1.
1869 in science
–
The year 1869 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. November 4 – The first issue of scientific journal Nature is published in London, march 6 – Dmitri Mendeleev makes a formal presentation of his periodic table to the Russian Chemical Society. June 15 – John Wesley Hyatt patents celluloid, in Albany, hippolyte Mège-Mouriès patents margarine in France as a beef tallow and skimmed milk substitute for butter. Publication of Adolphe Wurtzs Dictionnaire de chimie pure et appliquée begins in Paris, april 6 – The American Museum of Natural History is founded in New York. Paul Langerhans discovers the pancreatic islets, friedrich Miescher discovers deoxyribonucleic acid in the pus of discarded surgical bandages. Found in the nuclei of cells, Miescher names it nuclein, alfred Russel Wallace publishes The Malay Archipelago. W. Stanley Jevons publishes The Substitution of Similars and has a Logic Piano constructed to work out problems in symbolic logic. Copley Medal, Henri Victor Regnault Wollaston Medal for Geology, Henry Clifton Sorby February 14 – C. T. R. Wilson, april 8 – Harvey Cushing, American neurosurgeon. July 18 – Maria von Linden, German bacteriologist and zoologist, august 23 – Robert Gunther, English historian of science. October 3 – Robert W. Paul, English pioneer of cinematography, december 16 – Bertha Lamme, American electrical engineer. Helen Boyle, British physician and psychologist, july 22 – John A. Roebling, German American bridge engineer. September 11 – Thomas Graham, Scottish chemist
2.
1882 in science
–
The year 1882 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. September – Great Comet of 1882 sighted, december 6 – Transit of Venus,1882. March 24 – Robert Koch announces his discovery of the responsible for tuberculosis. Italian physicist Luigi Palmieri detects helium on Earth for the first time through its D3 spectral line when he analyzes the lava of Mount Vesuvius, clarence Duttons Tertiary History of the Grand Cañon District is published by the United States Geological Survey. German mathematician Ferdinand von Lindemann publishes proof that π is a transcendental number, december – Swedish mathematician Gösta Mittag-Leffler establishes the journal Acta Mathematica. March 28 – Paul Carl Beiersdorf patents an adhesive bandage in Germany, vladimir Bekhterev publishes Provodiashchie puti mozga, beginning to note the role of the hippocampus in memory. By March – Étienne-Jules Marey invents a chronophotographic gun capable of photographing 12 consecutive frames per second on the same plate, april 29 – Werner von Siemens demonstrates his Electromote, the first form of trolleybus, in Berlin. June 6 – Henry W. Seeley patents the electric clothes iron in the United States, september 4 – Thomas Edison starts the worlds first commercial electrical power plant, lighting one square mile of lower Manhattan. American electrical engineer Schuyler Wheeler produces an electric fan, alfred P. Southwick publishes his proposals for use of the electric chair as an execution method in the United States. First International Polar Year, a scientific program, begins. The Chartered Institute of Patent Agents, the modern-day Chartered Institute of Patent Attorneys, is founded in the United Kingdom, copley Medal, Arthur Cayley Wollaston Medal for Geology, Franz Ritter von Hauer March 14 – Wacław Sierpiński, Polish mathematician. March 23 – Emmy Noether, German mathematician, March 30 – Melanie Klein, Viennese-born psychoanalyst. June 17 – Harold Gillies, New Zealand-born plastic surgeon, july 21 – Herbert E. Ives, American optical engineer. September 30 – Johannes Hans Geiger, inventor of the Geiger counter, october 5 – Robert Goddard, American rocket scientist. October 26 – Marietta Pallis, Indian-born Graeco-British ecologist, december 11 – Max Born, physicist and recipient of the Nobel Prize in physics in 1954. December 28 – Arthur Eddington, astrophysicist, january 11 – Theodor Schwann, physiologist. April 19 – Charles Darwin, geologist and naturalist, september 23 – Friedrich Woehler, chemist. October 27 – Christian Heinrich von Nagel, geometer, november 20 – Henry Draper, doctor, astronomer
3.
