1.
Bar (unit)
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The bar is a metric unit of pressure, but is not approved as part of the International System of Units. It is defined as equal to 100000 Pa, which is slightly less than the current average atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea level. The bar and the millibar were introduced by the Norwegian meteorologist Vilhelm Bjerknes, use of the bar is deprecated by some professional bodies in some fields. The International Astronomical Union also lists it under Non-SI units and symbols whose continued use is deprecated, as of 2004, the bar is legally recognized in countries of the European Union. Units derived from the bar include the megabar, kilobar, decibar, centibar, the notation bar, though deprecated by various bodies, represents gauge pressure, i. e. pressure in bars above ambient or atmospheric pressure. The bar is defined using the SI derived unit, pascal,1 bar ≡100000 Pa. Thus,1 bar is equal to,100 kPa 1×105 N/m21000000 Ba, notes,1 millibar =1 one-thousandth bar, or 1×10−3 bar 1 millibar =1 hectopascal. The word bar has its origin in the Greek word βάρος, the units official symbol is bar, the earlier symbol b is now deprecated and conflicts with the use of b denoting the unit barn, but it is still encountered, especially as mb to denote the millibar. Between 1793 and 1795, the bar was used for a unit of weight in an early version of the metric system. Atmospheric air pressure is given in millibars where standard sea level pressure is defined as 1013 mbar,101.3,1.013 bar. Despite the millibar not being an SI unit, meteorologists and weather reporters worldwide have long measured air pressure in millibars as the values are convenient, for example, the weather office of Environment Canada uses kilopascals and hectopascals on their weather maps. In contrast, Americans are familiar with the use of the millibar in US reports of hurricanes, in fresh water, there is an approximate numerical equivalence between the change in pressure in decibars and the change in depth from the water surface in metres. Specifically, an increase of 1 decibar occurs for every 1.019716 m increase in depth, in sea water with respect to the gravity variation, the latitude and the geopotential anomaly the pressure can be converted into meters depth according to an empirical formula. As a result, decibars are commonly used in oceanography, many engineers worldwide use the bar as a unit of pressure because, in much of their work, using pascals would involve using very large numbers. In the automotive field, turbocharger boost is often described in bars outside the USA), unicode has characters for mb and bar, but they exist only for compatibility with legacy Asian encodings and are not intended to be used in new documents. The kilobar, equivalent to 100 MPa, is used in geological systems. Bar and bara are sometimes used to indicate absolute pressures and bar and this usage is deprecated and fuller descriptions such as gauge pressure of 2 bar or 2 bar gauge are recommended.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL. Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI
2.
Pascal (unit)
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The pascal is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Youngs modulus and ultimate tensile strength. It is defined as one newton per square meter and it is named after the French polymath Blaise Pascal. Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal which is equal to one millibar, the unit of measurement called standard atmosphere is defined as 101,325 Pa and approximates to the average pressure at sea-level at the latitude 45° N. Meteorological reports typically state atmospheric pressure in hectopascals, the unit is named after Blaise Pascal, noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer. The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre by the 14th General Conference on Weights, one pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre. The unit of measurement called atmosphere or standard atmosphere is 101325 Pa and this value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as ISO2787, ISO2533 and ISO5024. In contrast, IUPAC recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances, geophysicists use the gigapascal in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth. Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, in materials science and engineering, the pascal measures the stiffness, tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering use, because the pascal represents a small quantity. The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density and this applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields. In measurements of sound pressure, or loudness of sound, one pascal is equal to 94 decibels SPL, the quietest sound a human can hear, known as the threshold of hearing, is 0 dB SPL, or 20 µPa. The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa, the units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar, which was close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar. Since the introduction of SI units, meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals unit, exceptions include Canada and Portugal, which use kilopascals. In many other fields of science, the SI is preferred, many countries also use the millibar or hectopascal to give aviation altimeter settings. In practically all fields, the kilopascal is used instead. Centimetre of water Metric prefix Orders of magnitude Pascals law
3.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
4.
Virgin Islands
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The Virgin Islands are the western island group of the Leeward Islands, which are the northern part of the Lesser Antilles, and form the border between the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Politically, the group is divided into the British, Puerto Rican, the archipelago is separated from the Renaissance Islands by the Anegada Passage and from the main island of Puerto Rico by the Virgin Passage. Christopher Columbus named the islands after Saint Ursula and the 11,000 Virgins, the official name of the British territory is the Virgin Islands, and the official name of the U. S. territory is the Virgin Islands of the United States. In practice, the two groups are almost universally referred to as the British Virgin Islands and the U. S. Virgin Islands. European colonists later settled here and established plantations, at least one tobacco plantation. The plantations are gone, but the descendants of the remain the bulk of the population. In 1916 and 1917, Denmark and the U. S. respectively, in the 1990s a Puerto Rican tourism campaign renamed the Passage Islands as the Spanish Virgin Islands, though they are seldom identified as such on maps and atlases. They are part of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, located east of the island of Puerto Rico. They are closer to St. Thomas than St. Thomas is to St. Croix. Motor vehicles are driven on the side of the road in both the British and the U. S. Virgin Islands, although the steering wheels on most cars are located on the left side. In the Spanish Virgin Islands, vehicles are driven on the side of the road. Paradise Comes of age, The U. S. Virgin Islands
5.
Puerto Rico
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Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
6.
Hispaniola
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Hispaniola is the 22nd-largest island in the world, located in the Caribbean island group, the Greater Antilles. It is the second largest island in the Caribbean after Cuba, two sovereign nations share the 76, 192-square-kilometre island. The only other shared island in the Caribbean is Saint Martin, Hispaniola is the site of the first permanent European settlement in the Americas, founded by Christopher Columbus on his voyages in 1492 and 1493. The island was called by various names by its native people, fernández de Oviedo and de las Casas both recorded that the island was called Haiti by the Taíno. DAnghiera added another name, Quizqueia, but later shows that the word does not seem to derive from the original Arawak Taíno language. When Columbus took possession of the island in 1492, he named it Insula Hispana, meaning the Spanish Island in Latin and La Isla Española, meaning the Spanish Island, in Spanish. De las Casas shortened the name to Española, and when d‘Anghiera detailed his account of the island in Latin, he rendered its name as Hispaniola. Due to Taíno, Spanish and French influences on the island, historically the whole island was referred to as Haiti, Hayti, Santo Domingo, St. Domingue. The name Haïti was adopted by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines in 1804, as the name of independent Saint-Domingue. It was also adopted as the name of independent Santo Domingo, as the Republic of Spanish Haiti. Christopher Columbus inadvertently landed on the island during his first voyage across the Atlantic in 1492, where his flagship, a contingent of men were left at an outpost christened La Navidad, on the north coast of present-day Haiti. The island was inhabited by the Taíno, one of the indigenous Arawak peoples, the Taino were at first tolerant of Columbus and his crew, and helped him to construct La Navidad on what is now Môle-Saint-Nicolas, Haiti, in December 1492. European colonization of the began in earnest the following year. In 1496 the town of Nueva Isabela was founded, after being destroyed by a hurricane, it was rebuilt on the opposite side of the Ozama River and called Santo Domingo. It is the oldest permanent European settlement in the Americas, several 16th century writers estimated the 1492 population of Hispaniola at over 1 million people. Twentieth-century estimates of the range from 60,000 to 8,000,000. Harsh enslavement by Spanish colonists, redirection of food supplies and labor towards the colonists, had a impact on both mortality and fertility over the first quarter century. Colonial administrators and Dominican and Hyeronimite priests observed that the search for gold, demographic data from two provinces in 1514 shows a low birth rate consistent with a 3. 5% annual population decline
7.
