1.
1879 in architecture
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The year 1879 in architecture involved some significant events. The Linderhof Palace in Bavaria, designed by Georg Dollman is completed, st. Patricks Cathedral in New York City, designed by James Renwick, Jr. is dedicated. The Votive Church, Vienna, Austria, designed by Heinrich von Ferstel, is dedicated, Connecticut State Capitol in Hartford, Connecticut, designed by Richard M. Upjohn, is completed. Healy Hall at Georgetown University in Washington, D. C. designed by Paul J. Pelz, provident Life & Trust Company in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, designed by Frank Furness, is completed
2.
1880 in architecture
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The year 1880 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. Casa Vicens in Barcelona, designed by Antoni Gaudí is completed, the Natural History Museum in London, designed by Alfred Waterhouse and Francis Fowke is completed. Cologne Cathedral in Cologne, Germany, is completed after 632 years, rajabai Clock Tower in South Mumbai, India is opened. Berlin Anhalter Bahnhof in Berlin, Germany, rebuilt by Franz Heinrich Schwechten, is opened, Manchester Central railway station in Manchester, England is completed. Royal Exhibition Building, Melbourne is completed, royal Gold Medal - John Loughborough Pearson. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Louis Girault, january 27 - Edward Middleton Barry, English architect May 25 - Richard Lane, English architect August 22 - Benjamin Ferrey, English architect
3.
1882 in architecture
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The year 1882 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. June 29 - Russian Monument, Sofia, unveiled, september 8 - St. Marys Basilica, Bangalore, India, designed by Rev. L. E. Kleiner, consecrated. October 10 - Selwyn College, Cambridge, England, designed by Arthur Blomfield, december 25 - Hotel Roanoke, a luxury hotel in Roanoke, Virginia, United States, built by the Norfolk and Western Railway. Hotel Gaillard, Paris, designed by Jules Février, pro-Cathedral of St. Vincent de Paul in Tunis. Thomas Crane Public Library in Quincy, Massachusetts, designed by Henry Hobson Richardson, a six-story architectural folly, Elephant Bazaar, later renamed as Lucy the Elephant, constructed by James V. Lafferty in Margate City, New Jersey, United States. Royal Gold Medal - Baron von Ferstel
4.
1883 in architecture
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The year 1883 in architecture involved some significant events. May 1 - The Examination Schools of the University of Oxford, may 24 - Brooklyn Bridge, designed by John A. Roebling, is completed. May 26 - Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow, designed by Konstantin Thon, is dedicated, Albany City Hall in Albany, New York, designed by Henry Hobson Richardson in Richardsonian Romanesque style, is completed. The Home Insurance Building in Chicago designed by William LeBaron Jenney, the Kuhns Building in Dayton, Ohio, is constructed. Hotel Windsor, Australia, designed by Charles Webb, is completed, cane Hill Hospital in Coulsdon, London, is completed. Waddesdon Manor in Buckinghamshire, England, designed by Gabriel-Hippolyte Destailleur, is opened for guests, billings Memorial Library at the University of Vermont in Burlington, designed by Henry Hobson Richardson, is built. Royal Gold Medal - Francis Cranmer Penrose, grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Gaston Redon
5.
1884 in architecture
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The year 1884 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. Antoni Gaudí begins work on the Sagrada Família church in Barcelona, Washington Monument in Washington, D. C. designed by Robert Mills, is completed. Hungarian Royal Opera House in Budapest, designed by Miklós Ybl, is opened, garabit viaduct in France, engineered by Gustave Eiffel and Maurice Koechlin, is completed. The Dakota apartment building on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in New York City, cornerstone of Statue of Liberty laid in New York Harbor. Royal Gold Medal - William Butterfield, grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Hector dEspouy
6.
