1.
1857 in art
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Events from the year 1857 in art. June 22 – The South Kensington Museum, predecessor of the Victoria, lewis Carroll meets John Ruskin and begins to associate with the Pre-Raphaelites. In the same year, Ruskin publishes his Political Economy of Art, may 5 – October 17 – The Art Treasures of Great Britain exhibition is held in Manchester, one of the largest such displays of all time. Emily Mary Osborn – Nameless and Friendless O. G. W
2.
1859 in art
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Events from the year 1859 in art. March 22 – Scottish National Gallery opens to the public in Edinburgh in neoclassical premises designed by W. H. Playfair, april 26 – William Morris marries his model, Jane Burden. Edward Burne-Jones presents them with a self-painted wardrobe, frederic E. Churchs The Heart of the Andes is exhibited in New York and draws 12,000 paying visitors. The Artists Rifles set up in London as a unit of the British Army
3.
1861 in art
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Events from the year 1861 in art. February – Hilda Sjölin opens a studio in Malmö, making her one of the first known Swedish female professional photographers. Paul Cézanne and his friend Émile Zola arrive in Paris, berthe Morisot becomes a pupil of Corot. Édouard Manet has his first paintings accepted by the Salon, william Bell Scott concludes his series of murals of Northumbrian history at Wallington Hall with Iron and Coal, the Nineteenth Century
4.
1863 in art
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Events from the year 1863 in art. March – American-born painter James McNeill Whistler settles close to the River Thames in Chelsea, London, the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris becomes independent of the Académie des Beaux-Arts. Julia Margaret Cameron takes up photography, alexander Gilchrists Life of William Blake, Pictor Ignotus is published in London, edited posthumously by Anne Gilchrist. May 17 – Opening of first exhibition of the Salon des Refusés in Paris, and coining of the term avant-garde
5.
1864 in art
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Events from the year 1864 in art. January 30 – National Gallery of Ireland opens to the public in Dublin in a designed by Francis Fowke based on early plans by Charles Lanyon. February 20 – Painter George Frederic Watts marries his 16-year-old model and she elopes less than a year later. December 30 – Julia Margaret Cameron sends John Herschel an album of her first years photography including her iconic portrait of him, stanisław Chlebowski takes up a post as master painter to Sultan Abdülaziz in Istanbul. The National Gallery in London acquires The Annunciation, with Saint Emidius from Lord Taunton, F. Watts – Choosing James McNeill Whistler Caprice in Purple and Gold, The Golden Screen Symphony in White, No
6.
1865 in art
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Events from the year 1865 in art. July 21 – Charles Dodgson photographs Effie Gray Millais, John Everett Millais, ford Madox Brown completes his painting Work after thirteen years. Édouard Manets painting Olympia is first exhibited, at the Salon, jean-François Millets painting The Angelus is first exhibited and becomes very popular in France. The Bargello in Florence becomes an art museum
7.
1870 in art
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Events from the year 1870 in art. June 28 – Claude Monet marries his mistress and model Camille Doncieux in Paris, july – Franco-Prussian War breaks out, Monet and Pissarro flee to London, Cézanne and his mistress, Marie-Hortense Fiquet, leave Paris for LEstaque where he predominantly paints landscapes. In September the Dutch painter Lourens Alma Tadema moves permanently to London where he adopts the name Lawrence Alma-Tadema, Édouard Manet and Louis Edmond Duranty fight a duel at Café Guerbois, Paris. Russian industrialist and patron of the arts Savva Mamontov acquires the Abramtsevo Colony, dante Gabriel Rossettis Poems are published, exhumed from Elizabeth Siddals grave. Daoud Corm goes to Rome to study under Roberto Bompiani at the Accademia di San Luca
8.
1871 in art
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Events from the year 1871 in art. March – Edward Lear settles at his villa in Sanremo, spring – James McNeill Whistler publishes Sixteen etchings of scenes on the Thames and paints his first moonlights of the river. May – James Tissot flees Paris for London, june 14 – Camille Pissarro marries his mistress Julie Vellay in the London borough of Croydon and moves to Pontoise. Summer – Claude Monet visits Zaandam, december – Monet and his wife Camille move to Argenteuil. William Morris and Dante Gabriel Rossetti become tenants of Kelmscott Manor, marie Spartali marries William James Stillman. Crocker establishes the Crocker Art Museum in Sacramento, California, the Apotheosis of War George Frederic Watts – Portrait of Frederic Leighton Alfred Waud – A Home on the Mississippi James McNeill Whistler Arrangement in Grey and Black No
9.
1872 in art
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Events from the year 1872 in art. February 20 – The Metropolitan Museum of Art opens in New York City. A, november 13 – Claude Monet begins painting Impression, Sunrise as viewed from his hotel room at Le Havre. November – Edward Lear acquires his cat Foss, date unknown William De Morgan sets up an art pottery in Chelsea, London. The first Wallace fountains, to the design of sculptor Charles-Auguste Lebourg, are installed in Paris
10.
1873 in art
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Events from the year 1873 in art. Early – Pre-Raphaelite painter Simeon Solomon is arrested in a urinal in London. May – Vincent van Gogh is re-located to London by his employer, monet, Renoir, Pissarro, and Sisley organize the Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs, etc. for the purpose of exhibiting artworks independently. The collection forming the Galleria Nazionale dellUmbria is moved to the Palazzo dei Priori, new Accademia delle Arti del Disegno established in Florence. Leslie Ward, as Spy, begins producing caricatures for the British magazine Vanity Fair
11.