1867 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1867 Atlantic hurricane season lasted from mid-summer to late-fall. A total of nine known tropical systems developed during the season, with the earliest forming on June 21, on two occasions during the season, two tropical cyclones simultaneously existed with one another, the first time on August 2, and the second on October 9. Records show that 1867 featured two tropical storms, six hurricanes and one major hurricane, an undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 has been estimated. Of the known 1867 cyclones Hurricanes Three, Four and Six plus Tropical Cyclones Five and Eight were first documented in 1995 by Jose Fernandez-Partagas, Hurricane One was first identified in 2003 by Cary Mock. The strongest storm of the season was Hurricane Nine, or the San Narciso Hurricane and it developed in the Central Atlantic, and moved west to impact the Leeward Islands and Greater Antilles. The storm system was a major Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale and this was the costliest, and deadliest, storm of the season, causing at least $1 million in damage, and at least 800 deaths across the Caribbean Sea. On the morning of June 21, a storm formed approximately 65 mi east northeast of Daytona Beach. Initially below hurricane strength with a sustained wind speed of 60 mph. By the early hours of June 22, the system had intensified into a Category 1 hurricane, early on June 23 the hurricane made landfall east of the city of Charleston, South Carolina, with peak winds of 80 mph. In Charleston a number of roofs were blown away, trees were uprooted, outside the city there was considerable damage to crops due to heavy rainfall. Weakening steadily, the systems last known location was near Raleigh, North Carolina, during the last days of July, a hurricane was reported about 375 mi east-northeast of Dominica. Tracking generally northwestward, the storm changed little in intensity until located to the north of Grand Turk, from there, it proceeded northwestward, and intensified to near Category 1 hurricane status. As it moved to the southwest of Wilmington, North Carolina, resuming a more northeasterly track, the cyclone began to go undergo a weakening trend, and once again became a Category 1 storm. Further weakening occurred while the hurricane was located to the west of Sable Island, the Town records of Marblehead, MA, record the deaths of 10 men and a boy on August 2,1867, when their fishing schooner was lost in a gale off Sable Island. The storm was last reported to the southeast of Cape Race on the island of Newfoundland and it caused two deaths off the United States East Coast before dissipating the same day. Around 4,00 am the day, the brig Chanticleer, located near the lower Delaware coast. A little after dawn, gusts over hurricane strength were being recorded at the same location, the Oak Ridge passed directly through the eye of the hurricane, reporting winds first from the east southeast, turning calm for short while, before a wind from the west blew. Another ship located just south of Montauk point reported hurricane-force winds for three hours, and the barometer fell 14 mbar in an hour and a half, early on August 2, a hurricane developed over the central Caribbean Sea
8.
Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands
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Located on the island is the territorial capital and port of Charlotte Amalie. As of the 2010 census, the population of Saint Thomas was 51,634 about 48. 5% of the US Virgin Islands total, the district has a land area of 31.24 square miles. The island was settled around 1500 BC by the Ciboney people. They were later replaced by the Arawaks and then the Caribs, christopher Columbus sighted the island in 1493 on his second voyage to the New World. The Dutch West India Company established a post on Saint Thomas in 1657, the first congregation was the St. Thomas Reformed Church, which was established in 1660 and was associated with the Dutch Reformed Church. Denmark-Norway conquered the island in 1666, and by 1672 had established control over the island through the Danish West India. The land was divided into plantations and sugarcane became the primary economic activity. As a result, the economies of Saint Thomas and the islands of Saint John and Saint Croix became highly dependent on slave labor. In 1685, the Brandenburgisch-Africanische Compagnie took control of the trade on Saint Thomas. Saint Thomass fine natural harbor became known as Taphus for the establishments located nearby. In 1691, the settlement there was renamed Charlotte Amalie in honor of the wife of Denmarks King Christian V. It was later declared a port by Frederick V. In December 1732, the first two of many Moravian Brethren missionaries came from Herrnhut Saxony in present-day Germany to minister to them, distrusted at first by the white masters, they lived among the slaves and soon won their confidence. From 1796 a small Jewish community developed in Charlotte Amalie and it established a historic synagogue, Beracha Veshalom Vegmiluth Hasidim, the oldest synagogue in continuous anywhere in the United States or its external territories. The first British invasion and occupation of the Danish West Indies occurred at the end of March 1801 when a British fleet arrived at St Thomas, Denmark-Norway accepted the Articles of Capitulation the British proposed and the British occupied the islands without a shot being fired. The British occupation lasted until April 1802, when the British returned the islands to Denmark-Norway, the second British invasion of the Danish West Indies took place in December 1807 when a British fleet captured St Thomas on 22 December and Santa Cruz on 25 December. Denmark-Norway did not resist and the invasion was bloodless and this British occupation of the Danish West Indies lasted until 20 November 1815, when Britain returned the islands to Denmark. While the sugar trade had brought prosperity to the free citizens
9.
Captaincy General of Puerto Rico
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Its creation was part of the, ultimately futile, Habsburg attempt in the late 16th century to prevent incursion into the Caribbean by foreign powers. Spain also established Captaincies General in Cuba, Guatemala and Yucatán, the Captaincy General played a crucial role in the history of the Spanish Caribbean. In 1508 Juan Ponce de León was commissioned by the Crown to carry out the initial colonization of Puerto Rico, after successfully founding the city of Caparra, he was appointed as its first governor in 1509 by the regent of Castile, Ferdinand V. As a result, Ponce de León lost his position and left the island, the Columbus family appointed governors in Puerto Rico from then until 1536, when Diegos son, Luis Colón sold the rights to govern the Indies to the Crown. In 1511, when Diego Colón had won the right to appoint governors, from 1536 to 1545, the island was overseen by the president of the Audiencia of Santo Domingo, who was also Captain General of the Caribbean. The island territory was administered locally, not as one unit and these men were elected annually by the cabildos from among the local settler population. Since most of the settlers did not have the training to become governors, the islands Spanish residents complained to the Crown. Starting in 1545 governors with legal training were appointed by either the crown or the Santo Domingo Audiencia, filling the highest judicial office on the island, the governors heard cases in the first instance in their immediate districts, and in appeal from the regional alcaldes. The next court of appeal was the Audiencia in Santo Domingo, in addition to being the highest administrative office on the island, governors also derived power from their right to annually appoint two of the four regidores of the cabildos on the island. As with all other Spanish political officials, governors were subject to the juicio de residencia, since governors were the kings highest representative on the island, they had oversight over the Church because of the right of patronage that the monarchs of Spain had in the Americas. Due to Spains growing military conflicts with other European powers, both in Europe and in the New World, the Crown added the office of general to the governor in 1580. Following this, mostly men, rather than lawyers, were appointed as governors-captains general. They were assisted by an adviser in their judicial and administrative duties. Spain considered Puerto Rico as vital strategically as the gateway to the Caribbean and it was described as the key to the Indies. Given the sea currents and wind patterns of the Atlantic, Puerto Rico was usually the first port of call for ships arriving from Europe, despite this, or perhaps because of its negligible economic importance, the Spanish took a long time to build up the islands defenses. The first fortified building was the Ponce de León family home, in the next decade construction began on the first true fort, La Fortaleza, at the entrance of the bay. By 1539 construction began of a defensive complex around San Juan, which included Forts San Felipe del Morro, San Cristóbal. On the other side of the island, San Germán was left practically defenseless, with the creation of the Captaincy General in 1580, Governor-Captain General Diego Menéndez de Valdés continued to strengthen defenses around San Juan
10.