1887 in science
–
The year 1887 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below. April – Carte du Ciel project initiated by Paris Observatory director Amédée Mouchez, theodor von Oppolzers Canon der Finsternisse, a compilation of the 8,000 solar and 5,200 lunar eclipses from 1200 BC until 2161 AD, is published posthumously. Jean Pierre Mégnin publishes Faune des Tombeaux, the work of modern forensic entomology. Sergei Winogradsky discovers the first known form of lithotrophy during his research with Beggiatoa, Guyou hemisphere-in-a-square projection developed by Émile Guyou. January 28 – In a snowstorm at Fort Keogh, Montana, in the United States and they are 15 inches wide and 8 inches thick. September 28 – Start of the Yellow River floods in China,900,000 dead, june 23 – The Rocky Mountains Park Act becomes law in Canada, creating that nations first national park, Banff National Park. February 23 – The French Riviera is hit by a large earthquake, in Hawaii, the Mauna Loa volcano eruptions subside, having begun in 1843. During the 1887 eruption, about 2½ million tons of lava per hour pours out, march 3 – Anne Sullivan begins to teach language to the deaf and blind Helen Keller. July 26 – L. L. Zamenhof publishes Lingvo internacia under the pseudonym Doktoro Esperanto, Joseph Louis François Bertrand rediscovers Bertrands ballot theorem. Henri Poincaré provides a solution to the three-body problem, january 11 – Louis Pasteurs anti-rabies treatment is defended in the French Academy of Medicine by Dr. Joseph Grancher. August – The U. S. National Institutes of Health is founded at the Marine Hospital, Staten Island, NY, october 1 – Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese founded by Patrick Manson. Franz König publishes Über freie Körper in den Gelenken in the journal Deutsche Zeitschrift für Chirurgie, the Hospitals Association establishes the first register of nurses in the United Kingdom. November – The Michelson-Morley experiment is performed, indicating that the speed of light is independent of motion, heinrich Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect on the production and reception of electromagnetic waves in radio, an important step towards the understanding of the quantum nature of light. November – G. Stanley Hall founds The American Journal of Psychology, richard Hodgson and S. J. Davey, in the course of investigations into popular belief in parapsychology, publish one of the first descriptions of eyewitness unreliability. March 8 – Everett Horton of Connecticut patents a fishing rod of telescoping steel tubes, march 13 – Chester Greenwood patents earmuffs. June 8 – Herman Hollerith receives a U. S. patent for his punched card calculator, july – James Blyth operates the first working wind turbine at Marykirk in Scotland. July 19 – Dorr Eugene Felt receives the first U. S. patent for his comptometer, august – Anna Connelly patents the fire escape. November 8 – Emile Berliner is granted a U. S. patent for his Gramophone, adolf Gaston Eugen Fick invents the contact lens, made of a type of brown glass
4.
1878 in architecture
–
The year 1878 in architecture involved some significant events. Work begins on the Herrenchiemsee in Bavaria, designed by Georg Dollman, the Semperoper in Dresden, designed by Gottfried Semper, is completed. The Tower House, Kensington, designed by William Burges for himself, is completed, the White House and No.1 Tite Street, Chelsea, London, designed by Edward William Godwin, are completed. The Michigan State Capitol in Lansing, Michigan is completed, construction begins on the Indiana Statehouse Indianapolis, Indiana Royal Gold Medal - Alfred Waterhouse. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Victor Laloux, thaddeus Hyatt introduces a patent for reinforced concrete to the United States
5.
Science
–
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
6.
Technology
–
Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, the human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The steady progress of technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power. It has helped develop more advanced economies and has allowed the rise of a leisure class, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earths environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and raise new questions of the ethics of technology, examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics. Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the condition or worsens it. The use of the technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, the term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution, the terms meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into technology. In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which translates both terms as technology. By the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of the industrial arts, dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another definition of the concept, it is practice, the way we do things around here. The term is used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,1, defines technology in two ways, as the pursuit of life by other than life, and as organized inorganic matter. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems and it is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material, virtual technology, such as software and business methods. W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a broad way as a means to fulfill a human purpose
7.
Richard A. Proctor
–
Richard Anthony Proctor was an English astronomer. He is best remembered for having produced one of the earliest maps of Mars in 1867 from 27 drawings by the English observer William Rutter Dawes and his map was later superseded by those of Giovanni Schiaparelli and Eugène Antoniadi and his nomenclature was dropped. He used old drawings of Mars dating back to 1666 to try to determine the day of Mars. His final estimate, in 1873, was 24h 37m 22. 713s, nevertheless, Frederik Kaisers value of 24h 37m 22. 622s is closer, by 0.012 seconds in 88,642.688 seconds, a very small difference in the error of both computations. A crater on Mars is named after Proctor and he was a delicate child, and, his father dying in 1850, his mother attended herself to his education. On his health improving he was sent to Kings College London and he graduated in 1860 as 23rd wrangler. His marriage while still an undergraduate probably accounted for his low place in the tripos and he then read for the bar, but turned to astronomy and authorship instead, and in 1865 published an article on the Colors of Double Stars in the Cornhill Magazine. His first book Saturn and its System was published in the same year and this work contains an elaborate account of the phenomena presented by the planet, but although favourably received by astronomers, it had no great sale. His earlier efforts were, however, not always successful and his Handbook of the Stars was refused by Messrs Longmans and Messrs Macmillan, but being privately printed, it sold fairly well. For his Half-Hours with the Telescope, which reached a 20th edition. Although teaching was uncongenial to him he took pupils in mathematics and his literary standing meantime improved, and he became a regular contributor to The Intellectual Observer, Chambers Journal and the Popular Science Review. In 1870 appeared his Other Worlds Than Ours, in which he discussed the question of the plurality of worlds in the light of new facts, in 1881 he founded Knowledge, a popular weekly magazine of science, which had a considerable circulation. In it he wrote on a variety of subjects, including chess. Elected a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1866, he became secretary in 1872. Of these the more noteworthy dealt with the distribution of stars, star clusters and nebulae, and he was an expert in all that related to map-drawing, and published two star-atlases. His Theoretical Considerations respecting the Corona also deserve mention, as well as his discussions of the rotation of Mars and he also vigorously criticised the official arrangements for observing the transits of Venus of 1874 and 1882. His largest and most ambitious work, Old and New Astronomy, left unfinished at his death, was completed by Arthur Cowper Ranyard and he settled in America some time after his second marriage in 1881, and died of yellow fever at New York City on 12 September 1888. A monument was erected in his memory
8.