1874 in art
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Events from the year 1874 in art. August 22 – English illustrator Helen Paterson marries Irish poet and editor William Allingham, december 19 – Monet begins painting his Snow at Argenteuil series. December 22 – Berthe Morisot, who has exhibited at the first Impressionist exhibition, marries Eugène, brother of Édouard Manet, goyas Black Paintings are transferred to canvas
12.
1876 in art
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Events from the year 1876 in art. April – Impressionist exhibition at the house of Paul Durand-Ruel,11 rue Peletier, may 16 – German American Napoleon of crime Adam Worth steals Gainsboroughs portrait Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire from Agnews gallery in Old Bond Street, London. Henrietta Montalba exhibits at the Royal Academy for the first time, kathleen Newton moves into the London home of James Tissot, becoming his mistress and model
13.
1867 in architecture
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The year 1867 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. May 12 — Construction work begins on Toluca Cathedral in Mexico, may 20 — Queen Victoria lays the foundation stone for the Royal Albert Hall in London, designed by Captain Francis Fowke and Colonel H. Y. Ildefons Cerdà publishes Teoría General de la Urbanización, the United States Congress directs the United States Army Corps of Engineers to begin improvements on the Navigation Structures at Frankfort Harbor, Michigan. January 1 — The John A.29, Sitka, Alaska Grande halle de la Villette, Paris, France, designed by Jules de Mérindol, grand Prix de Rome, architecture — Émile Bénard. March 10 — Hector Guimard, French Art Nouveau architect June 8 — Frank Lloyd Wright, American architect, interior designer, writer and educator June 22 — John A
14.
1867 in science
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The year 1867 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below. April – First clear recorded use of the science in English with todays usage as restricted to the natural and physical sciences. Gorse naturalises in New Zealand and soon becomes the worst invasive weed, swiss botanist Simon Schwendener proposes his dual theory of lichens. Rosa La France, the first hybrid tea rose, is cultivated by Jean-Baptiste Guillot, the Big Trees Ranch at Felton, California, is bought by San Francisco businessman Joseph Warren Welch to preserve the giant redwoods from logging. Publication of the first volume of Das Kapital by Karl Marx, at Fountain Point, Michigan, an artesian water spring begins to gush continuously. Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel established in the United States under the directorship of Clarence King, English mathematician Rev. William Allen Whitworth publishes the first edition of his Choice and Chance, An Elementary Treatise on Permutations, Combinations, and Probability. March 16 – First publication of an article by Joseph Lister outlining the discovery of antiseptic surgery, july 17 – In Boston, Massachusetts, the Harvard School of Dental Medicine is established as the first dental school in the United States. Yellow fever kills 3093 in New Orleans, henry Maudsley publishes The Physiology and Pathology of Mind. It will be renamed after its designer, John A. Roebling, february 17 – The first ship passes through the Suez Canal. July 2 – First elevated railroad in the United States begins service in New York, december 14 – Spanish inventor Narcís Monturiol submerges his submarine Ictineo II at Barcelona, demonstrating its chemically-fired anaerobic steam propulsion system. Pierre Michaux invents the front wheel-driven velocipede, the first mass-produced bicycle, copley Medal, Karl Ernst von Baer Wollaston Medal, George Poulett Scrope January 11 – Edward B. January 22 – Gisela Januszewska, Moravian-born public health physician, april 16 – Wilbur Wright, American pioneer aviator. June 11 – Charles Fabry, French optical physicist, october 21 – Aldred Scott Warthin, American cancer geneticist. November 7 – Maria Skłodowska, later Marie Curie, Polish-born physicist, november 26 – Emil von Dungern, German serologist. December 1 – Ignacy Mościcki, chemist and President of Poland, december 26 – John Bradfield, Australian civil engineer. January 16 – William Marsden, English surgeon, february 9 – Filippo de Filippi, Italian zoologist. March 27 – Prideaux John Selby, English ornithologist, may 29 – Margaretta Morris, American entomologist. August 25 – Michael Faraday, English chemist and physicist
15.
Exposition Universelle (1867)
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The International Exposition of 1867, was the second worlds fair to be held in Paris, from 1 April to 3 November 1867. Forty two nations were represented at the fair, following a decree of Emperor Napoleon III, the exposition was prepared as early as 1864, in the midst of the renovation of Paris, marking the culmination of the Second French Empire. In 1864, Napoleon III decreed that an international exposition should be held in Paris in 1867, a commission was appointed with Prince Jerome Napoleon as president, under whose direction the preliminary work began. In addition to the building, there were nearly 100 smaller buildings on the grounds. There were 50,226 exhibitors, of whom 15,055 were from France and her colonies,6176 from Great Britain and Ireland,703 from the United States and a small contingent from Canada. In the gallery of Labour History Jacques Boucher de Perthes, exposes one of the first prehistoric tools whose authenticity has been recognized with the accuracy of these theories. The exhibition also included two prototypes of the acclaimed and prize-winning hydrochronometer invented in 1867 by Gian Battista Embriaco. Farcot and sculptor Albert-Ernest Carrier-Be Belleuse, farcot exhibited several units, one of them it is currently in the Roosevelt Hotel in New Orleans. Its base, which features the face and inner mechanical movements, is carved from solid onyx marble. Atop the base, a sculpture depicting a robed female figure holds a scepter. Rotating soundlessly from the subjects hand, the scepter provides consistent motion that adds to the clocks sense of grandeur. From its base to the top of the figure stands at nearly 10 feet tall. Carrier de Belleuse was one of the most important and renowned sculptors of the 19th century, the exposition was formally opened on 1 April and closed on 31 October 1867, and was visited by 9,238,967 persons, including exhibitors and employees. This exposition was the greatest up to its time of all international expositions, for the first time Japan presented art pieces to the world in a national pavilion, especially pieces from the Satsuma and Saga clans in Kyushu. The Paris street near Champs de Mars, Rue de LExposition was named in hommage to this 1867 universal exhibition. Jules Verne visited the exhibition in 1867, his take on the newly publicized discovery of electricity inspiring him heavily in his writing of 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. A famous revival of the ballet Le Corsaire was staged by the Ballet Master Joseph Mazilier in honor of the exhibition at the Théâtre Impérial de l´Opéra on 21 October 1867. The World Rowing Championships were held on the Seine River in July and was won by the underdog Canadian team from Saint John, rejtan This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C
16.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
17.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
18.
