He traveled through Europe for two years, cultivating social and business contacts to sustain the market for his work overseas, Bierstadts technical proficiency, earned through his study of European landscape, was crucial to his success as a painter of the American West. It accounted for his popularity in disseminating views of the Rocky Mountains to those who had not seen them, the immense canvases he produced after his trips with Lander and Ludlow established him as the preeminent painter of the western American landscape
26.
A Storm in the Rocky Mountains, Mt. Rosalie
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A Storm in the Rocky Mountains, Mt. Rosalie is an 1866 landscape oil painting by German-American painter Albert Bierstadt that was inspired by sketches created on an 1863 expedition. Bierstadt traveled to the Colorado Rocky Mountains where he was taken up to the Chicago Lakes beneath Mount Evans, the painting is named after Bierstadts mistress and, at the time, his friends wife, Rosalie Osborne Ludlow. The painting, measuring at 210.8 ×361.3 cm, is exhibited at the Brooklyn Museum, by the mid-19th century, the U. S. Government had begun sending surveying expeditions into the newly incorporated territories of the American West. Albert Bierstadt ventured on at least two of these expeditions, which, along with trips in the West, would inspire an incredible amount of his creative output. On his first expedition in 1859, he joined U. S. explorer Frederick W. Lander, taking photographs of Native Americans and they traveled through Kansas, Nebraska, and into the Wind River Range of the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming. A Storm in the Rocky Mountains, Mt. Rosalie was born from sketches created during his expedition to the West in 1863. The voyage would take Bierstadt to the Colorado and Wyoming Rocky Mountains, then on to Salt Lake City, Utah, and into California, with stops at Lake Tahoe, San Francisco, the expedition ended in Oregon by November 1863. After a journey totaling eight months, both Ludlow and Bierstadt returned to New York on 17 December. They met Ludlows wife, Rosalie Osborne, in St. Louis, Missouri, who accompanied them as far as Atchison, Kansas, as they proceeded into and through Nebraska, Bierstadt would continuously sketch the land, weather, animals, and people around him. During this time, their party passed a train of German emigrants who were headed to Oregon. This event most likely inspired several paintings of the Oregon Trail, including Emigrants Crossing the Plains, while still in the plains, the party stopped at a ranch to enjoy a buffalo hunt. Although Bierstadt did not participate, he was excited to paint the hunted animals, one of the men had wounded a bull and called to Ludlow to fetch Bierstadt. Ludlow and two other men taunted the bull so that may see him in action, the party continued through Nebraska, before following the South Platte River toward Denver, Colorado. It was just after dawn when the expedition driver pointed westward and said, the journey would not have been possible because they lacked suitable vehicles, but Governor John Evans kindly lent the expedition his ambulance wagon and a pair of stout serviceable horses. Bierstadt rode with his color-box alongside the guide, following the ambulance in a buckboard pulled by a single horse, on 10 June, the six-person party set off after breakfast. Ludlow and another man hiked to the top, describing it as the quietest, sunniest, most satisfying mount of vision we had yet climbed, Bierstadt stopped long enough to sketch the butte before continuing his way south. On reaching the actual springs, the men compared the tastes of each spring, created lemon-flavored soda, the afternoon of their last day was spent in the Garden of the Gods. The men were so impressed by the landscape, that t was a disappointment to some of our kind friends that our artist did not choose the Garden of the Gods for a big picture
27.