Zone of Avoidance
–
The Zone of Avoidance is the area of the sky that is obscured by the Milky Way. From the galactic plane of the Milky Way, the Zone of Avoidance spans roughly 10° on either side. When viewing space from Earth, the attenuation, interstellar dust and stars in the plane of the Milky Way, as a result, optical galaxy catalogues are usually incomplete close to the galactic plane. In recent years, many projects have attempted to bridge the gap in knowledge caused by the Zone of Avoidance, the dust and gas in the Milky Way cause extinction at optical wavelengths, and foreground stars can be confused with background galaxies. However, the effect of extinction drops at longer wavelengths, such as the infrared, surveys in the infrared, such as IRAS and 2MASS, have given a more complete picture of the extragalactic sky. Two very large galaxies, Maffei 1 and Maffei 2, were discovered in the Zone of Avoidance by Paolo Maffei by their infrared emission in 1968. Even so, approximately 10% of the sky remains difficult to survey as extragalactic objects can be confused with stars in the Milky Way, examples of galaxies detected from their HI emission include Dwingeloo 1 and Dwingeloo 2, discovered in 1994 and 1996 respectively. The Universe behind the Milky Way, kraan-Korteweg, Staveley-Smith, L. Donley, J. Henning, P. A. The Universe behind the Southern Milky Way, maps of the Cosmos - ASP Conference Series
9.
Cape lion
–
The Cape lion is possibly an extinct subspecies of lion, with the taxonomic name Panthera leo melanochaitus, that was closely related to the Kalahari lion, or a former population of Transvaal lions. As with the Barbary lion, several people and institutions claim to have Cape lions, there is much confusion between Cape lions and other dark-coloured long-maned captive lions. Dark-maned lions in captivity today have been bred and cross-bred from lions captured in Africa long ago, mixed together, hybridized, most of todays captive lions have a soup of alleles from many different lion subspecies. Early authors justified distinct subspecific status of the Cape lion because of the seemingly fixed external morphology of the lions, males had a huge mane extending behind their shoulders and covering the belly, and the lions ears also had distinctive black tips. However, nowadays it is known that various factors, including the ambient temperature, influence the colour. Results of mitochondrial DNA research published in 2006 do not support the distinctness of the Cape lion. It may be that the Cape lion was only the southernmost population of the extant Transvaal lion, or that it was related to Kalahari lions. As for Central-West African lions, they appeared to be closely related to North African. It was distinguished by its thick, black mane with a fringe around the face. The tips of the ears were also black, besides Atlas lions, they had the most luxuriant and extensive manes amongst lions, with tresses on flanks and abdomen, according to Hepnter and Sludskii. Lions approaching 272 kg were shot south of the Vaal River, an emasculated lion in Surrey Zoological Gardens, brought from Kaffraria, was described by Jardine as being much larger than either the Barbary or Persian lion. Cape lions preferred to hunt large ungulates including antelopes, but also zebras and they would also kill donkeys and cattle belonging to the European settlers. Man-eating Cape lions appear to have generally been old individuals with bad teeth, black-maned Cape lions ranged along the Cape of Africa on the southern tip of the continent. The Cape lion was not the subspecies of lion, or population of Transvaal lions, living in South Africa. Its stronghold was Cape Province, in the area around Cape Town, one of the last Cape lions seen in the province was killed in 1858, in 1876 Czech explorer Emil Holub bought a young lion who died two years later. The Cape lion disappeared so rapidly following contact with Europeans that it is unlikely that habitat destruction was a significant factor, the Dutch and English settlers, hunters, and sportsmen simply hunted it into extinction. In 2000, specimens asserted to be descendants of Cape lions were found in captivity in Russia, South African zoo director John Spence reportedly was long fascinated by stories of these grand lions scaling the walls of Jan van Riebeecks castle in the 17th century. He studied van Riebeecks journals to discern Cape lions features, which include a black mane, black in their ears
10.