Woodblock printing
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Woodblock printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns used widely throughout East Asia and originating in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later paper. Ukiyo-e is the best known type of Japanese woodblock art print, most European uses of the technique for printing images on paper are covered by the art term woodcut, except for the block-books produced mainly in the 15th century. Prior to the invention of printing, seals and stamps were used for making impressions. The oldest of these came from Mesopotamia and Egypt. A few much larger brick stamps for marking clay bricks survive from Akkad from around 2270 BC. There are also Roman lead pipe inscriptions of some length that were stamped, however none of these used ink, which is necessary for printing, but stamped marks into relatively soft materials. In both China and Egypt, the use of stamps for seals preceded the use of larger blocks. In Europe and India, the printing of cloth certainly preceded the printing of paper or papyrus, the process is essentially the same—in Europe special presentation impressions of prints were often printed on silk until at least the 17th century. The block was cut along the grain of the wood and it is necessary only to ink the block and bring it into firm and even contact with the paper or cloth to achieve an acceptable print. The content would of course print in reverse or mirror-image, a further complication when text was involved, the art of carving the woodcut is technically known as xylography, though the term is rarely used in English. For colour printing, multiple blocks are used, each for one colour, multiple colours can be printed by keying the paper to a frame around the woodblocks. There are three methods of printing to consider, Stamping Used for many fabrics, and most early European woodcuts. These items were printed by putting paper or fabric on a table or a surface with the block on top, and pressing, or hammering. Rubbing Apparently the most common for Far Eastern printing, Used for European woodcuts and block-books later in the 15th century, and very widely for cloth. The block is placed face side up on a table, with the paper or fabric on top, the back of the paper or fabric is rubbed with a hard pad, a flat piece of wood, a burnisher, or a leather frotton. Printing in a press Presses only seem to have used in Asia in relatively recent times. Simple weighted presses may have used in Europe, but firm evidence is lacking. A deceased Abbess of Mechelen in Flanders in 1465 had unum instrumentum ad imprintendum scripturas et ymagines, cum 14 aliis lapideis printis which is probably too early to be a Gutenberg-type printing press in that location
19.
Engraving
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Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard, usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it. Wood engraving is a form of printing and is not covered in this article. Engraving was an important method of producing images on paper in artistic printmaking, in mapmaking. Other terms often used for printed engravings are copper engraving, copper-plate engraving or line engraving, hand engraving is a term sometimes used for engraving objects other than printing plates, to inscribe or decorate jewellery, firearms, trophies, knives and other fine metal goods. Traditional engravings in printmaking are also engraved, using just the same techniques to make the lines in the plate. Each graver is different and has its own use, engravers use a hardened steel tool called a burin, or graver, to cut the design into the surface, most traditionally a copper plate. Modern professional engravers can engrave with a resolution of up to 40 lines per mm in high grade work creating game scenes, dies used in mass production of molded parts are sometimes hand engraved to add special touches or certain information such as part numbers. In addition to engraving, there are engraving machines that require less human finesse and are not directly controlled by hand. They are usually used for lettering, using a pantographic system, there are versions for the insides of rings and also the outsides of larger pieces. Such machines are used for inscriptions on rings, lockets. Gravers come in a variety of shapes and sizes that yield different line types, the burin produces a unique and recognizable quality of line that is characterized by its steady, deliberate appearance and clean edges. The angle tint tool has a curved tip that is commonly used in printmaking. Florentine liners are flat-bottomed tools with multiple lines incised into them, ring gravers are made with particular shapes that are used by jewelry engravers in order to cut inscriptions inside rings. Flat gravers are used for work on letters, as well as wriggle cuts on most musical instrument engraving work, remove background. Knife gravers are for line engraving and very deep cuts, round gravers, and flat gravers with a radius, are commonly used on silver to create bright cuts, as well as other hard-to-cut metals such as nickel and steel. Square or V-point gravers are typically square or elongated diamond-shaped and used for cutting straight lines, V-point can be anywhere from 60 to 130 degrees, depending on purpose and effect. These gravers have very small cutting points, other tools such as mezzotint rockers, roulets and burnishers are used for texturing effects. Burnishing tools can also be used for stone setting techniques
20.