Carl Bloch
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Carl Heinrich Bloch was a Danish painter. He was born in Copenhagen, Denmark and studied with Wilhelm Marstrand at the Royal Danish Academy of Art there, Blochs parents wanted their son to enter a respectable profession - an officer in the Navy. This, however, was not what Carl wanted and his only interest was drawing and painting, and he was consumed by the idea of becoming an artist. He went to Italy to study art, passing through the Netherlands, where he acquainted with the work of Rembrandt. Carl Bloch met his wife, Alma Trepka, in Rome and they were happily married until her early death in 1886. His early work featured rural scenes from everyday life, from 1859 to 1866, Bloch lived in Italy, and this period was important for the development of his historical style. His first great success was the exhibition of his Prometheus Unbound in Copenhagen in 1865, after the death of Marstrand, he finished the decoration of the ceremonial hall at the University of Copenhagen. The sorrow over losing his wife weighed heavily on Bloch, in a New Years letter from 1866 to Bloch, H. C. Andersen wrote the following, What God has arched on solid rock will not be swept away, another letter from Andersen declared Through your art you add a new step to your Jacob-ladder into immortality. In a final ode, from an author to a famous artist. Andersen said Write on the canvas, write your seal on immortality, then you will become noble here on earth. He was then commissioned to produce 23 paintings for the Chapel at Frederiksborg Palace and these were all scenes from the life of Christ which have become very popular as illustrations. The originals, painted between 1865 and 1879, are still at Frederiksborg Palace, the altarpieces can be found at Holbaek, Odense, Ugerloese and Copenhagen in Denmark, as well as Loederup, Hoerup, and Landskrona in Sweden. A second work by Bloch, an 1880 grisaille version of The Mocking of Christ, was purchased by BYU in June 2015, Carl Bloch died of cancer on February 22,1890. His death came as a blow for Nordic art according to an article by Sophus Michaelis. Michaelis stated that Denmark has lost the artist that indisputably was the greatest among the living, kyhn stated in his eulogy at Carl Blochs funeral that Bloch stays and lives. A prominent Danish art critic, Karl Madsen, stated that Carl Bloch reached higher toward the heaven of art than all other Danish art up to that date. Madsen also said If there is an Elysium, where the giant, rich, warm and noble artist souls meet, the most notable example of this is the movie The Testaments of One Fold and One Shepherd
28.
In a Roman Osteria
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In a Roman Osteria is a painting by the Danish painter Carl Bloch. One of Blochs better known genre scenes, the painting was commissioned by the merchant Moritz G. Melchior, Blochs friend and he is sitting at a table talking with his friends. The two figures sitting beside him are depicted, the figure turning his back to the viewers is the painter himself, Bloch was a student of Wilhelm Marstrand and this artwork is similar to Marstrands Italian Osteria Scene. The Polish-Danish painter Elisabeth Jerichau Baumann also made a version of the scene, acquired by the National Gallery of Denmark in 1935, the unframed oil on canvas measures 148.5 by 177.5 centimetres. Media related to Fra et romersk osteria at Wikimedia Commons
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Odoardo Borrani
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Odoardo Borrani was an Italian painter associated with the Macchiaioli group. The Borrani family moved to Florence, where Odoardo enrolled at the Academy of Fine Arts in 1853, there, he studied under Gaetano Bianchi, Giuseppe Bezzuoli, and Enrico Pollastrini. However, he became independent of the academic styles and his first painting while at the Academy was titled Un veglione di maschere alla Pergola. In 1859, he painted Lorenzo the Magnificent Saves Himself From Being Murdered in the Sacristy of the Cathedral, Borrani was awarded the Gold medal by the contest of the Accademia of Florence. That same year, he joined the army and upon returning from the campaign, he painted the Cadaver of Jacopo de Pazzi. It was with his new friends Telemaco Signorini and Vincenzo Cabianca that he took up painting from life and he served as a volunteer in the Second Italian War of Independence in 1859. It was also in 1862 that he first spent the summer at Castiglioncello, in 1875, he and Lega established a gallery to promote younger artists, but it soon went out of business. He exhibited less frequently in his years and made his living as a teacher, ceramic decorator. He died of peritonitis in Florence on 14 September 1905, notes Sources Laura Casone, Odoardo Borrani, online catalogue Artgate by Fondazione Cariplo,2010, CC BY-SA. The Macchiaioli, Tuscan Painters of the Sunlight, March 14-April 20,1984, new York, Stair Sainty Matthiesen in association with Matthiesen, London. OCLC70337478 Media related to Odoardo Borrani at Wikimedia Commons
30.