1885 in architecture
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The year 1885 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. May - The original wooden structures of Hobson Block, West Union, Iowa, USA, are destroyed by fire, W. D. Caröe is appointed architect to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners for England. Construction of the Altare della Patria in Rome, designed by Giuseppe Sacconi, begins, july 13 - New building for the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, designed by Pierre Cuypers. November 30 - London Pavilion variety theatre, designed by Robert Worley, december 27 - Church of St. Peter, Leipzig, designed by August Hartel and Constantin Lipsius. Church of Saint Anthony of Padua, Busovača, Bosnia-Herzegovina, metropole Hotel, London, designed by Francis Fowler and James Ebenezer Saunders. Autumn - The Home Insurance Building in Chicago, Illinois, designed by William Le Baron Jenney, with ten floors and a fireproof weight-bearing metal frame, it is regarded as the first skyscraper. Holloway Sanatorium near Virginia Water in England, designed by William Henry Crossland, sway Tower in Hampshire, England, designed by Andrew Peterson using concrete made with Portland cement. It remains the worlds tallest non-reinforced concrete structure, house for Kate Greenaway, Frognal, London, designed by Richard Norman Shaw. Rebuilt Framingham Railroad Station in Framingham, Massachusetts, designed by H. H. Richardson, royal Gold Medal - Heinrich Schliemann. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, François Paul André
7.
1886 in architecture
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The year 1886 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. Patrick Manogue, Sacramentos first bishop, acquires the land to build the Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament in the United States, june 30 - Founders Building at Royal Holloway College for women, Egham, near London, designed by William Henry Crossland. July - Neuschwanstein Castle in Bavaria, designed by Christian Jank and realized by Eduard Riedel, is opened to the public, october 28 - Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor, United States, designed by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi with engineering by Gustave Eiffel and Maurice Koechlin. October 31 - Dom Luís Bridge in Porto, designed by Téophile Seyrig, iowa State Capitol in Des Moines, designed by John C. Cochrane and Alfred H. Piquenard National Assembly building in Sofia, hotel Cecil, London, United Kingdom, designed by Perry & Reed. Oulu City Hall, Finland, designed by Johan Erik Stenberg, Royal Gold Medal - Charles Garnier. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Albert Louvet, W. Godwin, English architect and designer November 4 - George Devey, English country house architect
8.
1887 in architecture
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The year 1887 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. Construction work begins on Shrine of Our Lady of the Rosary, Rosario, provinciaal Hof, Bruges, Flanders, designed by Louis Delacenserie and René Buyck. Ponce de León Hotel, St. Augustine, Florida, designed by Carrère, march 29 - Peebles Old Parish Church, Scotland, designed by William Young. April 23 - Metropolitan Cathedral, Iași, Romania, completed by Alexandru Orăscu, june 20 - Victoria Terminus of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway in Bombay, designed by Frederick William Stevens. December 1 - Raffles Hotel, Singapore, cardiff Metropolitan Cathedral, designed by Pugin & Pugin. New façade of Florence Cathedral, designed by Emilio De Fabris, basilica of St. Nicholas, Amsterdam, designed by Adrianus Bleijs. St Pauls Church, Aarhus, designed by Vilhelm Theodor Walther, cluj-Napoca Neolog Synagogue, Romania, designed by engineer Izidor Hegner. Rebuilt Gare Saint-Lazare terminus of Chemins de fer de lOuest in Paris, RIBA Royal Gold Medal - Ewan Christian. MacGibbon and Ross begin publication of The Castellated and Domestic Architecture of Scotland, G. A. Wayss publishes Das System Monier-Eisengerippe mit Cementumhüllung-in seiner Anwendung auf das gesammte Bauwesen in Berlin, one of the first books on reinforced concrete
9.
1888 in architecture
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The year 1888 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. Roof and dome of Seville Cathedral collapse in an earthquake, january 5 - The Neues deutsches Theater, Prague, designed by Fellner & Helmer with Baron Karl von Hasenauer and Alfons Wertmüller. April 11 - The Concertgebouw in Amsterdam, designed by Adolf Leonard van Gendt, may - Victoria Terminus station building, designed by Frederick William Stevens for the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, in Bombays Bori Bunder district. August 12 - Plaza de Toros de El Bibio, Gijón, Asturias, august 17 - Castle of the Three Dragons for 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition, Spain, designed by Lluís Domènech i Montaner. August 18 - Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof, designed by Hermann Eggert and Johann Wilhelm Schwedler, october 2 - Annunciation Cathedral, Kharkiv, Ukraine, designed by Mikhail Lovtsov. October 14 - Burgtheater, Ringstraße, Vienna, designed by Gottfried Semper, autumn - Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, with Tech Tower used for classrooms. St. Annes Church, Bukit Mertajam, Malaysia, conquest Plantation, Pointe Coupee, Louisiana, USA, built in Victorian style. Illinois State Capitol, Springfield, Illinois, USA, ponce de León Hotel, St. Augustine, Florida, USA, designed by John Carrere and Thomas Hastings. Texas State Capitol, Austin, Texas, USA, designed by Elijah E. Myers, allegheny County Courthouse, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, designed by H. H. Richardson. High Royds Hospital near Leeds, England, designed by J. Vickers Edwards, several buildings for the International Exhibition of Science, Art and Industry held in Glasgow, key architect being James Sellars. Elizabeth Plankinton House, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA, designed by E. Townsend Mix, royal Gold Medal - Theophil Freiherr von Hansen. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Albert Tournaire
10.