William Holman Hunt
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William Holman Hunt OM was an English painter and one of the founders of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. His paintings were notable for their attention to detail, vivid color. These features were influenced by the writings of John Ruskin and Thomas Carlyle, for Hunt it was the duty of the artist to reveal the correspondence between sign and fact. Of all the members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, Hunt remained most true to their ideals throughout his career and he was always keen to maximize the popular appeal and public visibility of his works. After eventually entering the Royal Academy art schools, having initially been rejected and he formed the Pre-Raphaelite movement in 1848, after meeting the poet and artist Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Along with John Everett Millais they sought to revitalise art by emphasising the detailed observation of the world in a spirit of quasi-religious devotion to truth. This religious approach was influenced by the qualities of medieval art. He had many pupils including Robert Braithwaite Martineau, after a failed engagement to his model Annie Miller, he married Fanny Waugh, who later modelled for the figure of Isabella. When she died in childbirth in Italy, he sculpted her tomb at Fiesole, having it brought down to the English Cemetery in Florence and he had a close connection with St. Marks Church in Florence, and paid for the communion chalice inscribed in memory of his wife and his second wife, Edith, was Fannys sister. At the time it was illegal in Great Britain to marry ones deceased wifes sister, hunts works were not initially successful, and were widely attacked in the art press for their alleged clumsiness and ugliness. He achieved some note for his intensely naturalistic scenes of modern rural and urban life, such as The Hireling Shepherd. Hunt also painted works based on poems, such as Isabella. He eventually built his own house in Jerusalem and he eventually had to relinquish painting because failing eyesight meant that he could not achieve the quality that he wanted. His last major works, including a version of The Light of the World, were completed with the help of his assistant. Hunt died on 7 September 1910 and was buried in St Pauls Cathedral in London, Hunt published an autobiography in 1905. Many of his writings are attempts to control the interpretation of his work. That year, he was appointed to the Order of Merit by King Edward VII, at the end of his life he lived in Sonning-on-Thames
21.
The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple
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The passage illustrated is from the Gospel of Luke,2,41, which states, Every year his parents went to Jerusalem for the Feast of the Passover. When he was years old, they went up to the Feast. After the Feast was over, while his parents were returning home, the boy Jesus stayed behind in Jerusalem, thinking he was in their company, they traveled on for a day. Then they began looking for him among their relatives and friends, when they did not find him, they went back to Jerusalem to look for him. After three days they found him in the courts, sitting among the teachers, listening to them. Everyone who heard him was amazed at his understanding and his answers, when his parents saw him, they were astonished. His mother said to him, Son, why have you treated us like this and your father and I have been anxiously searching for you. Why were you searching for me, didnt you know I had to be in my Fathers house. But they did not understand what he was saying to them, Hunt depicts the moment at which Mary and Joseph find Jesus, while the rabbis in the temple are reacting in various contrasting ways to his discourse, some intrigued, others angry or dismissive. This depiction of contrasting reactions is part of the tradition of the subject, Hunt would also have known Bernardino Luinis version of the subject in the National Gallery. At the time this was ascribed to Leonardo da Vinci, progress on the painting was delayed by difficulties with models, and eventually Hunt postponed it to work on another project, The Scapegoat. He eventually completed it in 1860, back in England and his friend Frederic George Stephens wrote a pamphlet containing a detailed explanation of the content and the characters. It was then shown in a series of travelling exhibitions at which visitors could buy the pamphlet. These were organised by the dealer Ernest Gambart, and proved a financial success
22.
Ernest Gambart
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Jean Joseph Ernest Theodore Gambart was a Belgian-born English art publisher and dealer who dominated the London art world in the middle of the nineteenth century. Gambart was born in Kortrijk, the son of a printer, binder and bookseller, by the age of 19, he had moved to Paris where he established his own print and papermaking business. He soon became known to the well-established Goupil print publishers, for whom he moved to England in 1840 to establish a branch in London. He soon struck out on his own again in 1842, this time in partnership with one Mr. Junin, the company was a success, and by early in 1844, the company was established as publishers as well as importers and exporters. Gambart soon gained a reputation as a publisher of fine art prints. M. W. Turner, David Roberts, Frederick Goodall, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Ford Madox Brown and he was a friend to many of these artists, and helped establish the reputation of some. For example, in 1855, he brought Rosa Bonheur to England with her piece, The Horse Fair, which he purchased. For the same visit, he arranged a sojourn to Scotland where Bonheur made sketches for later works and he published many of her paintings as steel engraved reproductions. Through his efforts, she became known in England than her native France. The Dutch-born Alma-Tadema benefited in a similar manner ten years later and he met Gambart in 1864 and Gambart was impressed by the young mans work. Gambart arranged an exhibition in London in 1865 and promoted his work while the artist remained in Belgium, Alma-Tadema finally moved to London in 1870. Gambart worked with some of the finest engravers and technicians of his day to create works as close to the intent as possible in a black. Among the craftsmen he employed were Charles George Lewis, Gambart later also employed colour lithography. His attention to quality paid off both in the arrangements he maintained with leading artists and also in sales, among his best selling reproductions were William Holman Hunts The Light of the World, an inspiring and highly influential image of Christ, and William Powell Friths The Derby Day. Gambart expanded into original works by 1849, by now established with an address in Londons Pall Mall, his first exhibition was the bronzes of Pierre-Jules Mène, sculptor of animals. In time, his exhibitions, often featuring French artists, became known as the French Gallery, later moving to King Street, St. James, Gambart would alternate British artists with those of Continental European ones. He was among the first to art in this way. Prior to his galleries, most fine art was sold by the artist directly to the buyer and his friendship with artists and buyers, including pen-maker and well-known patron Joseph Gillott, as well as with critics, would become a model for how modern art business would be run
23.