Edward Burne-Jones
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Burne-Joness early paintings show the heavy inspiration of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, but by the 1860s Burne-Jones was discovering his own artistic voice. In 1877, he was persuaded to show eight oil paintings at the Grosvenor Gallery and these included The Beguiling of Merlin. The timing was right, and he was taken up as a herald, Edward Coley Burne Jones was born in Birmingham, the son of a Welshman, Edward Richard Jones, a frame-maker at Bennetts Hill, where a blue plaque commemorates the painters childhood. He attended Birminghams King Edward VI grammar school from 1844 and the Birmingham School of Art from 1848 to 1852, before studying theology at Exeter College, at Oxford he became a friend of William Morris as a consequence of a mutual interest in poetry. The members of the Brotherhood read John Ruskin and Tennyson, visited churches, at this time Burne-Jones discovered Thomas Malorys Le Morte dArthur which was to be so influential in his life. In February 1857, Rossetti wrote to William Bell Scott In 1856 Burne-Jones became engaged to Georgiana Georgie MacDonald and she was training to be a painter, and was the sister of Burne-Joness old school friend. The couple married in 1860, after which she made her own work in woodcuts, Georgiana bore a son, Philip, in 1861. A second son, born in the winter of 1864 while Georgiana was gravely ill with scarlet fever, the family soon moved to 41 Kensington Square, and their daughter Margaret was born there in 1866. In 1867 Burne-Jones and his family settled at the Grange, an 18th-century house set in a garden in North End, Fulham. During these difficult years Georgiana developed a friendship with Morris. Morris and Georgie may have been in love, but if he asked her to leave her husband, in the end, the Burne-Joneses remained together, as did the Morrises, but Morris and Georgiana were close for the rest of their lives. His troubled son Philip, who became a portrait painter. His adored daughter Margaret married John William Mackail, the friend and biographer of Morris and their children were the novelists Angela Thirkell and Denis Mackail. In an edition of the magazine, Chums, an article on Burne-Jones stated that. his pet grandson used to be punished by being sent to stand in a corner with his face to the wall. One day on being sent there he was delighted to find the wall prettily decorated with fairies, flowers, birds and his indulgent grandfather had utilised his talent to alleviate the tedium of his favourites period of penance. Burne-Jones once admitted that after leaving Oxford he found himself at five-and-twenty what he ought to have been at fifteen and he had had no regular training as a draughtsman, and lacked the confidence of science. Many are pen-and-ink drawings on vellum, exquisitely finished, of which his Waxen Image is one of the earliest and best examples, although the subject, medium and manner derive from Rossettis inspiration, it is not the hand of a pupil merely, but of a potential master. This was recognized by Rossetti himself, who before long avowed that he had nothing more to teach him
31.
Julia Margaret Cameron
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Julia Margaret Cameron was a British photographer. She became known for her portraits of celebrities of the time, Camerons photographic career was short, spanning eleven years of her life. She took up photography at the late age of 48. She found more acceptance among pre-Raphaelite artists than among photographers and her work has influenced modern photographers, especially her closely cropped portraits. Her house, Dimbola Lodge, on the Isle of Wight is open to the public, Julia Margaret Cameron was born Julia Margaret Pattle in Calcutta, India, to Adeline de lEtang and James Pattle, a British official of the East India Company. Adeline de lEtang was the daughter of Chevalier Antoine de lEtang and he had married the Indian-born Therese Blin de Grincourt, a daughter of French aristocrats. Cameron was from a family of celebrated beauties and was considered an ugly duckling among her sisters, as her great-niece Virginia Woolf wrote in the 1926 introduction to the Hogarth Press collection of Camerons photographs, In the trio where. Was Beauty, and Dash, Mrs. Cameron was undoubtedly Talent, Camerons sister Virginia was the mother of the temperance leader Lady Henry Somerset. Cameron was educated in France, but returned to India, and in 1838 married Charles Hay Cameron, a jurist and member of the Law Commission stationed in Calcutta, who was twenty years her senior. They had five children together, and also raised five young relations, in 1848, Charles Hay Cameron retired, and the family moved to London, England. In 1860, Cameron visited the estate of poet Alfred Lord Tennyson on the Isle of Wight, Cameron was taken with the location, and the Cameron family purchased a property on the island soon after. They called it Dimbola Lodge after the familys Ceylon estate, in 1863, when Cameron was 48 years old, her daughter gave her a camera as a present, thereby starting her career as a photographer. Within a year, Cameron became a member of the Photographic Societies of London and she remained a member of the Photographic Society, London, until her death. In her photography, Cameron strove to capture beauty and she wrote, I longed to arrest all the beauty that came before me and at length the longing has been satisfied. The basic techniques of soft-focus fancy portraits, which she developed, were taught to her by David Wilkie Wynfield. She later wrote that to my feeling about his beautiful photography I owed all my attempts, Lord Tennyson, her neighbour on the Isle of Wight, often brought friends to see the photographer and her works. At the time, photography was an art that also was highly dependent upon crucial timing. Sometimes Cameron was obsessive about her new occupation, with sitting for countless exposures in the blinding light as she laboriously coated, exposed
32.