Lesser Antilles
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The Lesser Antilles are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. Most form a long, partly volcanic island arc between the Greater Antilles to the north-west and the continent of South America, the islands form the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. Together, the Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles compose the Antilles, when combined with the Lucayan Archipelago, all three are known as the West Indies. The islands of the Lesser Antilles are divided into three groups, the Windward Islands in the south, the Leeward Islands in the north, and the Leeward Antilles in the west. The Windward Islands are so called because they were more windward to sailing ships arriving in the New World than the Leeward Islands, the trans-Atlantic currents and winds that provided the fastest route across the ocean brought these ships to the rough dividing line between the Windward and Leeward Islands. The Leeward Antilles consist of the Dutch ABC islands just off the coast of Venezuela, the Lesser Antilles more or less coincide with the outer edge of the Caribbean Plate. Many of the islands were formed as a result of the subduction of oceanic crust of the South American Plate under the Caribbean Plate in the Lesser Antilles subduction zone. This process is ongoing and is not only for many of the islands. The Lesser Antilles are divided into eight independent nations and numerous dependent, over one third of the total area and population of the Lesser Antilles lies within Trinidad and Tobago, a sovereign nation comprising the two southernmost islands of the Windward Island chain. Several islands along the north coast of Venezuela and politically part of country are also occasionally considered part of the Lesser Antilles. These are listed in the section below, the main Lesser Antilles are, Virgin Islands St. Thomas St. John St. They are the most southern islands of the Caribbean region, a Brief History of the Caribbean. New York, Facts on File,1992, the dictionary definition of Lesser Antilles at Wiktionary
11.
Sombrero, Anguilla
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Sombrero, also known as Hat Island, is part of the British overseas territory of Anguilla and is the northernmost island of the Lesser Antilles. It lies 54 km north-west of Anguilla across the Dog and Prickly Pear Passage, the distance to Dog Island, the next nearest island of Anguilla, is 38 kilometres. Sombrero is 1.67 kilometres long north-south, and 0.38 km wide, the land area is 0.38 km2. The surface of the island is rough, and vegetation is sparse, the guano-mining operation yielded some 3000 tons of phosphate a year by 1870. By 1890, the reserves had been exhausted. The lighthouse marks the Anegada Passage, which is the route from Europe into the Caribbean, the first lighthouse was erected in 1868. In 1960, Hurricane Donna damaged this lighthouse, with the result that a new lighthouse replaced it in 1962, the lighthouses were manned from 1868 to 2001. In that year, Trinity House donated and installed the current, automated tower, anguillas Department of Fisheries and Marine Resources is responsible for the maintenance of the navigational aids. As a result of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1714, Sombrero passed into the hands of the British, captain Warwick Lake of Recruit marooned an impressed seaman, Robert Jeffrey, there on 13 December 1807. As it turned out, Jeffrey survived, a passing American vessel, the schooner Adams from Marblehead, Massachusetts, had rescued him. Still, a court martial dismissed Lake from the Royal Navy, in 1814, and again in 1825, a British geologist surveyed the island and found that it abounded in guano and reported this to the British government. In 1856 the Americans claimed the island, and in a short period of time quarried 100,000 tons of phosphate that served as fertilizer for the exhausted lands of the Southern States. Uniquely, an important insurrection occurred when West Indian black workers revolted against the “slavery proclivities” of a white American superintendent vis-à-vis wage-earning free men, four of the 200 workers fatally injured Superintendent Snow and commandeered the island and company money and stores. The British later intervened and demanded compensation from the United States for the occupation, the conflicting claims to the island were settled in Britains favour in 1867. Sombrero, lying in the route of shipping from England to South and Central America, lay in an area with many hazards and in 1848 the Admiralty was asked to install a light on it. On 30 June 1859, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Companys ship Paramatta was wrecked on her voyage on Horseshoe Reef. The lighthouse was built and first exhibited its light on the evening of 1 January 1868. Paramatta was the last ship launched from their Middlesex bank, while the lighthouse was built on the Essex side, from the early 1870s until 1885, a Cornish mining engineer, Thomas Corfield, was Superintendent of Sombrero
12.
Fajardo, Puerto Rico
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Fajardo is a small city and municipality in Puerto Rico located in the east region of the island, bordering the Atlantic Ocean, north of Ceiba and east of Luquillo. Fajardo is spread over 7 wards and Downtown Fajardo, which serves as the center of the city. It is both a city of the Fajardo Metropolitan Statistical Area and the San Juan-Caguas-Fajardo Combined Statistical Area. Fajardo is the hub of the majority of recreational boating in Puerto Rico and a popular launching port to Culebra, Vieques, and it is also the home to the largest Marina in the Caribbean, called Puerto del Rey. The town contains various hotels and inns, off shore, near Fajardo, a few islets can be found. These are Icacos, Palominos, Palominito, and Diablo, among other uninhabited coral islands, Fajardo was founded in 1760,1773 or 1774 as Santiago de Fajardo. It was one of the used by the Americans to invade Puerto Rico. Rodgers ordered some of his men ashore, which included Puerto Rican volunteers, thomas, Isla Nena Air and Vieques Air Link. Fajardos beaches are bounded by calm, clear water ideal for snorkeling, seven Seas Beach offers plentiful water sports facilities, offshore points for sailing, snorkeling and plenty of scuba diving. Fajardo is also home to one of the few Bioluminescent Lagoons in the world, nightly trips are offered by kayak by local companies who give educational tours. Las Cabezas de San Juan Light House - One of the oldest lighthouses in Puerto Rico, only one used for nautical reasons in the entire island. Laguna Grande - One of the few Bioluminescent bays in the world, Puerto del Rey Marina - Biggest marina in the Caribbean. U. S. Customs House - Constructed in 1930 still in use by the U. S. Customs & Border Protection, seven Seas Beach - One of the most beautiful beaches on the island. Classified Blue Flag for its sanitary health guarantees, las Cabezas de San Juan Reserve - Home to mangroves and to the lighthouse. Fajardo Port - Used by locals and tourists to visit the island municipalities of Vieques, town Square - One of the most charming, antique styled, town squares of Puerto Rico. Fajardo is also home to pharmaceutical and bio-sciences companies, due to its rich ports and closeness to smaller islands, Fajardo is also known for its fishing industries. George Torres, Mario Morales and Mario Butler were three of the most famous players to play for that franchise, in 2007, the team returned once again to the BSN. The team known as the Titanes de Morovis was moved to Fajardo, unlike the NBA and other sports leagues in the United States, Puerto Rican franchises rarely leave the original name of the franchise when they move to a different city
13.