Rare-earth element
–
Scandium and yttrium are considered rare earth elements because they tend to occur in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides and exhibit similar chemical properties. They are not especially rare, but they tend to occur together in nature and are difficult to separate from one another, however, because of their geochemical properties, rare earth elements are typically dispersed and not often found concentrated as rare earth minerals in economically exploitable ore deposits. The first such mineral discovered was gadolinite, a composed of cerium, yttrium, iron, silicon. This mineral was extracted from a mine in the village of Ytterby in Sweden, a table listing the seventeen rare earth elements, their atomic number and symbol, the etymology of their names, and their main usages is provided here. The distinction between the groups is more to do with atomic volume and geological behavior, Rare earth elements became known to the world with the discovery of the black mineral Ytterbite by Lieutenant Carl Axel Arrhenius in 1787, at a quarry in the village of Ytterby, Sweden. Arrheniuss ytterbite reached Johan Gadolin, a Royal Academy of Turku professor, anders Gustav Ekeberg isolated beryllium from the gadolinite but failed to recognize other elements that the ore contained. After this discovery in 1794 a mineral from Bastnäs near Riddarhyttan, Sweden, in 1803 they obtained a white oxide and called it ceria. Martin Heinrich Klaproth independently discovered the same oxide and called it ochroia, in 1839 Carl Gustav Mosander, an assistant of Berzelius, separated ceria by heating the nitrate and dissolving the product in nitric acid. He called the oxide of the soluble salt lanthana and it took him three more years to separate the lanthana further into didymia and pure lanthana. Didymia, although not further separable by Mosanders techniques, was a mixture of oxides, in 1842 Mosander also separated the yttria into three oxides, pure yttria, terbia and erbia. The earth giving pink salts he called terbium, the one that yielded yellow peroxide he called erbium, so in 1842 the number of known rare earth elements had reached six, yttrium, cerium, lanthanum, didymium, erbium and terbium. This confusion led to false claims of new elements, such as the mosandrium of J. Lawrence Smith. There were no further discoveries for 30 years, and the element didymium was listed in the table of elements with a molecular mass of 138. In 1879 Delafontaine used the new process of optical-flame spectroscopy. Also in 1879, the new element samarium was isolated by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran from the mineral samarskite, the samaria earth was further separated by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1886 and a similar result was obtained by Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac by direct isolation from samarskite. They named the element gadolinium after Johan Gadolin, and its oxide was named gadolinia, the fractional crystallization of the oxides then yielded europium in 1901. In 1839 the third source for rare earths became available and this is a mineral similar to gadolinite, uranotantalum. This mineral from Miass in the southern Ural Mountains was documented by Gustave Rose, the exact number of rare earth elements that existed was highly unclear, and a maximum number of 25 was estimated
11.
Holmium
–
Holmium is a chemical element with symbol Ho and atomic number 67. Part of the series, holmium is a rare earth element. Holmium was discovered by Swedish chemist Per Theodor Cleve and its oxide was first isolated from rare earth ores in 1878 and the element was named after the city of Stockholm. Elemental holmium is a soft and malleable silvery-white metal. It is too reactive to be found uncombined in nature, however, it reacts with water and corrodes readily, and will also burn in air when heated. Holmium is found in the monazite and gadolinite, and is usually commercially extracted from monazite using ion exchange techniques. Its compounds in nature, and in all of its laboratory chemistry, are trivalently oxidized. Holmium has the highest magnetic permeability of any element and therefore is used for the polepieces of the strongest static magnets, because holmium strongly absorbs neutrons, it is also used as a burnable poison in nuclear reactors. Holmium is a soft and malleable element that is fairly corrosion-resistant. In moist air and at higher temperatures, however, it quickly oxidizes, in pure form, holmium possesses a metallic, bright silvery luster. Holmium oxide has some fairly dramatic color changes depending on the lighting conditions, in daylight, it is a tannish yellow color. Under trichromatic light, it is an orange red, almost indistinguishable from the appearance of erbium oxide under the same lighting conditions. Holmium has the highest magnetic moment of any naturally occurring element, when combined with yttrium, it forms highly magnetic compounds. Holmium in solution is in the form of Ho3+ surrounded by nine molecules of water, natural holmium contains one stable isotope, holmium-165. Some synthetic radioactive isotopes are known, the most stable one is holmium-163, all other radioisotopes have ground-state half lives not greater than 1.117 days, and most have half lives under 3 hours. However, the metastable 166m1Ho has a life of around 1200 years because of its high spin. Holmium was discovered by Jacques-Louis Soret and Marc Delafontaine in 1878 who noticed the aberrant spectrographic absorption bands of the then-unknown element, the following year, Per Teodor Cleve independently discovered the element while he was working on erbia earth. Using the method developed by Carl Gustaf Mosander, Cleve first removed all of the contaminants from erbia
12.
Erbium
–
Erbium is a chemical element in the lanthanide series, with symbol Er and atomic number 68. A silvery-white solid metal when artificially isolated, natural erbium is always found in combination with other elements on Earth. As such, it is a rare earth element which is associated with other rare elements in the mineral gadolinite from Ytterby in Sweden, which yttrium, ytterbium. Erbiums principal uses involve its pink-colored Er3+ ions, which have optical fluorescent properties particularly useful in laser applications. Erbium-doped glasses or crystals can be used as optical amplification media and this process results in an unusually mechanically simple laser optical amplifier for signals transmitted by fiber optics. The 1550 nm wavelength is especially important for optical communications because standard single mode optical fibers have minimal loss at this particular wavelength. Such shallow tissue deposition of energy is helpful in laser surgery. A trivalent element, pure erbium metal is malleable, soft yet stable in air and its salts are rose-colored, and the element has characteristic sharp absorption spectra bands in visible light, ultraviolet, and near infrared. Otherwise it looks much like the rare earths. Erbiums properties are to a degree dictated by the kind and amount of impurities present, Erbium does not play any known biological role, but is thought to be able to stimulate metabolism. Those clusters can be isolated by encapsulating them into fullerene molecules, all of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 3.5 h, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 4 minutes. This element also has 13 meta states, with the most stable being 167mEr with a half-life of 2.269 s, the isotopes of erbium range in atomic weight from 142.9663 u to 176.9541 u. The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 166Er, is electron capture, the primary decay products before 166Er are element 67 isotopes, and the primary products after are element 69 isotopes. Erbium was discovered by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1843, Mosander was working with a sample of what was thought to be the single metal oxide yttria, derived from the mineral gadolinite. He discovered that the sample contained at least two metal oxides in addition to pure yttria, which he named erbia and terbia after the village of Ytterby where the gadolinite had been found, Mosander was not certain of the purity of the oxides and later tests confirmed his uncertainty. Erbia and terbia, however, were confused at this time, a spectroscopist mistakenly switched the names of the two elements during spectroscopy. After 1860, terbia was renamed erbia and after 1877 what had been known as erbia was renamed terbia, fairly pure Er2O3 was independently isolated in 1905 by Georges Urbain and Charles James. Reasonably pure metal wasnt produced until 1934 when Klemm and Bommer reduced the chloride with potassium vapor
13.