National Gallery of Art
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The National Gallery of Art, and its attached Sculpture Garden, is a national art museum in Washington, D. C. located on the National Mall, between 3rd and 9th Streets, at Constitution Avenue NW. Open to the public and free of charge, the museum was established in 1937 for the American people by a joint resolution of the United States Congress. Andrew W. Mellon donated an art collection and funds for construction. The Gallery often presents temporary special exhibitions spanning the world and the history of art and it is one of the largest museums in North America. In 1930 Mellon formed the A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust, when quizzed by Abbot, he explained that the project was in the hands of the Trust and that its decisions were partly dependent on the attitude of the Government towards the gift. Designed by architect John Russell Pope, the new structure was completed and accepted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on behalf of the American people on March 17,1941. Neither Mellon nor Pope lived to see the completed, both died in late August 1937, only two months after excavation had begun. At the time of its inception it was the largest marble structure in the world, as anticipated by Mellon, the creation of the National Gallery encouraged the donation of other substantial art collections by a number of private donors. The Gallerys East Building was constructed in the 1970s on much of the land left over from the original congressional joint resolution. It was funded by Mellons children Paul Mellon and Ailsa Mellon Bruce, designed by famed architect I. M. Pei, the contemporary structure was completed in 1978 and was opened on June 1 of that year by President Jimmy Carter. The new building was built to house the Museums collection of paintings, drawings, sculptures. The design received a National Honor Award from the American Institute of Architects in 1981, the final addition to the complex is the National Gallery of Art Sculpture Garden. Completed and opened to the public on May 23,1999, the National Gallery of Art is supported through a private-public partnership. The United States federal government provides funds, through annual appropriations, to support the museums operations, all artwork, as well as special programs, are provided through private donations and funds. The museum is not part of the Smithsonian Institution, noted directors of the National Gallery have included David E. Finley, Jr. John Walker, and J. Carter Brown. Rusty Powell III is the current director, entry to both buildings of the National Gallery of Art is free of charge. From Monday through Saturday, the museum is open from 10 a. m. –5 p. m. it is open from 11 –6 p. m. on Sundays and it is closed on December 25 and January 1. The museum comprises two buildings, the West Building and the East Building linked by an underground passage
33.
Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot
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Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot was a French landscape and portrait painter as well as a printmaker in etching. He is a figure in landscape painting and his vast output simultaneously references the Neo-Classical tradition. Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot was born in Paris on July 16,1796, in a house at 125 Rue du Bac, now demolished. After his parents married, they bought the shop where his mother had worked. The store was a destination for fashionable Parisians and earned the family an excellent income. Corot was the second of three born to the family, who lived above their shop during those years. Corot received a scholarship to study at the Lycée Pierre-Corneille in Rouen and he was not a brilliant student, and throughout his entire school career he did not get a single nomination for a prize, not even for the drawing classes. Unlike many masters who demonstrated early talent and inclinations toward art, during those years he lived with the Sennegon family, whose patriarch was a friend of Corots father and who spent much time with young Corot on nature walks. It was in this region that Corot made his first paintings after nature, at nineteen, Corot was a big child, shy and awkward. Before the beautiful ladies who frequented his mothers salon, he was embarrassed and fled like a wild thing, emotionally, he was an affectionate and well-behaved son, who adored his mother and trembled when his father spoke. When Corots parents moved into a new residence in 1817, the 21-year-old Corot moved into the room on the third floor. Later Corot stated, I told my father that business and I were simply incompatible, the business experience proved beneficial, however, by helping him develop an aesthetic sense through his exposure to the colors and textures of the fabrics. Perhaps out of boredom, he turned to oil painting around 1821 and he immediately rented a studio on quai Voltaire. In both approaches, landscape artists would typically begin with outdoor sketching and preliminary painting, with finishing work done indoors, michallon had a great influence on Corots career. Though this school was on the decline, it held sway in the Salon. Corot later stated, I made my first landscape from nature. under the eye of this painter, the lesson worked, since then I have always treasured precision. Though holding Neoclassicists in the highest regard, Corot did not limit his training to their tradition of allegory set in imagined nature and his notebooks reveal precise renderings of tree trunks, rocks, and plants which show the influence of Northern realism. Throughout his career, Corot demonstrated an inclination to apply both traditions in his work, sometimes combining the two, a condition by his parents before leaving was that he paint a self-portrait for them, his first
34.
Gustave Courbet
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Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet was a French painter who led the Realism movement in 19th-century French painting. Committed to painting only what he could see, he rejected academic convention and his independence set an example that was important to later artists, such as the Impressionists and the Cubists. Courbet occupies an important place in 19th-century French painting as an innovator, Courbets paintings of the late 1840s and early 1850s brought him his first recognition. They challenged convention by depicting unidealized peasants and workers, often on a grand scale traditionally reserved for paintings of religious or historical subjects, Courbets subsequent paintings were mostly of a less overtly political character, landscapes, seascapes, hunting scenes, nudes and still lifes. He was imprisoned for six months in 1871 for his involvement with the Paris Commune, Gustave Courbet was born in 1819 to Régis and Sylvie Oudot Courbet in Ornans. Being a prosperous farming family, anti-monarchical feelings prevailed in the household, Courbets sisters, Zoé, Zélie and Juliette, were his first models for drawing and painting. After moving to Paris he often returned home to Ornans to hunt, fish and he went to Paris in 1839 and worked at the studio of Steuben and Hesse. An independent spirit, he left, preferring to develop his own style by studying the paintings of Spanish, Flemish and French masters in the Louvre. Among his paintings of the early 1840s are several self-portraits, Romantic in conception, trips to the Netherlands and Belgium in 1846–47 strengthened Courbets belief that painters should portray the life around them, as Rembrandt, Hals and other Dutch masters had. By 1848, he had gained supporters among the younger critics, Courbet achieved his first Salon success in 1849 with his painting After Dinner at Ornans. The work, reminiscent of Chardin and Le Nain, earned Courbet a gold medal and was purchased by the state, the gold medal meant that his works would no longer require jury approval for exhibition at the Salon—an exemption Courbet enjoyed until 1857. In 1849-50, Courbet painted Stone-Breakers, which Proudhon admired as an icon of peasant life, the painting was inspired by a scene Courbet witnessed on the roadside. He later explained to Champfleury and the writer Francis Wey, It is not often that one encounters so complete an expression of poverty and so, right then, I told them to come to my studio the next morning. Courbets work belonged neither to the predominant Romantic nor Neoclassical schools, instead, he maintained that the only possible source for living art is the artists own experience. He and Jean-Francois Millet would find inspiration painting the life of peasants, Courbet painted figurative compositions, landscapes, seascapes, and still lifes. He courted controversy by addressing issues in his work, and by painting subjects that were considered vulgar, such as the rural bourgeoisie, peasants. His work, along with that of Honoré Daumier and Jean-François Millet and he depicted the harshness in life, and in so doing challenged contemporary academic ideas of art. The Salon of 1850–1851 found him triumphant with The Stone Breakers, the Burial, one of Courbets most important works, records the funeral of his grand uncle which he attended in September 1848
35.