The Races at Longchamp
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The Races at Longchamp is an 1866 painting by the French artist Édouard Manet. The Impressionist painting depicts a horse racing at Longchamp and is conserved at the Art Institute of Chicago. It has been exhibited many times, the first one at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in Paris in January 1884, about the painting, the Art Institute of Chicago said it is startling. We find ourselves on the racecourse with a cluster of onrushing horses and jockeys bearing directly down on us
24.
George Henry Boughton
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This page is about the painter, for the NY politician see George H. Boughton. George Henry Boughton RA was an Anglo-American landscape and genre painter, illustrator, Boughton was born in Norwich in Norfolk, England, the son of farmer William Boughton. The family emigrated to the United States in 1835, and he grew up in Albany, at this early stage he was influenced by the artists of the Hudson River School. By the age of 19 he was recognised as a landscape painter, in 1853, the American Art Union purchased one of his early pictures which financed six months of studying art in England. He concluded this period of his training with a tour of the Lake District. After coming back to the USA, Boughton exhibited his works in Washington, D. C. and New York, from 1859–61 he studied art in France under Pierre Edouard Frère and Edward Harrison May. His subject-pictures, such as the Early Puritans of New England Going to Church, were especially popular, the Return of the Mayflower was praised as a picture which will live as long as the memory of the Mayflower itself lasts. Vincent Van Gogh, who lived London in 1873–75, was impressed by Boughton’s painting Godspeed. Then working as a minister, he gave an inspired by the painting. The Boughton painting is now part of the collection of the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam, Boughton illustrated Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter and Henry Wadsworth Longfellows poems. In 1893, the edition of Washington Irving’s Rip Van Winkle, a London critic once declared that he has learnt the secret of putting natural feelings into rustic figures, which has been almost entirely wanting to English painters. Boughton exhibited extensively in both Britain and USA, and was elected a member of the National Academy of Design in New York in 1871. He was elected a member of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours, an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1879, and a Royal Academician in 1896. He was a useful and popular member of this body, and worked well as member of the council, as a hanger, after the death of John Callcott Horsley, Boughton was elected a Director of the Fine Art and General Insurance Company. Among his landscape paintings - views of England and Brittany in France, in 1883, he travelled to Holland. His illustrated account of that journey was published in the Harpers Magazine as Artist Strolls in Holland, in 1865, Boughton married Katherine Louise Cullen, and they had an adopted daughter, Florence. Along with John Callcott Horsley, he was one of the clients of architect Richard Norman Shaw who built a house for the Boughtons on Campden Hill. The parties given here by Mr and Mrs Boughton were celebrated among artistic and literary people and it was noticed that Boughton was influenced by works of British painter and illustrator Frederick Walker
25.
Valletta
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Valletta is the capital city of Malta, colloquially known as Il-Belt in Maltese. The historical city has a population of 6,444, while the area around it has a population of 393,938. Valletta is the southernmost capital of Europe and the second southernmost capital of the European Union after Nicosia, Valletta contains buildings from the 16th century onwards, built during the rule of the Order of St. John also known as Knights Hospitaller. The City of Valletta was officially recognised as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1980, the official name given by the Order of Saint John was Humilissima Civitas Valletta—The Most Humble City of Valletta, or Città Umilissima in Italian. The building of a city on the Sciberras Peninsula, originally called Xaghriet Mewwija, had proposed by the Order of Saint John as early as 1524. Back then, the building on the peninsula was a small watchtower dedicated to Erasmus of Formia. In 1552, the watchtower was demolished and the larger Fort Saint Elmo was built in its place, in the Great Siege of 1565, Fort Saint Elmo fell to the Ottomans, but the Order eventually won the siege with the help of Sicilian reinforcements. The victorious Grand Master, Jean de Valette, immediately set out to build a new fortified city on the Sciberras Peninsula to fortify the Orders position in Malta, the city took his name and was called La Valletta. The Grand Master asked the European kings and princes for help, pope Pius V sent his military architect, Francesco Laparelli, to design the new city, while Philip II of Spain sent substantial monetary aid. The foundation stone of the city was laid by Grand Master de Valette on 28 March 1566 and he placed the first stone in what later became Our Lady of Victories Church. De Valette died from a stroke on 21 August 1568 at age 74, originally interred in the church of Our Lady of the Victories, his remains now rest in St. Johns Co-Cathedral among the tombs of other Grand Masters of the Knights of Malta. Francesco Laparelli was the principal designer and his plan departed from medieval Maltese architecture. He designed the new city on a grid plan. The streets were designed to be wide and straight, beginning centrally from the City Gate and ending at Fort Saint Elmo overlooking the Mediterranean and his assistant was the Maltese architect Girolamo Cassar, later oversaw the construction of the city himself after Laparellis death in 1570. The Ufficio delle Case regulated the building of the city as a planning authority, seven Auberges were built for the Orders Langues, and these were complete by the 1580s. An eighth Auberge, Auberge de Bavière, was added in the 18th century. During António Manoel de Vilhenas reign, a town began to form between the walls of Valletta and the Floriana Lines, and this evolved from a suburb of Valletta to Floriana, a town in its own right. In 1749, Muslim slaves plotted to kill Grandmaster Pinto and take over Valletta, in 1798, the Order left the islands and the French occupation of Malta began
26.