Jacques-Louis Soret
–
Jacques-Louis Soret was a Swiss chemist who in 1878, along with Marc Delafontaine, first observed holmium spectroscopically. Independently, Per Teodor Cleve separated it chemically from thulium and erbium in 1879, the three are given credit for the elements discovery. Soret was also responsible for working out the chemical composition of ozone as being three oxygen atoms bound together. The Soret peak, an absorption band of hemoglobin is also named after him. His son was Charles Soret, a recognized physicist and chemist in his own right
14.
Per Teodor Cleve
–
Per Teodor Cleve was a Swedish chemist, biologist, mineralogist, oceanographer, and professor. He discovered the chemical elements holmium and thulium and helped isolate helium from the uranium ore cleveite, Cleve was born in Stockholm and became an assistant professor at the Uppsala University in 1860. He died several months after contracting pleurisy in 1904, Cleve was born in Stockholm, Sweden, as the thirteenth child of his father, a merchant known as F. T. Cleve. Cleves ancestors on his fathers side came from western Germany and settled in Sweden in the late 18th century, Cleve showed interest in natural science and natural history from an early age. He attended the Stockholm Gymnasium in 1858, studying chemistry and biology and he gained a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Uppsala in 1863 and a PhD from the same university in 1868. In 1860, aged 20, Cleve became assistant professor of mineralogy at the University of Uppsala and he also taught at the Royal Institute of Technology between 1870 and 1874, and eventually became professor of general and agricultural chemistry at the University of Uppsala. He was the chair of chemistry at the University of Uppsala starting in 1874 and he was also the president of the Nobel Committee for Chemistry. Cleves first work was Några ammoniakaliska chromföreningar and he also wrote several more papers on complex compounds, including the compounds of platinum. Additionally, Cleve synthesized several hundred complex platinum compounds, Cleve visited a number of laboratories in England, France, Italy, and Switzerland in the 1860s. While in Paris, he visited the laboratory of Charles-Adolphe Wurtz, Cleve worked on the synthesis of complex chemical compounds until 1872. He theorized in 1874 that the element didymium consisted of two elements and this theory was proven right with the discovery of praseodymium and neodymium in 1885 by Carl Auer von Welsbach. In 1879, Cleve proved that the newly discovered element scandium was an element predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev to be eka-boron and he isolated a quantity of scandium in this same year and determined its atomic weight. He discovered the element holmium in 1879 by examining a sample of erbium oxide, while removing impurities from a sample of erbium oxide, Cleve discovered a brown substance and a green substance, and the brown substance was holmium oxide. However, this sample may have been impure and he separated thulium from an erbium oxide sample in 1879. Additionally, Cleve and Abraham Langlet discovered helium in the mineral cleveite in 1895, Cleve discovered six forms of dichloronaphthalene and discovered aminonaphthalenesulfonic acids, which are sometimes named after him. He prepared a number of nitrosulfonic acids as well, in 1883, Cleve was the first person to describe the plankton species Nitzschia seriata. In 1890, Cleve began to focus on the field of biology, mainly studying freshwater algae, diatoms. Cleve participated in a Swedish expedition to Spitsbergen in 1898, while on this mission, he discovered a number of species of spumellarians, nassellarians, and phaeodarians
15.
Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom
–
In the United Kingdom, Acts of Parliament are primary legislation passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. These devolved legislatures are able to create legislation regarding all but reserved and excepted matters, however, Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom remain supreme and can overrule the devolved legislatures. By convention, the Parliament of the United Kingdom does not do this without a legislative consent motion, a draft piece of legislation is called a bill, when this is passed by Parliament it becomes an Act and part of statute law. Acts of Parliament are classified as either Public General Acts or Local and Personal Acts, Bills are also classified as public, private, or hybrid. Public General Acts form the largest category of legislation, in principle affecting the general law applying to everyone across the entire United Kingdom. Most Public General Acts proceed through Parliament as a bill, occasionally, however. Private Acts are either local or personal in their effect, applying to a specifically named locality or legal person in a different from all others. Private bills are usually promoted by organisations, like local authorities or private companies, to give themselves powers beyond, or in conflict with, Private bills only change the law as it applies to specific individuals or organisations, rather than the general public. Groups or individuals potentially affected by these changes can petition Parliament against the bill and present their objections to committees of MPs. Other private bills may affect particular companies established by Act of Parliament such as TSB Bank and Transas. Private bills, common in the 19th century, are now rare, as new planning legislation introduced in the 1960s removed the need for many of them, only a few, if any, are passed each year. They are subject to a different procedure from that for public bills, described above, Parliamentary authorities maintain a list of all private bills before parliament. Hybrid bills combine elements of public and private Acts. While they propose to make changes to the law, they also contain provisions applying to specific individuals or bodies. Recent examples include the Crossrail Bill, a bill to build a railway across London from west to east. Once passed, hybrid bills are printed as part of the Public General Acts, Parliamentary authorities maintain a list of all hybrid bills before parliament. It is important not to private bills with private members bills. The only difference from regular public bills is that they are brought forward by a private rather than by the government
16.