Caguas, Puerto Rico
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Caguas is located 20 miles from San Juan and 40 miles from Ponce. It is known as El Valle del Turabo or La Ciudad Criolla, Caguas is both a principal city of the San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo Metropolitan Statistical Area and the San Juan-Caguas-Fajardo Combined Statistical Area. Caguas was founded on January 1,1775 as San Sebastián del Piñal de Caguax, Caguax was a local Taíno chief and early convert to Christianity. Caguas construction was finished in 1779, in 1820 it was declared a valley, in 2002, Caguas was the site of the 2002 USAF Hercules air disaster. Caguas is located in the largest valley in Puerto Rico, the Valle de Caguas which it shares with Gurabo and part of Aguas Buenas. It is located approximately 30 minutes from the coastline both on the east and the north, and is divided from the Gurabo portion of the valley by the river of the same name. It is east of Aguas Buenas and Cidra, north of Cayey, south of San Juan and it also shares borders with Guayama and Patillas via a five-point border, with Cayey and San Lorenzo. At this point there are two tall antennas which provide signal to Puerto Ricos principal TV stations such as WKAQ-TV and WAPA-TV, no road passes exactly at this point, and it can be approached nearby through Puerto Rico Highway 184. Being a valley, Caguas has the distinction of being relatively flat except near the borders with all the mentioned municipalities except Gurabo, the Río Grande de Loíza divides this municipality from Gurabo. Other Rivers, Río Turabo, Río Caguitas, Río Cañaboncito, Río Bairoa and Río Cañas. The climate is classified as a Tropical monsoon climate, meaning the mean temperature from month to month is never less than 64.4 °F. Rainfall is common in relative abundance throughout most of the year, the land, however, is fertile and deep. Three of the first five Puerto Ricans that played Major League Baseball in the U. S. at one point in their careers played for the Criollos de Caguas, the Criollos de Caguas basketball team, founded in 1968 by Dr. Héctor Tato Dávila and Lcdo. Libertario Pérez Rodríguez, hasnt enjoyed as much success as their baseball counterparts, however in the early 2000s, they showed a lot of progress by reaching the national playoffs various times. The team is a member of the BSN, in 2006, the team won its first BSN national basketball championship, defeating Flor Melendez and his Santurce Crabbers in five games. The Criollas de Caguas womens volleyball team has won 9 national Puerto Rico titles and has made it to the more than 15 times. The team is a member of the Liga de Voleibol Superior Femenino, in September 2005 City Mayor William Miranda Marin levied the first Municipal tax in Puerto Rico via city ordinance. Area Merchants now charge a one cent tax for every dollar spent on all retail businesses, the tax has become known around the island as the Willie Tax
14.
Humacao, Puerto Rico
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Humacao is a municipality in Puerto Rico located in the eastern coast of the island, north of Yabucoa, south of Naguabo, east of Las Piedras, and west of Vieques Passage. Humacao is spread over 10 wards and Humacao Pueblo and it is part of the San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo Metropolitan Statistical Area. The region of what is now Humacao belonged to the Taíno region of Jumaca, the region was led by cacique Jumacao. The Taíno settlement was located on the shores of what is called now the Humacao River, in the letter, Jumacao argued that their people were virtually prisoners of Spain. It is said that King Charles was so moved by the letter that he ordered the Governor to obey the terms of the treaty, during the early 16th Century, the region was populated by cattle ranchers. However, since most of them resided in San Juan. At the beginning of the 18th Century, specifically around 1721–1722, still, some settlers remained and by 1776, historian Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra visited the area and wrote about the population there. By 1793, the church was recognized as parish and the settlement was recognized as town. By 1894, Humacao was recognized as a city, due to its thriving population, buildings and structures like a hospital, a theater, and a prison were built in the city. In 1899, after the United States invasion of the island as a result of the Spanish–American War and this lasted until 1914, when the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico voted on splitting both towns again. Recently, Humacao has been led by mayor Marcelo Trujillo Panisse for more than a decade, a basketball star in his early years, Trujillo has pushed for the development of infrastructure facilities for sports and the fine arts in the city. On March,2008, a new Roman Catholic diocese was established as the Fajardo-Humacao diocese and its first bishop is Monsignor Eusebio Chebito Ramos Morales, a maunabeño who was rector of the Humacaos main parish in the 1990s. Humacao is located in the southeast coast of Puerto Rico and it is bordered by the municipalities of Naguabo to the north, Yabucoa to the south, and Las Piedras to the west. The Atlantic Ocean borders the city in the east, Humacao is located in the region of the Eastern Coastal Plains, with most of its territory being flat. There are minor elevations to the southwest, like Candelero Hill, Humacaos territory covers 45 square miles. Two islands belong to Humacao, Cayo Santiago and Cayo Batata, Humacaos hydrographic system consists of many rivers and creeks like Humacao, Antón Ruíz, and Candelero. Some of its creeks are Frontera, Mariana, and Del Obispo, one of the most notable tourist mainstays is the Palmas del Mar resort, which is the islands largest resort. This megaresort is composed of over 3,000 acres of land, the resort contains over 20 tennis courts, two world-class golf courses, beaches, several restaurants and a riding center
15.
Luquillo, Puerto Rico
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Luquillo is a municipality of Puerto Rico located in the northeast coast, northwest of Fajardo, and east of Rio Grande. Luquillo is spread over 5 wards and Luquillo Pueblo and it is part of the Fajardo Metropolitan Statistical Area. The city of Luquillo is 26 square miles and it sits on 12 miles of Atlantic coastline and it is nestled between the blue waters of the Atlantic and the El Yunque National Rainforest, giving it a diverse and unique ecology. Luquillo marks the beginning of the Northeast Ecological Corridor Nature Reserve which runs down the coast from Luquillo’s town square all the way down to the Seven Seas Beach in Fajardo. During certain times of the year, it is not unusual to encounter rare or endangered species of fauna while visiting in Luquillo, Luquillo was founded in 1797 and is known as La Capital del Sol, La Riviera de Puerto Rico, and Los Come Cocos. The town was named after the Indian cacique Loquillo, who died a few years after the last Indian rebellion in 1513, if you stay on the coastal highway going east from San Juan, youll soon reach Luquillo Beach. This huge plantation of coconut palms shades more than a mile of fine. It is one of the most popular and nicest public beaches in the San Juan area and it offers cafeterias, public bathrooms with showers, access for disabled people, and an ample parking lot. Monserrate Beach is one of the beaches most frequented by the locals. In 2006 El Balneario de Luquillo was pronounced the most popular one in Puerto Rico, La Pared Beach is also very popular for its surf worthy waves. La Selva, is a cove on the east coast. It is arguably one of the best surf spots on the east coast, the only way to get to it is about a 2-mile walk through a cow farm, but its worth the trip if you can talk someone into telling you how to get there. The current mayor is Jesús Márquez Rodríguez, who was elected at the 2012 general election, the city belongs to the Puerto Rico Senatorial district VIII, which is represented by two Senators. In 2012, Pedro A. Rodríguez and Luis Daniel Rivera were elected as District Senators and it consists of three horizontal stripes, the blue top and green bottom are double of width of the yellow central stripe. Blue makes reference to the sky and the sea, yellow represents the sand of its beaches, in the center stripe resides the Coat Of Arms of the town superimposed and surrounded by two palm tree leaves crossed at the bottom. Above the shield resides a three tower gold crown, surrounding the shield by its flanks are two palms trees leaves crossed at the bottom. List of Puerto Ricans History of Puerto Rico Did you know-Puerto Rico
16.