L'Origine du monde
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LOrigine du monde is an oil-on-canvas painted by French artist Gustave Courbet in 1866. It is a view of the genitals and abdomen of a naked woman. The framing of the body, with head, arms and lower legs outside of view. At the time Courbet was working on the painting his favourite model was a woman, Joanna Hiffernan. Her lover at the time was the American painter James Whistler, Courbet did another painting in 1866, La belle Irlandaise, whose model was Hiffernan. During his whole career, Courbet did four portraits of Hiffernan and she was probably the model for LOrigine du monde, which might explain Courbets and Whistlers brutal separation a short while later. In spite of Hiffernans red hair contrasting with the pubic hair of LOrigine du monde. Fernier has stated that because of the conclusions reached after two years of analysis, the head will be added to the edition of the Courbet catalogue raisonné. The Musée dOrsay has indicated that LOrigine du monde was not part of a larger work, according to CARAA, it performed pigment analyses which were identified as classical pigments of the 2nd half of the 19th century. No other conclusions were reported by the CARAA, the commission for LOrigine du monde is believed to have come from Khalil Bey, an Ottoman diplomat, former ambassador of the Ottoman Empire in Athens and Saint Petersburg who had just moved to Paris. After Khalil-Beys finances were ruined by gambling, the painting passed through a series of private collections. It was first bought during the sale of the Khalil-Bey collection in 1868, edmond de Goncourt hit upon it in an antique shop in 1889, hidden behind a wooden pane decorated with the painting of a castle or a church in a snowy landscape. In 1955 LOrigine du monde was sold at auction for 1.5 million francs and its new owner was the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan. Together with his wife, actress Sylvia Bataille, he installed it in their house in Guitrancourt. Lacan asked André Masson, his stepbrother, to build a double bottom frame, Masson painted a surrealist, allusive version of LOrigine du monde. During the 19th century, the display of the body underwent a revolution whose main activists were Courbet and Manet. Courbet later insisted he never lied in his paintings, and his realism pushed the limits of what was considered presentable, with LOrigine du monde, he has made even more explicit the eroticism of Manets Olympia. Maxime Du Camp, in a tirade, reported his visit to the works purchaser
36.
Le Sommeil
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Le Sommeil is an erotic oil painting on canvas by French artist Gustave Courbet created in 1866. The painting, which depicts lesbianism, is known as the Two Friends and Indolence. Le Sommeil was originally commissioned by the Turkish diplomat and art collector of the late Ottoman era, Halil Şerif Paşa, the painting was not permitted to be shown publicly until 1988, like a number of his other works such as LOrigine du monde. When Le Sommeil was exhibited by a dealer in 1872. One of the models for the painting was Joanna Hiffernan, who was the mistress of fellow painter James Abbott Whistler at the time, whistlers relationship with Hiffernan ended soon afterwards, and his opinion of Courbet soured. The Encyclopedia of Lesbian and Gay Histories and Cultures describes Le Sommeil as a famous painting, the painting created an impact in 19th-century art, because after the public display of Le Sommeil, a number of contemporary artists were influenced by the theme of lesbian couples. Repetition of this helped to lower the taboos associated with lesbian relationships. Today Le Sommeil is in the collection of the Petit Palais, the painting shows two naked women lying asleep on a bed entwined in an erotic embrace, resting after sexual intercourse. The setting is a bedroom with various textiles and ornamental furnishing, in the background there is a dark blue velvet curtain and in the right corner a table with a decorative flower vase. In the foreground is a wooden table holding three items – a colored flacon, a transparent crystal vase, and a cup. Except for these few furnishings, there is nothing in the painting to overshadow the main image – the women, one of the sleeping women is redhead, the other is brunette. For color contrast, Courbet worked curves between the women, a broken pearl necklace and a hairpin scattered in the bed reference the nature of their previous activity