Julia Margaret Cameron
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Julia Margaret Cameron was a British photographer. She became known for her portraits of celebrities of the time, Camerons photographic career was short, spanning eleven years of her life. She took up photography at the late age of 48. She found more acceptance among pre-Raphaelite artists than among photographers and her work has influenced modern photographers, especially her closely cropped portraits. Her house, Dimbola Lodge, on the Isle of Wight is open to the public, Julia Margaret Cameron was born Julia Margaret Pattle in Calcutta, India, to Adeline de lEtang and James Pattle, a British official of the East India Company. Adeline de lEtang was the daughter of Chevalier Antoine de lEtang and he had married the Indian-born Therese Blin de Grincourt, a daughter of French aristocrats. Cameron was from a family of celebrated beauties and was considered an ugly duckling among her sisters, as her great-niece Virginia Woolf wrote in the 1926 introduction to the Hogarth Press collection of Camerons photographs, In the trio where. Was Beauty, and Dash, Mrs. Cameron was undoubtedly Talent, Camerons sister Virginia was the mother of the temperance leader Lady Henry Somerset. Cameron was educated in France, but returned to India, and in 1838 married Charles Hay Cameron, a jurist and member of the Law Commission stationed in Calcutta, who was twenty years her senior. They had five children together, and also raised five young relations, in 1848, Charles Hay Cameron retired, and the family moved to London, England. In 1860, Cameron visited the estate of poet Alfred Lord Tennyson on the Isle of Wight, Cameron was taken with the location, and the Cameron family purchased a property on the island soon after. They called it Dimbola Lodge after the familys Ceylon estate, in 1863, when Cameron was 48 years old, her daughter gave her a camera as a present, thereby starting her career as a photographer. Within a year, Cameron became a member of the Photographic Societies of London and she remained a member of the Photographic Society, London, until her death. In her photography, Cameron strove to capture beauty and she wrote, I longed to arrest all the beauty that came before me and at length the longing has been satisfied. The basic techniques of soft-focus fancy portraits, which she developed, were taught to her by David Wilkie Wynfield. She later wrote that to my feeling about his beautiful photography I owed all my attempts, Lord Tennyson, her neighbour on the Isle of Wight, often brought friends to see the photographer and her works. At the time, photography was an art that also was highly dependent upon crucial timing. Sometimes Cameron was obsessive about her new occupation, with sitting for countless exposures in the blinding light as she laboriously coated, exposed
27.
Frederic Edwin Church
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Frederic Edwin Church was an American landscape painter born in Hartford, Connecticut. Churchs paintings put an emphasis on light and a respect for natural detail. In his later years, Church painted classical Mediterranean and Middle Eastern scenes and cityscapes, Church was the son of Eliza and Joseph Church. The familys wealth came from Churchs father, a silversmith and watchmaker in Hartford, Joseph, in turn, was the son of Samuel Church, who founded the first paper mill in Lee, Massachusetts in the Berkshires. Joseph later became an official and a director of The Aetna Life Insurance Company, the familys wealth allowed Frederic Church to pursue his interest in art from a very early age. At eighteen years of age, Church became the pupil of Thomas Cole in Catskill, New York after Daniel Wadsworth, in May 1849, Church was elected as the youngest Associate of the National Academy of Design and was promoted to Academician the following year. Soon after, he sold his first major work to Hartfords Wadsworth Athenaeum, Church was the product of the second generation of the Hudson River School and the pupil of Thomas Cole, the school’s founder. The Hudson River School was established by the British Thomas Cole when he moved to America and started painting landscapes, mostly of mountains, both Cole and Church were devout Protestants and the latters beliefs played a role in his paintings especially his early canvases. Cole, along with his friend Asher Durand, started school in New York. The paintings were characterized by their focus on traditional American pastoral settings, especially the Catskill Mountains and this style attempted to capture the wild realism of an unsettled America that was quickly disappearing, and the feelings of discovery and appreciation for natural beauty. His American frontier landscapes show the expansionist and optimistic outlook of the United States in the mid-nineteenth century, Church did differ from Cole in the topics of his paintings, he preferred natural and often majestic scenes over Coles propensity towards allegory. Church, like most second generation Hudson River School painters, used extraordinary detail, romanticism, romanticism was prominent in Britain and France in the early 1800s as a counter-movement to the Enlightenment virtues of order and logic. Artists of the Romantic period often depicted nature in idealized scenes that depicted the richness and beauty of nature and this tradition carries on in the works of Frederic Church, who idealizes an uninterrupted nature, highlighted by creating excruciatingly detailed art. The technical skill comes in the form of luminism, a Hudson River School innovation particularly present in Churchs works, luminism is also cited as encompassing several technical aspects, which can be seen in Church’s works. One example is the attempt to “hide brushstrokes, ” which makes the scene more realistic. Most importantly is the emphasis on light in these scenes, the several sources of light create contrast in the pictures that highlights the beauty and detailed imagery in the painting. Church began his career by painting classic Hudson River School scenes of New York and New England, Church’s method consisted of creating paintings in his studio based on sketches created of views in the summer months. In these earlier years of his career, Church’s style was reminiscent of that of his teacher, Thomas Cole, Church’s work was immediately divergent from Cole’s focus on ethereal, almost mythological, scenes, but his early work did resemble Cole’s tone
28.