Danish West Indies
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The Danish West India Guinea Company annexed the uninhabited island of Saint Thomas in 1672 and St. John in 1675. In 1733, Saint Croix was purchased from the French West India Company, when the Company went bankrupt in 1755, the King of Denmark-Norway assumed direct control of the three islands. The Danish West Indies was occupied by Britain in 1801–1802 and 1807–1815, the final stage of the triangle was the exportation of cargo of sugar and rum to Denmark. The economy of the Danish West Indies was dependent on slavery, after a rebellion, slavery was officially abolished in 1848, leading to the near economic collapse of the plantations. In 1852, the sale of the increasingly unprofitable colony was first debated in the Danish parliament, Denmark tried several times to sell or exchange the Danish West Indies in the late 19th and early 20th century, to the United States and the German Empire respectively. The islands were sold for 25 million dollars to the United States. Prince Frederick organized a mission to Barbados in 1647 under Gabriel Gomez and the de Casseres brothers, but it. It was not until Erik Smits private 1652 expedition aboard the Fortuna was successful that interest in the West Indies trade grew into an interest in the creation of a new Danish colony. Smits 1653 expedition and an expedition of five ships were quite successful. In August two years later, a Danish Flotilla was destroyed by a hurricane, Smit returned from his fourth expedition in 1663 and formally proposed the settlement of St. Thomas to the king in April 1665. After only three weeks deliberation, the scheme was approved and Smit was named governor, Smit died of illness, and a second band of privateers stole the ship and used it to trade with neighboring islands. The Danish formed a Board of Trade in 1668 and secured a treaty with Britain, providing for the unmolested settlement of uninhabited islands. The Danish West India Company was organized in December and formally chartered by King Christian V the next year on March 11,1671, den forgyldte Krone was ordered to run ahead and wait but ended up returning to Denmark after the Færøe under Capt. Bang was delayed for repairs in Bergen, the Færøe completed her mission alone, establishing a settlement on St. Thomas on May 25,1672. From an original contingent of 190 –12 officials,116 company employees, another 75 died within the first year, leaving only 29 to carry on the colony. Further instructions in 1688 to establish a settlement on St. John seem not to have acted on until Governor Bredal made an official establishment on March 25,1718. The islands quickly became a base for attacking ships in the vicinity. Possession of the island was disputed with the Scottish in 1698
17.
United States Virgin Islands
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The United States Virgin Islands, officially the Virgin Islands of the United States, are a group of islands in the Caribbean that are an insular area of the United States. The islands are part of the Virgin Islands archipelago and are located in the Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles. The U. S. Virgin Islands consist of the islands of Saint Croix, Saint John, and Saint Thomas. The total land area of the territory is 133.73 square miles, the territorys capital is Charlotte Amalie on the island of Saint Thomas. Previously the Danish West Indies of the Kingdom of Denmark–Norway, they were sold to the United States by Denmark in the Treaty of the Danish West Indies of 1916. They are classified by the U. N. as a Non-Self-Governing Territory, the U. S. Virgin Islands are organized under the 1954 Revised Organic Act of the Virgin Islands and have since held five constitutional conventions. The Fifth Constitutional Convention of the U. S. Virgin Islands met in October 2012 to address these concerns, in 2010 the population was 106,405, and mostly Afro-Caribbean. Tourism and related categories are the economic activity, employing a high percentage of the civilian non-farm labor force that totalled 42,752 persons in 2016. Private sector jobs made up 71 percent of the total workforce, the average private sector salary was $34,088 and the average public sector salary was $52,572. In a May 2016 report, some 11,000 people were categorized as being involved in some aspect of agriculture in the first half of 2016, at that time, there were approximately 607 manufacturing jobs and 1,487 natural resource and construction jobs. The single largest employer was the government, in mid February 2017, the USVI was facing a financial crisis due to a very high debt level of $2 billion and a structural budget deficit of $110 million. The U. S. Virgin Islands were originally inhabited by the Ciboney, Carib, the islands were named by Christopher Columbus on his second voyage in 1493 for Saint Ursula and her virgin followers. Over the next two hundred years, the islands were held by many European powers, including Spain, Great Britain, the Netherlands, France, and Denmark-Norway. The Danish West India Company settled on Saint Thomas in 1672, settled on Saint John in 1694, the islands became royal Danish colonies in 1754, named the Danish West Indian Islands. Sugarcane, produced by labor, drove the islands economy during the 18th and early 19th centuries. The Danish West India and Guinea Company are also credited with naming the island St. John, the Danish crown took full control of Saint John in 1754 along with St. Thomas and St. Croix. Sugarcane plantations such as the famous Annaberg Sugar Plantation were established in great numbers on St. John because of the intense heat, the establishment of sugarcane plantations also led to the buying of more slaves from Africa. In 1733 St. John was the site of one of the first significant slave rebellions in the New World when Akwamu slaves from the Gold Coast took over the island for six months, the Danish were able to defeat the enslaved Africans with help from the French in Martinique
18.