Epping Forest
–
Epping Forest is an area of ancient woodland near Epping, straddling the border between Greater London and Essex. It is a royal forest, and is managed by the City of London Corporation. It covers 2,476 hectares and contains areas of woodland, grassland, heath, rivers, bogs and ponds, and most of it is a Site of Special Scientific Interest and a Special Area of Conservation. The forest lies on a ridge between the valleys of the rivers Lea and Roding, its elevation and thin gravelly soil historically made it unsuitable for agriculture and it gives its name to the Epping Forest local government district which covers part of it. The name Epping Forest was first recorded in the 17th century, the area which became known as Waltham, and then Epping Forest has been continuously forested since Neolithic times. The former lime/linden Tilia-dominated woodland was permanently altered during Saxon times by cutting of trees. Todays beech-birch and oak-hornbeam-dominated forest was the result of partial forest clearance in Saxon times, the forest is thought to have been given legal status as a royal forest by Henry II in the 12th century. This status allowed commoners to use the forest to gather wood and foodstuffs, and to graze livestock and turn out pigs for mast, but only the king was allowed to hunt there. Forest in the sense of royal forest meant an area of land reserved for royal hunting, where the forest laws applied. In Tudor times, Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth I may have hunted in the forest, in 1543, Henry commissioned a building, known as Great Standing, from which to view the chase at Chingford. The building was renovated in 1589 for Queen Elizabeth I and can still be today in Chingford. The building is now known as Queen Elizabeths Hunting Lodge, and is open to the public, there is another hunt standing, which now forms the core of the Forest HQ at the Warren, Loughton. There were disputes between landowners and commoners, one group of commoners was led by Thomas Willingale who on behalf of the villagers of Loughton continued to lop the trees after the Lord of the Manor had enclosed 550 hectares of forest in Loughton. This led to an injunction against further enclosures, the Epping Forest Act 1878 was passed, saving the forest from enclosure, and halting the shrinkage of the forest that this had caused. Epping Forest ceased to be a royal forest and was placed in the care of the City of London Corporation who act as Conservators, in addition, the Crowns right to venison was terminated, and pollarding was no longer allowed, although grazing rights continued. This act laid down a stipulation that the Conservators shall at all times keep Epping Forest unenclosed and unbuilt on as a space for the recreation. In compensation for the loss of lopping rights, Lopping Hall in Loughton was built as a community building, the City of London Corporation still manages Epping Forest in strict conformity with the Epping Forest Act. This care is funded from Citys Cash, the funds of the Corporation rather than any money for its upkeep coming from local rates or taxes
17.
City of London Corporation
–
In 2006 the name was changed from Corporation of London to avoid confusion with the wider London local government, the Greater London Authority. The Corporation is probably the worlds oldest continuously-elected local government authority, the corporations structure includes the Lord Mayor, the Court of Aldermen, the Court of Common Council, and the Freemen and Livery of the City. In Anglo-Saxon times, consultation between the Citys rulers and its citizens took place at the Folkmoot, administration and judicial processes were conducted at the Court of Husting and the non-legal part of the courts work evolved into the Court of Aldermen. Numerous subsequent Royal Charters over the centuries confirmed and extended the citizens rights, around 1189, the City gained the right to have its own mayor, later being advanced to the degree and style of Lord Mayor of London. The individual commissioners were nominated by the Corporation, but it was a separate body. Local government legislation often makes special provision for the City to be treated as a London borough, the Chief Executive of the administrative side of the Corporation holds the ancient office of Town Clerk of London. The Chamberlain, the City Treasurer and Finance Officer, the City Remembrancer, who is responsible for protocol, ceremonial, security issues as well as legislative matters that may affect the Corporation and is legally qualified. The Comptroller and City Solicitor, legal officer. e, former Lord Mayors, and the junior Aldermen. The Common Serjeant, the senior judge at the Central Criminal Court Old Bailey. C) The Ward Beadles, responsible to a specific Ward from which they are elected, largely ceremonial support to their respective Aldermen, and also perform a formal role at Ward Motes. In 1801, the City had a population of about 130,000 and it has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of the Barbican Estate. As it has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, therefore, the non-residential vote, abolished in the rest of the country in 1969, became an increasingly large part of the electorate. The non-residential vote system used disfavoured incorporated companies, the City of London Act 2002 greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. In 2009, the vote was about 24,000. Each body or organisation, whether unincorporated or incorporated, whose premises are within the City of London may appoint a number of based on the number of workers it employs. Limited liability partnerships fall into this category, though workers count as part of a workforce regardless of nationality, only certain individuals may be appointed as voters. The City of London is divided into twenty-five Wards, each of which is a division, electing one Alderman. The numbers below reflect the changes caused by the City of London Act, there are over one hundred livery companies in London
18.