Niagara Falls, from the American Side
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Niagara Falls, from the American Side is a painting by the American artist Frederic Edwin Church. Completed in 1867, and based on sketches made by the artist at Niagara Falls and on a sepia photograph. The painting is now in the collection of the Scottish National Gallery, Church was a leading member of the Hudson River School of painters. The painting depicts the view from the east side of Niagara Falls – the American side, in the spray of the waterfall a rainbow is visible. The painting has been described as giving the impression of the water being in constant motion, rushing down, Church made his first painting of the falls in 1857. He had visited the falls several times in July and late August the previous year and he elected to paint the scene from the Canadian side, choosing unconventional dimensions for the painting that emphasized the panoramic effect. The painting was an success, attracting over 100,000 visitors within the first fortnight of its premiere at a New York gallery. Following this, it was exhibited at major cities on the Eastern seaboard and it was purchased by the recently founded Corcoran Gallery of Art in 1876, cementing that institutions success. When the Corcoran closed in 2014, its collection was gifted to the National Gallery of Art, Washington, the painting Niagara Falls, from the American Side was commissioned from Church by the American art dealer Michael Knoedler in 1866. It was the painting of the series and may have been originally destined for the Exposition. The painting was purchased by John S. Kennedy in 1887, Niagara Falls, from the American Side is the only major work by Frederic Edwin Church which is in a public collection in Europe. The canvas is painted in the Romantic style and captures the aesthetic principles of the sublime, Church was a member of the Hudson River School, a group of landscape artists, whose aesthetic vision was influenced by romanticism. The Romantic movement validated intense emotions, the movement was placing new emphasis on the sentiments of visionary and transcendental experience. The Sublime view of nature was as something of a large scale dramatic subject, johnstone, Christopher, Niagara Falls from the American Side 1867, National Galleries of Scotland,1980 Niagara Falls
29.
Gustave Courbet
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Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet was a French painter who led the Realism movement in 19th-century French painting. Committed to painting only what he could see, he rejected academic convention and his independence set an example that was important to later artists, such as the Impressionists and the Cubists. Courbet occupies an important place in 19th-century French painting as an innovator, Courbets paintings of the late 1840s and early 1850s brought him his first recognition. They challenged convention by depicting unidealized peasants and workers, often on a grand scale traditionally reserved for paintings of religious or historical subjects, Courbets subsequent paintings were mostly of a less overtly political character, landscapes, seascapes, hunting scenes, nudes and still lifes. He was imprisoned for six months in 1871 for his involvement with the Paris Commune, Gustave Courbet was born in 1819 to Régis and Sylvie Oudot Courbet in Ornans. Being a prosperous farming family, anti-monarchical feelings prevailed in the household, Courbets sisters, Zoé, Zélie and Juliette, were his first models for drawing and painting. After moving to Paris he often returned home to Ornans to hunt, fish and he went to Paris in 1839 and worked at the studio of Steuben and Hesse. An independent spirit, he left, preferring to develop his own style by studying the paintings of Spanish, Flemish and French masters in the Louvre. Among his paintings of the early 1840s are several self-portraits, Romantic in conception, trips to the Netherlands and Belgium in 1846–47 strengthened Courbets belief that painters should portray the life around them, as Rembrandt, Hals and other Dutch masters had. By 1848, he had gained supporters among the younger critics, Courbet achieved his first Salon success in 1849 with his painting After Dinner at Ornans. The work, reminiscent of Chardin and Le Nain, earned Courbet a gold medal and was purchased by the state, the gold medal meant that his works would no longer require jury approval for exhibition at the Salon—an exemption Courbet enjoyed until 1857. In 1849-50, Courbet painted Stone-Breakers, which Proudhon admired as an icon of peasant life, the painting was inspired by a scene Courbet witnessed on the roadside. He later explained to Champfleury and the writer Francis Wey, It is not often that one encounters so complete an expression of poverty and so, right then, I told them to come to my studio the next morning. Courbets work belonged neither to the predominant Romantic nor Neoclassical schools, instead, he maintained that the only possible source for living art is the artists own experience. He and Jean-Francois Millet would find inspiration painting the life of peasants, Courbet painted figurative compositions, landscapes, seascapes, and still lifes. He courted controversy by addressing issues in his work, and by painting subjects that were considered vulgar, such as the rural bourgeoisie, peasants. His work, along with that of Honoré Daumier and Jean-François Millet and he depicted the harshness in life, and in so doing challenged contemporary academic ideas of art. The Salon of 1850–1851 found him triumphant with The Stone Breakers, the Burial, one of Courbets most important works, records the funeral of his grand uncle which he attended in September 1848
30.
The kill of deer
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The kill of deer, is a very large picture, representing a hunting scene, painted in 1867 by Gustave Courbet. The picture is currently on display in the Musée dOrsay of Paris, the painting was done during the winter of 1866-1867. It is in the large format newly adopted by Courbet, as also in A Burial at Ornans, the work was exhibited at the French art salons and academies of 1869. The picture caused some scandal, major formats being previously reserved for noble history paintings rather than hunting scenes, the scene shows a deer attacked by a pack of hunting dogs and collapsed on the snowy ground. Two characters are on the right, the drill is Cusenier Jules, a resident of Ornans while the man on horseback is Felix Gaudy, of Vuillafans. LHallali is in the tradition of representation of the scene hunt, Courbet uses a harsh realistic representation closer to Flemish models. Hunting scenes are common in the paintings of Courbet, every step of the chase is represented There is another influence in this painting and his influence is reflected particularly through the mounted character
31.