Tortola
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Tortola /tɔːrˈtoʊlə/ is the largest and most populated of the British Virgin Islands, a group of islands that form part of the archipelago of the Virgin Islands. It has an area of 55.7 square kilometres with a total population of 23,908. Mount Sage is its highest point at 530 metres above sea level, local tradition recounts that Christopher Columbus named the island Tórtola, meaning turtle dove in Spanish. In fact, Columbus named the island as Santa Ana, Dutch colonists called it Ter Tholen, after a coastal island that is part of the Netherlands. When the British took over, the name evolved to Tortola, on his second voyage for the Spanish Crown to the Caribbean or West Indies, Christopher Columbus spotted what are now called the British and US Virgin Islands. He named the archipelago after the 11,000 virgins of the 5th-century Christian martyr St. Ursula, the Spanish made a few attempts to settle the islands, but pirates such as Blackbeard and Captain Kidd were the first permanent residents. In the late 16th century, the English, who had usurped control of the area from the Dutch, established a permanent plantation colony on Tortola. Settlers developed the islands for the industry, with large plantations dependent on the slave labor of Africans transported across the Atlantic. They brought their slaves with them, who outnumbered the British colonists, the sugar industry dominated Tortola economic history for more than a century. In the early 19th century, after Britain abolished the slave trade. The colony settled liberated Africans from these ships on Tortola, in the then-unsettled Kingstown area, St. Phillips Church was built in the early 19th century in this community as one of the earliest free black churches in the Americas. After the abolition of slavery in the British colonies in 1834, at this time, Cuba and some South American countries still had slave labor in the sugar industry. In addition, there were changes in the industry, with sugar beets cultivated in England. During the downturn as sugar agriculture became less profitable, a proportion of the white landowning population left the British Virgin Islands. In the late 1970s, the British businessman Ken Bates attempted to lease a part of the island on a 199-year lease. Noel Lloyd, a local activist, led a protest movement forcing the government to drop the plan. Today, a park on Tortola is named after Noel Lloyd, in 1867, an earthquake and tsunami hit the island. Tortola is a mountainous island 19 km long and 5 km wide, formed by volcanic activity, its highest peak is Mount Sage at 530 metres
19.
British Virgin Islands
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The British Virgin Islands, officially the Virgin Islands, are a British overseas territory located in the Caribbean to the east of Puerto Rico. The islands make up part of the Virgin Islands archipelago, the islands constitute the US Virgin Islands. The 150-square-kilometre British Virgin Islands consist of the islands of Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Anegada. About 15 of the islands are inhabited, the capital, Road Town, is situated on Tortola, the largest island, which is about 20 km long and 5 km wide. The islands had a population of about 28,000 at the 2010 Census, of whom approximately 23,500 lived on Tortola, British Virgin Islanders are classed as British Overseas Territories citizens and since 2002 have had an entitlement to take up full UK citizenship. Although the territory is not part of the European Union and not directly subject to EU law, the official name of the territory is still simply the Virgin Islands, but the prefix British is often used. This is commonly believed to distinguish it from the neighbouring American territory which changed its name from the Danish West Indies to Virgin Islands of the United States in 1917. Moreover, the territorys Constitutional Commission has expressed the view that every effort should be made to encourage the use of the name Virgin Islands. In 1968 the British Government issued a memorandum requiring that the stamps in the territory should say British Virgin Islands. This was likely to prevent confusion following on from the adoption of US currency in the Territory in 1959, the Virgin Islands were first settled by the Arawak from South America around 100 BC. The Arawaks inhabited the islands until the 15th century when they were displaced by the more aggressive Caribs, the first European sighting of the Virgin Islands was by Christopher Columbus in 1493 on his second voyage to the Americas. Columbus gave them the fanciful name Santa Ursula y las Once Mil Vírgenes, shortened to Las Vírgenes, there is no record of any native Amerindian population in the British Virgin Islands during this period, although the native population on nearby Saint Croix was decimated. The Dutch established a permanent settlement on the island of Tortola by 1648, in 1672, the English captured Tortola from the Dutch, and the English annexation of Anegada and Virgin Gorda followed in 1680. Meanwhile, over the period 1672–1733, the Danish gained control of the islands of Saint Thomas, Saint John. The British islands were considered principally a strategic possession, but were planted when economic conditions were particularly favourable, the British introduced sugar cane which was to become the main crop and source of foreign trade, and slaves were brought from Africa to work on the sugar cane plantations. In 1917, the United States purchased St. John, St. Thomas, the British Virgin Islands were administered variously as part of the British Leeward Islands or with St. Kitts and Nevis, with an administrator representing the British Government on the islands. The islands gained separate status in 1960 and became autonomous in 1967. Since the 1960s, the islands have diversified away from their traditionally agriculture-based economy towards tourism and financial services and they are located in the Virgin Islands archipelago, a few miles east of the US Virgin Islands
20.
Road Town
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Road Town, located on Tortola, is the capital of the British Virgin Islands. It is situated on the horseshoe-shaped Road Harbour in the centre of the south coast. The population was about 9,400 in 2004, the name is derived from the nautical term the roads, a place less sheltered than a harbour but which ships can easily get to. This area is the newest part of the city and the hub for the new commercial, the oldest building in Road Town, HM Prison on Main Street, was built in 1774. The British Virgin Islands enjoy a tropical climate, moderated by trade winds, temperatures vary little throughout the year. In the capital, Road Town, typical daily maxima are around 32 °C in the summer and 29 °C in the winter, typical daily minima are around 24 °C in the summer and 21 °C in the winter. Rainfall averages about 1,150 mm per year, higher in the hills, rainfall can be quite variable, but the wettest months on average are September to November and the driest months on average are February and March. Hurricanes occasionally hit the islands, with the season running from June to November. Road Town is one of the centres for bareboating in the Caribbean. Many successful yacht-charter businesses operate from Road Town, cruise ships can be often seen docked here as well. The Harbour is a popular point for many of the ferries servicing the island. The ferry terminal is located at the north-west end of Road Town, ferries run during the day every day of the week, but rarely at night, it is important to consult an up-to-date ferry timetable in advance. Road Town is served by the British Virgin Islands only major airport, lettsome International Airport, at Beef Island, within a short drive of the city. Only short haul flights are available from this airport, long distance flights are served by Cyril E. King Airport in the US Virgin Islands. Buses in Tortola refers to full-sized passenger vans, or large modified open-air pick-up trucks with bench seating and a canvas top, these are known locally as safaris. Traveling by bus can be less expensive than having a taxi to oneself, on 1 August 1834, the Emancipation Proclamation was read at the Sunday Morning Well. In 1853, a fire destroyed nearly every building in Road Town. The fire spread because of angry rioters protested an increase on the cattle tax, rioters eventually set fire to most of the plantations across the island
21.
Peter Island
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Peter Island is a 720 hectare private island located in the British Virgin Islands. It is about 5 miles south-west from Road Town, Tortola, the island was named after Pieter Adriensen who was the brother of Abraham Adriensen, Patron of Tortola under the Dutch West India Company in the early 17th century. Pieter Adriensen and Joost van Dyk built a fort and slave pens at Great Harbour on Peter Island to facilitate privateering, in 1978, an avid sailor purchased Peter Island after sailing past it several years before. There, he established the resort that exists today and lived on the island to maintain the resort, Peter Island is the largest private island in the BVI and the fifth largest of the 60 islands, quays, and exposed reefs that comprise the BVI. It was owned by the Amway Corporation from 1978 until 2001 when full ownership was transferred to the Van Andel family, the island is predominately undeveloped but contains hiking and biking trails on which to discover the tropical flora and fauna indigenous to Peter Island. The beaches face the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, two of the beaches are for use by guests only. The islands biggest beach is Deadmans Bay, a mile-long crescent beach shaded by trees with a beach, bar. Deadmans Bay is said to be named for pirates that were marooned on neighboring Dead Chest island and subsequently drowned swimming to Peter Island, their bodies washed up on shore. The only hotel, the 52-room Peter Island Resort, ranked in Conde Nast Traveler’s “Gold List, ”, a 1984 review in the New York Times was critical of the food. It has since twice been named by Conde Nast Traveler as one of the Best Places to Stay in the World
22.