Northern Sea Route
–
The entire route lies in Arctic waters and within Russias Exclusive Economic Zone. Parts are free of ice for two months per year. The overall route on Russias side of the Arctic between North Cape and the Bering Strait has been called the Northeast Passage, analogous to the Northwest Passage on the Canada side. Melting Arctic ice caps are likely to increase traffic in and the viability of the Northern Sea Route. Projected shifts in trade also imply substantial pressure on an already threatened Arctic ecosystem, the route was first conquered by Adolf Erik Nordenskiölds Vega expedition. Number of transits per flag state, shipping in Arctic Waters, A Comparison of the Northeast, Northwest and Trans Polar Passages. The Northern Sea Route Belov, M. I, istoriia otkrytiia i osveniia Severnogo Morskogo Puti,4 vols. Red Arctic Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander, Is Russia a revisionist military power in the Arctic, defense & Security Analysis, September 2014. Russia in search of its Arctic strategy, between hard and soft power, Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander, Russias Policies on the Territorial Disputes in the Arctic Journal of International Relations and Foreign Policy, March 2014, Vol.2, No
19.
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
20.
Pacific Ocean
–
The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
21.
Siberia
–
Siberia is an extensive geographical region, and by the broadest definition is also known as North Asia. Siberia has historically been a part of Russia since the 17th century, the territory of Siberia extends eastwards from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between the Pacific and Arctic drainage basins. It stretches southwards from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north-central Kazakhstan and to the borders of Mongolia. With an area of 13.1 million square kilometres, Siberia accounts for 77% of Russias land area and this is equivalent to an average population density of about 3 inhabitants per square kilometre, making Siberia one of the most sparsely populated regions on Earth. If it were a country by itself, it would still be the largest country in area, the origin of the name is unknown. Some sources say that Siberia originates from the Siberian Tatar word for sleeping land, another account sees the name as the ancient tribal ethnonym of the Sirtya, a folk, which spoke a language that later evolved into the Ugric languages. This ethnic group was assimilated to the Siberian Tatar people. The modern usage of the name was recorded in the Russian language after the Empires conquest of the Siberian Khanate, a further variant claims that the region was named after the Xibe people. The Polish historian Chycliczkowski has proposed that the name derives from the word for north. He said that the neighbouring Chinese, Arabs and Mongolians would not have known Russian and he suggests that the name is a combination of two words, su and bir. The region is of significance, as it contains bodies of prehistoric animals from the Pleistocene Epoch. Specimens of Goldfuss cave lion cubs, Yuka and another woolly mammoth from Oymyakon, a rhinoceros from the Kolyma River. The Siberian Traps were formed by one of the largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earths geological history. They continued for a million years and are considered a cause of the Great Dying about 250 million years ago. At least three species of human lived in Southern Siberia around 40,000 years ago, H. sapiens, H. neanderthalensis, the last was determined in 2010, by DNA evidence, to be a new species. Siberia was inhabited by different groups of such as the Enets, the Nenets, the Huns, the Scythians. The Khan of Sibir in the vicinity of modern Tobolsk was known as a prominent figure who endorsed Kubrat as Khagan of Old Great Bulgaria in 630, the Mongols conquered a large part of this area early in the 13th century. With the breakup of the Golden Horde, the autonomous Khanate of Sibir was established in the late 15th century, turkic-speaking Yakut migrated north from the Lake Baikal region under pressure from the Mongol tribes during the 13th to 15th century
22.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
23.
Clarence King
–
Clarence Rivers King was an American geologist, mountaineer, and author. He served as the first director of the United States Geological Survey from 1879 to 1881, King was noted for his exploration of the Sierra Nevada. Clarence King was the son of James Rivers King and Florence Little King. Clarences father was part of a firm engaged in trade with China, which kept him away from home a great deal. His only two siblings had died by 1848. He then attended schools in Boston and New Haven, and at age thirteen was accepted to the prestigious Hartford High School and he was a good student and a versatile athlete, of short stature but unusually strong. His mother received an income from the King family business until it met with a series of problems, after a few years of straitened circumstances, during part of which Clarence suffered from a serious depression, his mother married George S. Howland in July 1860. Howland financed Clarences enrollment in the Sheffield Scientific School affiliated with Yale College in 1860, at Yale King specialized in applied chemistry and also studied physics and geology. King graduated with a Ph. B. in July 1862 and he and several friends borrowed one of Yales rowboats that summer for a trip along the shores of Lake Champlain and a series of Canadian rivers, then returned to New Haven for the fall regatta. King began to more about geology, attended a lecture by Louis Agassiz. They associated with a group of American artists, writers, but he was anxious to see the mountains of the American West, and his friend Jim Gardner was miserable in law school. By May 1863 King, Gardiner, and an acquaintance named William Hyde traveled by railroad to Missouri and then joined a wagon train, which they left at Carson City, Nevada. In July 1864, King and Cotter made the first ascent of a peak in the Eastern Sierra that King named Mount Tyndall in honor of one of his heroes, from there they discovered several higher peaks, including the one that came to be named Mount Whitney. They returned to the East Coast by way of Nicaragua the following winter, King suffered from several bouts of malaria in the spring and summer of 1865 while Whitney, also in the East, worked on securing funding for further survey projects. They returned to San Francisco in the spring, and King returned to Yosemite in the summer of 1866 to make more field notes for Whitney. When King heard of the death of his stepfather, he and Gardiner resigned from the Whitney survey and once again sailed to New York. They had been developing a plan for an independent survey of the Great Basin region for some time, King made a persuasive argument for how his research would help develop the west. He received federal funding and was named U. S, Geologist of the Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel, commonly known as the Fortieth Parallel Survey, in 1867
24.