Edgar Degas
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Edgar Degas was a French artist famous for his paintings, sculptures, prints, and drawings. He is especially identified with the subject of dance, more than half of his works depict dancers and he is regarded as one of the founders of Impressionism, although he rejected the term, preferring to be called a realist. He was a draftsman, and particularly masterly in depicting movement, as can be seen in his rendition of dancers, racecourse subjects. His portraits are notable for their complexity and for their portrayal of human isolation. At the beginning of his career, Degas wanted to be a history painter, in his early thirties, he changed course, and by bringing the traditional methods of a history painter to bear on contemporary subject matter, he became a classical painter of modern life. Degas was born in Paris, France, into a wealthy family. He was the oldest of five children of Célestine Musson De Gas, a Creole from New Orleans, Louisiana, and Augustin De Gas and his maternal grandfather Germain Musson, was born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti of French descent and had settled in New Orleans in 1810. Degas began his schooling at age eleven, enrolling in the Lycée Louis-le-Grand and his mother died when he was thirteen, and his father and grandfather became the main influences on him for the remainder of his youth. Degas began to paint early in life, by the time he graduated from the Lycée with a baccalauréat in literature in 1853, at age 18, he had turned a room in his home into an artists studio. Upon graduating, he registered as a copyist in The Louvre Museum, Degas duly enrolled at the Faculty of Law of the University of Paris in November 1853, but applied little effort to his studies. In April of that year Degas was admitted to the École des Beaux-Arts and he studied drawing there with Louis Lamothe, under whose guidance he flourished, following the style of Ingres. In July 1856, Degas traveled to Italy, where he would remain for the three years. In 1858, while staying with his aunts family in Naples and he also began work on several history paintings, Alexander and Bucephalus and The Daughter of Jephthah in 1859–60, Sémiramis Building Babylon in 1860, and Young Spartans around 1860. In 1861 Degas visited his childhood friend Paul Valpinçon in Normandy and he exhibited at the Salon for the first time in 1865, when the jury accepted his painting Scene of War in the Middle Ages, which attracted little attention. The change in his art was influenced primarily by the example of Édouard Manet, upon the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Degas enlisted in the National Guard, where his defense of Paris left him little time for painting. During rifle training his eyesight was found to be defective, after the war, Degas began in 1872 an extended stay in New Orleans, Louisiana, where his brother René and a number of other relatives lived. Staying at the home of his Creole uncle, Michel Musson, on Esplanade Avenue, Degas produced a number of works, many depicting family members. One of Degass New Orleans works, A Cotton Office in New Orleans, garnered favorable attention back in France, Degas returned to Paris in 1873 and his father died the following year, whereupon Degas learned that his brother René had amassed enormous business debts
32.
The Bellelli Family
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The Bellelli Family, also known as Family Portrait, is an oil painting on canvas by Edgar Degas, painted ca. 1858–1867, and housed in the Musée dOrsay, a masterwork of Degas youth, the painting is a portrait of his aunt, her husband, and their two young daughters. While finishing his training in Italy, Degas drew and painted his aunt Laura, her husband the baron Gennaro Bellelli. Although it is not known for certain when or where Degas executed the painting, Laura, his fathers sister, is depicted in a dress which symbolizes mourning for her father, who had recently died and appears in the framed portrait behind her. The baron was an Italian patriot exiled from Naples, living in Florence, Laura Bellellis countenance is dignified and austere, her gesture connected with those of her daughters. Her husband, by contrast, appears to be separated from his family and his association with business and the outside world is implied by his position at his desk. Giulia holds a livelier pose than that of her sister Giovanna, in 1856 Degas left his home in Paris to study art and visit family relations in Italy, arriving in Naples on 17 July. In 1857 he traveled between Naples, where he stayed with his grandfather, Hilaire Degas, and Rome, Degas arrived in Florence by 4 August, living with his uncle Gennaro and making studies in the Uffizi. As I predicted, one of them is much at fault and our sister a little. Laura subsequently confided to Degas that, living in exile, she missed her Neapolitan family, and further, living with Gennaro, whose detestable nature you know and who has no serious occupation, shall soon lead me to the grave. These conflicts would provide background and content for the painting. After his aunt and cousins returned in early November 1858, Degas undertook a series of works that would culminate in The Bellelli Family. It appears that he planned to paint a vertical composition depicting his aunt. Degas wrote of Giulia and Giovanna, The elder one was in fact a little beauty, the younger one, on the other hand, was smart as can be and kind as an angel. I am painting them in mourning dress and small white aprons, the preparatory works include portrait studies and compositional details in pencil, pastel, and oil. In late March 1859, Degas left Florence to return to Paris, supporting this conclusion is the observation that the Bellellis apartment was too small to host such a large work, and there were no studio facilities. The work of artists provided inspiration, at this time Degas included in his correspondence mention of Anthony van Dyck, Giorgione. As in Las Meninas, a picture, mirror, and doorway are used to expand the space of the interior, any and all historical models were synthesized into a composition that was unique in the painters oeuvre and unique among the works of his contemporaries
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