RMS Rhone
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RMS Rhone was a UK Royal Mail Ship owned by the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company. She was wrecked off the coast of Salt Island in the British Virgin Islands on 29 October 1867 in a hurricane and she is now a popular Caribbean wreck dive site. RMSP ships carried mail, passengers, horses, and cargo on regular scheduled routes and its first services had been between Southampton and the Caribbean, but in 1851 it added a new route between Southampton and Rio de Janeiro. This growing trade, and a number of ships lost at sea, in June 1863 RMSP ordered Rhone from the Millwall Iron Works on the Isle of Dogs, London and her sister ship Douro from Caird & Company in Greenock. The pair was initially to work the Rio de Janeiro route and they were similar but not identical. Both were handsome ships, but Rhone was considered to have finer lines. At this time the Admiralty supervised Royal Mail Ship contracts, during building the Admiralty surveyor criticised Rhones bulkheads and water tight compartments. Revisions were made, and the ship was completed to the surveyors satisfaction, Rhone had an iron hull, was 310 feet long, had a 40-foot beam and 2,738 GRT. She was a sail-steamer, rigged as a two-masted brig and her compound steam engine developed 500 NHP and gave her a speed of 14 knots on her sea trials. In her contract the ship cost £25 17s 8d per ton and she had a bronze propeller, which was only the second ever made of this alloy. She had also a surface condenser in order to save and re-use water in her boilers and she was the first ship so equipped to visit Brazil, so in port in 1865 the Emperor of Brazil, Pedro II, came aboard and visited her engine room to see it. Rhones passenger capacity was 253 first class,30 second class and 30 third class, on 9 October 1865 she left Southampton on her maiden voyage to Brazil. At first she suffered from overheated bearings, but once this was resolved she became a fast and her next five voyages were also to Brazil. Rhone proved her worth by weathering several severe storms, in January 1867 Rhone made her final voyage to Brazil, after which RMSP transferred her to the Caribbean route, which at the time was more lucrative and prestigious. On 19 October 1867 Rhone drew alongside RMS Conway in Great Harbour, the original coaling station they needed had been moved from the then Danish island of St. Thomas due to an outbreak of yellow fever. The storm which subsequently hit was later known as the San Narciso Hurricane and they decided to transfer the passengers from Conway to the unsinkable Rhone, Conway was then to head for Road Harbour and Rhone would make for open sea. As was normal practice at the time, the passengers in Rhone were tied into their beds to prevent them being injured in the stormy seas. Conway got away before Rhone but was caught by the end of the storm
23.
Spanish escudo
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The escudo was the name of two distinct Spanish currency denominations. The first escudo was a gold coin introduced in 1535/1537, with coins denominated in escudos issued until 1833 and it was initially worth 16 reales. When different reales were introduced, the escudo became worth 16 reales de plata in 1642, gold coins were issued in denominations of ½,1,2,4 and 8 escudos, with the 2 escudos coin known as the doubloon. Between 1809 and 1849, coins denominated as 80,160 and 320 reales were issued, equivalent, in content and value. Most were minted in Madrid, marked with a superscripted M or in Seville bearing an S below, the mintmasters initials appeared on the opposite side. The second escudo was the currency of Spain between 1864 and 1869 and it was subdivided into 100 céntimos de escudo. The escudo replaced the real at a rate of 10 reales =1 escudo and it was itself replaced by the peseta, at a rate of 2½ pesetas =1 escudo, when Spain joined the Latin Monetary Union. The later silver escudo was worth one quarter of the earlier, gold escudo. Copper coins were issued in denominations of ½,1, 2½ and 5 céntimos de escudo, with silver 10,20 and 40 céntimos de escudo,1 and 2 escudos, and gold 2,4 and 10 escudos. The 1 escudo was introduced in 1864, followed by the silver and gold coins in 1865. All the coins were minted until 1868, with 10 escudos also minted in 1873 during the First Republic, portuguese escudo The Colonial Coinage of Spanish America, An introduction by Daniel Frank Sedwick
24.
Grito de Lares
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The Grito de Lares —also referred to as the Lares uprising, the Lares revolt, the Lares rebellion, or the Lares revolution—was the first major revolt against Spanish rule in Puerto Rico. The short-lived revolt was planned by Ramón Emeterio Betances and Segundo Ruiz Belvis and it began on September 23,1868, in the town of Lares, for which it is named, and spread rapidly to various revolutionary cells throughout the island. In the 1860s, the government of Spain was involved in conflicts across Latin America. It became involved in a war with Peru and Chile, and had to address slave revolts in Cuba and this board, the Junta Informativa de Reformas de Ultramar would be formed by representatives of each overseas province, in proportion to their collective population. The board would meet in Madrid, then report to the Minister of State, the Puerto Rican delegation was freely elected by those eligible to vote, in what was one of the first exercises of political openness in Spain. However, Acosta could convince the Junta that abolition could be achieved in Puerto Rico without disrupting the local economy, beyond abolition however, proposals for autonomy were voted down, as were other petitions to limit the governor generals power over virtually every aspect of life in Puerto Rico. Once the Junta members returned to Puerto Rico, they met with community leaders in a famed meeting at the Hacienda El Cacao in Carolina. Ramón Emeterio Betances, who supported independence from Spain and had been exiled by the Spanish government twice by that time, was invited by Ruiz, Betances then suggested an outright, island-wide rebellion, with a proclamation of independence as soon as possible. To Acostas horror, many of the meetings attendees sided with Betances, the Lares uprising, commonly known as the Grito de Lares, occurred on September 23,1868, but was planned well before that date. A group led by Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances and Segundo Ruiz Belvis founded the Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico on January 6,1868 from their exile in the Dominican Republic. Betances authored several Proclamas, or statements attacking the exploitation of the Puerto Ricans by the Spanish centralist system and these statements soon circulated throughout the island as local dissident groups began to organize. Among them, Los Diez Mandamientos de los hombres libres written in exile in Saint Thomas in November 1867. It is directly based on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted by Frances National Assembly in 1789, eduvigis Beauchamp Sterling, named Treasurer of the revolution by Betances, provided Mariana Bracetti with the materials for the Revolutionary Flag of Lares. The flag was divided in the middle by a white Latin cross, a white star was placed in the upper left blue corner. The Revolutionary Committee named twelve of their members as generales, the stronghold of the movement were towns located in the mountains, on the western part of the island. On September 20, Francisco Ramírez Medina held a meeting at his house in which the insurrection was planned, cancela instructed Manuel María González to deliver all of the acts and important papers in regard to the meeting to Manuel Rojas. Juan Castañón, a captain stationed in Quebradillas, overheard two cell members commenting that on September 29 the troops at Camuy would be neutralized by poisoning the bread rations. Castañón and his men then entered Gonzálezs residence and confiscated the documents of Medinas meeting, the cell leaders at the Lanzador del Norte cell in Camuy were soon arrested
25.