Charles Lapworth
–
Prof Charles Lapworth, FRS|LLD, FGS was an English geologist who pioneered faunal analysis using index fossils and identified the Ordovician period. Charles Lapworth was born at Faringdon in Berkshire the son of James Lapworth and he was trained as a teacher at the Culham Diocesan Training College near Abingdon, Oxfordshire. He moved to the Scottish border region, where he investigated the previously little-known fossil fauna of the area, there in 1869 he married Janet, daughter of Galashiels schoolmaster Walter Sanderson and stayed in the area. He completed this research in the Southern Uplands while employed as a schoolmaster for 11 years at the Episcopal Church school. This proposal resolved a long running controversy which began when Roderick Murchison, Lapworth received numerous awards for his research work, while for teaching he used the English Midlands as a setting for demonstrating the fieldwork techniques he had pioneered in his own research. Later Peach and Horne were dispatched to the area and their monumental memoir proved Lapworth correct, in the English Midlands his research involved important work in Shropshire and the demonstration that Cambrian rocks underlay the Carboniferous rocks between Nuneaton and Atherstone. He died on 13 March 1920 and is buried in Lodge Hill Cemetery near Birmingham and he married Janet Sanderson in 1869. His son Arthur Lapworth became a renowned chemist and his son Herbert a civil engineer, engineering geologist, stratigrapher, Lapworth received many awards for his work and contributions to geology. In June 1888 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, in 1899, he received the highest award of the Geological Society of London, the Wollaston Medal, in recognition of his outstanding work in the Southern Uplands, and Northwest Highlands of Scotland. There years later, in February 1902, he was elected President of the Geological Society for the years 1902-1904, the glacial Lake Lapworth, was named for him by Leonard Johnston Wills in recognition of his original suggestion of its existence in 1898. Aberdeen University awarded him a doctorate in 1884 and Glasgow University in 1912. In 1916 he was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, papers relating to Charles Lapworth can be found at the University of Birmingham Special Collections. The University of Birmingham also maintains the Lapworth Museum within the Aston Webb building on the main Edgbaston campus, the Lapworth Archive, housed in the museum, contains a remarkably complete record of all areas of his research work and teaching. Eminent Living Geologists, Professor Charles Lapworth, Geological Magazine, New Series, Decade IV
25.
Graptolithina
–
Graptolithina is a class of hemichordate animal, the members of which are known as graptolites. Graptolites are colonial animals known chiefly as fossils from the Upper Cambrian through the Lower Carboniferous, a possible early graptolite, Chaunograptus, is known from the Middle Cambrian. The name graptolite comes from the Greek graptos, meaning written, Linnaeus originally regarded them as pictures resembling fossils rather than true fossils, though later workers supposed them to be related to the hydrozoans. More recent work places them near the pterobranchs, possibly within, one analysis suggests that the Pterobranchia represent extant graptolites. The name graptolite originates from the genus Graptolithus, which was used by Linnaeus in 1735 for inorganic mineralizations and crustations which resembled actual fossils. In 1768, in the 12th volume of Systema Naturae, he included G. sagittarius and G. scalaris, respectively a possible plant fossil and a possible graptolite. In his 1751 Skånska Resa, he included a figure of a fossil or graptolite of a kind currently thought to be a type of Climacograptus. Later workers used the name to refer to a group of organisms. Graptolithus was officially abandoned in 1954 by the ICZN, partly because of its purpose as a grouping for inorganic mimicries of fossils. Comparisons are drawn with the modern hemichordates Cephalodiscus and Rhabdopleura, Cephalodiscus numbers about 18 species, and was first discovered in 1882. Graptolites are common fossils and have a worldwide distribution, the preservation, quantity and gradual change over a geologic time scale of graptolites allows the fossils to be used to date strata of rocks throughout the world. They are important index fossils for dating Palaeozoic rocks as they evolved rapidly with time, british geologists can divide the rocks of the Ordovician and Silurian periods into graptolite biozones, these are generally less than one million years in duration. A worldwide ice age at the end of the Ordovician eliminated most graptolites except the neograptines, diversification from the neograptines that survived the Ordovician glaciation began around 2 million years later. Graptolites are also used to water depth and temperature during the graptolites lifetimes. Each graptolite colony is known as a rhabdosome and has a number of branches originating from an initial individual. Each subsequent individual is housed within a tubular or cup-like structure, in some colonies, there are two sizes of theca, and it has been suggested that this difference is due to sexual dimorphism. The number of branches and the arrangement of the thecae are important features in the identification of graptolite fossils and their general shape has been compared with that of a hacksaw blade. Most of the dendritic or many-branched types are classified as dendroid graptolites and they appear earlier in the fossil record, and were generally sessile animals