1890 in architecture
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The year 1890 in architecture involved some significant events. February 3 - Ypsilanti Water Tower, Ypsilanti, Michigan, designed by William R. Coats, is completed, winner of Most Phallic Building contest. March 4 - The Forth Bridge across the Firth of Forth from South Queensferry to North Queensferry in Scotland, designed by Sir John Fowler, september 29 - St Jamess Roman Catholic Church, Spanish Place, Westminster, designed by Edward Goldie, is opened. Memorial Day - The James A. Garfield Memorial at Lake View Cemetery in Cleveland, Ohio, parish church of Holy Trinity, Sloane Street, London, designed by J. D. Sedding, is completed. The Arcade in Cleveland, Ohio, designed by John Eisenmann, the Demarest Building, a commercial building on Fifth Avenue in New York City, designed by Renwick, Aspinwall & Russell, is completed as the first with an electric elevator. Edwin Lutyens first commission, Crooksbury, a house near Farnham. Construction of the village of Fortingall on Sir Donald Curries Glenlyon Estate in Perthshire, Scotland, royal Gold Medal - John Gibson. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Emmanuel Pontremoli, february 9 - J. J. P. Mullett, American architect
11.
1891 in architecture
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The year 1891 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. Ludington Building - Chicago, designed by William Le Baron Jenney, earliest surviving steel-framed building in the city, manhattan Building - Chicago, designed by William Le Baron Jenney, completed, worlds earliest surviving steel-framed building to use a purely skeletal supporting structure. Second Leiter Building - Chicago, designed by William Le Baron Jenney, monadnock Building - Chicago, tallest masonry load-bearing wall building when built. Sacred Heart Cathedral - Davenport, Iowa, designed by James J. Egan, St. Ambrose Cathedral - Des Moines, Iowa, designed by James J. Egan. Wainwright Building - St. Louis, Missouri, designed by Dankmar Adler, university of Pennsylvania Library - Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, designed by Frank Furness. Several buildings constructed for the General Land Centennial Exhibition world fair - Prague, victoria Hall, Switzerland, a concert hall designed by Marc Camoletti. Stadttheater Zürich, designed by Fellner & Helmer, opened, house of the Estates in Helsinki, Finland, built. General Post Office, Birmingham, England, designed by Henry Tanner, Palace Theatre, Manchester, England, designed by Alfred Darbyshire. Royal Gold Medal - Arthur Blomfield, grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Henri Eustache. D. Sedding, English ecclesiastical architect May 7 - John Hayward, English Gothic Revival architect
12.