Santo Domingo
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Santo Domingo, officially Santo Domingo de Guzmán, is the capital and largest city in the Dominican Republic and the largest metropolitan area in the Caribbean by population. In 2010, its population was counted as 965,040, the city is coterminous with the boundaries of the Distrito Nacional, itself bordered on three sides by Santo Domingo Province. Santo Domingo is the site of the first university, cathedral, castle, monastery, the citys Colonial Zone was declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Santo Domingo was called Ciudad Trujillo, from 1936 to 1961, after the Dominican Republics dictator, Rafael Trujillo, following his assassination, the city resumed its original designation. Santo Domingo is the cultural, financial, political, commercial and industrial center of the Dominican Republic, Santo Domingo also serves as the chief seaport of the country. The citys harbor at the mouth of the Ozama River accommodates the largest vessels, temperatures are high year round, with a cool breeze around winter time. At the time, the territory consisted of five chiefdoms, Marién, Maguá, Maguana, Jaragua. These were ruled respectively by caciques Guacanagarix, Guarionex, Caonabo, Bohechío, dating from 1496, when the Spanish settled on the island, and officially from 5 August 1498, Santo Domingo became the oldest European city in the Americas. Bartholomew Columbus founded the settlement and named it La Nueva Isabela, in 1495 it was renamed Santo Domingo, in honor of Saint Dominic. Santo Domingo came to be known as the Gateway to the Caribbean, in June 1502, Santo Domingo was destroyed by a major hurricane, and the new Governor Nicolás de Ovando had it rebuilt on a different site on the other side of the Ozama River. The original layout of the city and a portion of its defensive wall can still be appreciated today throughout the Colonial Zone. Diego Colon arrived in 1509, assuming the powers of Viceroy, in 1512, Ferdinand established a Real Audiencia with Juan Ortiz de Matienzo, Marcelo de Villalobos, and Lucas Vazquez de Ayllon appointed as judges of appeal. In 1514, Pedro Ibanez de Ibarra arrived with the Laws of Burgos, rodrigo de Alburquerque was named repartidor de indios and soon named visitadores to enforce the laws. In 1586, Francis Drake captured the city and held it for ransom, an expedition sent by Oliver Cromwell in 1655 attacked the city of Santo Domingo, but was defeated. The English troops withdrew and took the less guarded colony of Jamaica, in 1697, the Treaty of Ryswick included the acknowledgement by Spain of Frances dominion over the Western third of the island, now Haiti. From 1795 to 1822 the city changed several times along with the colony it headed. The city was ceded to France in 1795 after years of struggles, it was captured by Haitian rebels in 1801, recovered by France in 1802. In 1821 Santo Domingo became the capital of an independent nation after the Criollo bourgeois within the country, led by José Núñez de Cáceres, the nation was unified with Haiti just two months later
26.
Dominican Republic
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The Dominican Republic is a sovereign state occupying the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola, in the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western one-third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, christopher Columbus landed on the Western part of Hispaniola, in what is now Haiti, on December 6,1492. The island became the first seat of the Spanish colonial rule in the New World, the Dominican people declared independence in November 1821 but were forcefully annexed by their more powerful neighbor Haiti in February 1822. After the 1844 victory in the Dominican War of Independence against Haitian rule the country again under Spanish colonial rule until the Dominican War of Restoration of 1865. The Dominican Republic experienced mostly internal strife until 1916, a civil war in 1965, the countrys last, was ended by another U. S. military occupation and was followed by the authoritarian rule of Joaquín Balaguer, 1966–1978. Since then, the Dominican Republic has moved toward representative democracy and has been led by Leonel Fernández for most of the time since 1996. Danilo Medina, the Dominican Republics current president, succeeded Fernandez in 2012, the Dominican Republic has the ninth-largest economy in Latin America and is the largest economy in the Caribbean and Central American region. Though long known for agriculture and mining, the economy is now dominated by services. Over the last two decades, the Dominican Republic have been standing out as one of the economies in the Americas – with an average real GDP growth rate of 5. 4% between 1992 and 2014. GDP growth in 2014 and 2015 reached 7.3 and 7. 0%, respectively, in the first half of 2016 the Dominican economy grew 7. 4% continuing its trend of rapid economic growth. Recent growth has been driven by construction, manufacturing and tourism, private consumption has been strong, as a result of low inflation, job creation, as well as high level of remittances. The Dominican Republic has a market, Bolsa de Valores de la Republica Dominicana. and advanced telecommunication system. Nevertheless, unemployment, government corruption, and inconsistent electric service remain major Dominican problems, the country also has marked income inequality. International migration affects the Dominican Republic greatly, as it receives, mass illegal Haitian immigration and the integration of Dominicans of Haitian descent are major issues. A large Dominican diaspora exists, mostly in the United States, contributes to development, the Dominican Republic is the most visited destination in the Caribbean. The year-round golf courses are major attractions, the island has an average temperature of 26 °C and great climatic and biological diversity. The country is also the site of the first cathedral, castle, monastery, and fortress built in all of the Americas, located in Santo Domingos Colonial Zone, a World Heritage Site. Music and sport are of importance in the Dominican culture, with Merengue and Bachata as the national dance and music
27.
Tropical cyclone
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Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by names such as hurricane, typhoon /taɪˈfuːn/, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, and simply cyclone. A hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water. They derive their energy through the evaporation of water from the ocean surface and this energy source differs from that of mid-latitude cyclonic storms, such as noreasters and European windstorms, which are fueled primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts. The strong rotating winds of a tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of momentum imparted by the Earths rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation. As a result, they form within 5° of the equator. Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and 2,000 km in diameter, Tropical refers to the geographical origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively over tropical seas. Cyclone refers to their nature, with wind blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. The opposite direction of circulation is due to the Coriolis effect, in addition to strong winds and rain, tropical cyclones are capable of generating high waves, damaging storm surge, and tornadoes. They typically weaken rapidly over land where they are cut off from their energy source. For this reason, coastal regions are vulnerable to damage from a tropical cyclone as compared to inland regions. Heavy rains, however, can cause significant flooding inland, though their effects on human populations are often devastating, tropical cyclones can relieve drought conditions. They also carry heat away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes. Tropical cyclones are areas of low pressure in the troposphere. On Earth, the pressures recorded at the centers of tropical cyclones are among the lowest ever observed at sea level, the environment near the center of tropical cyclones is warmer than the surroundings at all altitudes, thus they are characterized as warm core systems. The near-surface wind field of a cyclone is characterized by air rotating rapidly around a center of circulation while also flowing radially inwards. At the outer edge of the storm, air may be nearly calm, however, due to the Earths rotation, as air flows radially inward, it begins to rotate cyclonically in order to conserve angular momentum. At an inner radius, air begins to ascend to the top of the troposphere and this radius is typically coincident with the inner radius of the eyewall, and has the strongest near-surface winds of the storm, consequently, it is known as the radius of maximum winds. Once aloft, air flows away from the center, producing a shield of cirrus clouds