1892 in architecture
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The year 1892 in architecture involved some significant events. July 8 - Great Fire of 1892 destroys many buildings in St. Johns, october 21 - The World Columbian Exposition is dedicated in Chicago. Many of the worlds best and brightest architects design what will be known as the White City, françois Hennebique patents his system of reinforced concrete. Heinävesi Church, the largest wooden church in Finland, designed by Josef Stenbäck, cathedral of St Michael and St George, Aldershot, England, designed by military engineers. West front of All Saints, Ennismore Gardens, south London, masonic Temple, designed by Burnham and Root. Regional parliament of Alsace-Lorraine, Strasbourg, designed by August Hartel, buenos Aires City Hall, designed by Juan Cagnoni. Palace of Justice Building, Rosario, Argentina, designed by Herbert Boyd Walker, courthouse and Jail, Esbjerg, Denmark, designed by Hans Christian Amberg. Government House, Bermuda, designed by William Cardy Hallet, soldiers and Sailors Arch, Brooklyn, New York, designed by John H. Duncan. Toronto Board of Trade Building, designed by James & James, natural History Building, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, designed by Nathan Clifford Ricker. Theater Unter den Linden, Berlin, designed by Fellner & Helmer, provincial Theatre, Ljubljana, Slovenia, designed by Jan Vladimír Hráský and Anton Hruby. Teatro de Cristóbal Colón, Bogotá, Colombia, designed by Pietro Cantini, madrid Atocha railway station, Spain, designed by Alberto Palacio with Gustave Eiffel. Mills Building, designed by D. H. Burnham & Company, general Post Office, Leeds, England, designed by Henry Tanner. Youths Companion Building, Boston, Massachusetts, designed by Henry W. Hartwell, page Belting Company Mills, Concord, New Hampshire. Templetons Carpet Factory, Glasgow, Scotland, designed by William Leiper, royal Gold Medal - César Daly. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Guillaume Tronchet, april 8 - Richard Neutra, Austrian American modernist architect June 19 - Ejnar Mindedal Rasmussen, Danish Neoclassical architect January 27 - Philip Charles Hardwick, English architect
13.
1893 in architecture
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The year 1893 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. May 1 - The Worlds Columbian Exposition, including 600 temporary buildings, opens to the public in Chicago, juliusz Słowacki Theatre, Kraków, Poland, designed by Jan Zawiejski, opened as the Teatr Miejski on October 21. Museum for the Macedonian Struggle Refinery for Pacific Coast Borax Company, Salt Lake Temple in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. St. Marys Cathedral in Glasgow, Scotland, UK, st. Michael the Archangel Church in Kaunas, Lithuania. Broad Street Station, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, designed by Frank Furness, royal Gold Medal - Richard Morris Hunt. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, François-Benjamin Chaussemiche
14.
1894 in architecture
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The year 1894 in architecture involved some significant events. In the United States, the Society of Beaux-Arts Architects is founded, april 21 - Quatro de Setembro Theater, Teresina, Brazil. May 14 - Blackpool Tower in Blackpool, England, completed to a design by Maxwell and Tuke, june 30 - Tower Bridge in London, designed by Horace Jones and John Wolfe-Barry. July - Dalen Hotel in Norway, designed by Haldor Børve, october 16 - Hessisches Staatstheater Wiesbaden, designed by Fellner & Helmer. Mary, Queen of the World Cathedral, Montreal, Canada, reformed Church, Dresden, designed by Harald Julius von Bosse. Sacred Heart Church, designed by Ludwig Schöne, colegio de Santa Maria de Jesús in Barcelona, Spain, designed by Antoni Gaudí. Antiguo Cuartel Militar Español de Ponce, Puerto Rico, sisters of Charity Hospital, Zagreb, Croatia. Reichstag in Berlin, designed by Paul Wallot, royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp, designed by Jacob Winders and Frans van Dijk. Guaranty Building, Buffalo, New York, designed by Louis Sullivan, hôtel Tassel, Brussels, designed by Victor Horta. Hurlbut Memorial Gate, Detroit, Michigan, USA, lululaund, a house for Hubert von Herkomer at Bushey, England, based on a design by Henry Hobson Richardson. Rebuilt Köln Hauptbahnhof railway station in Cologne, Germany, designed by E. Grüttefie, royal Gold Medal - Frederic Leighton. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Alfred-Henri Recoura
15.
1895 in architecture
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The year 1895 in architecture involved some significant events. William Alexander Harvey, aged 20, is appointed architect for the newly laid-out model village of Bournville in Birmingham, kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church, Berlin, Germany, by Franz Heinrich Schwechten, is consecrated. Milwaukee City Hall in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States is completed, Biltmore House on Biltmore Estate in Asheville, North Carolina, United States, by Richard Morris Hunt is opened. Refuge Assurance Building in Manchester, England, by Alfred Waterhouse, is opened, bishopsgate Institute in London, England, by Charles Harrison Townsend, is opened. New offices for The Glasgow Herald in Scotland, designed by John Keppie, royal Gold Medal - James Brooks. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, René Patouillard-Demoriane
16.
1896 in architecture
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The year 1896 in architecture involved some significant events. April 16 - The The National Trust in England acquires its first building for preservation, Alfriston Clergy House, a History of Architecture by Sir Banister Fletcher is published. April 16 -1896 Summer Olympics, the first modern international Olympic Games, open at the Panathinaiko Stadium, Athens, reconstructed to designs by architects Anastasios Metaxas, may 14 - Garth Pier, Bangor, Wales, designed by J. J. Webster. October 1 - Theater des Westens, Berlin, designed by Bernhard Sehrings, annesley Lodge, Hampstead, designed by Charles Voysey. Church of SantAnselmo allAventino, Rome, Italy, by Francesco Vespignani, marseille Cathedral, France, principally by Léon Vaudoyer and Henri-Jacques Espérendieu. National Gallery of Slovenia, Ljubljana, designed by František Škabrout, Temple Building, Canada, designed by George W. Gouinlock Temple of Human Passions, Cinquantenaire Park, Brussels, Belgium, designed by Victor Horta. Royal Gold Medal - Ernest George, grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Louis-Charles-Henri Pille
17.
1897 in architecture
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The year 1897 in architecture involved some significant events. May 1 Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek art museum, designed by Wilhelm Dahlerup, tennessee Centennial Exposition opens in Nashville, with a temporary pyramid for Memphis, TN and a copy of the Parthenon, which will be rebuilt of permanent materials in the 1920s. May 12 - The new Oxford Town Hall, designed by Henry Hare, is opened in England. May 16 - The Teatro Massimo is inaugurated in Palermo, it is the largest opera theatre in Italy, november 1 - The Library of Congress Building in Washington, D. C. designed by Paul J. Pelz, is opened. Christmas - The Cathedral of St. Vincent de Paul, Tunis, is completed, the Secession Building, Vienna, designed by Joseph Maria Olbrich is completed in Austria. Glasgow School of Art, designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh, is begun in Scotland, the Arts and Crafts movement house Munstead Wood, designed by Edwin Lutyens for Gertrude Jekyll, is begun in England. The Flatiron Building of Atlanta, Georgia, United States is completed, the Battenberg Mausoleum, Sofia, designed by Hermann Mayer, is completed. The Weaver building, a mill at Swansea in Wales, becomes the first building in the United Kingdom to be constructed from reinforced concrete, dresden Hauptbahnhof railway station in Germany, designed by Ernst Giese and Paul Weidner, is completed. Restoration and remodelling of Castelldefels Castle in Spain by Enric Sagnier is completed, april 3 - Vienna Secession group founded by Otto Wagner, Joseph Maria Olbrich and Josef Hoffmann among others. David Ewart succeeds Thomas Fuller as Chief Dominion Architect of the Government of Canada, james Knox Taylor becomes Supervising Architect of the United States Department of the Treasury. RIBA Royal Gold Medal - Pierre Cuypers, english architect June 22 - William Mason, New Zealand architect William Lang, American architect
18.
1898 in architecture
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The year 1898 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. St. Paul Building in New York City is completed as one of the tallest buildings in the world, compton Hill Water Tower in St. Louis, Missouri, designed by Harvey Ellis, is built. San Francisco Ferry Building, designed by A, the Queen Victoria Building, Sydney, Australia is completed. The British Columbia Parliament Buildings in Victoria, designed by Francis Rattenbury, are opened, the Lubyanka Building in Moscow is built. Arts and Crafts movement architect Charles Voysey designs the country houses Broadleys, edwin Lutyens designs Goddards rest home in Abinger, England. Construction of Cathedral of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Zamora, Michoacán, Mexico, to-Morrow, A Peaceful Path to Real Reform is published by Ebenezer Howard, calling for the creation of garden cities. Royal Gold Medal - George Aitchison, grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Léon Chifflot
19.
1899 in architecture
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The year 1899 in architecture involved some significant events. March 14 - Church of the Saviour, Baku in Azerbaijan, april 2 - Maison du Peuple in Brussels, designed by Victor Horta is officially opened. July 20 - Park Row Building in New York City is completed and it holds this title until 1908. September 1 - The National Theatre opens in Norway, september 18 - Old City Hall in Toronto, Ontario, designed by E. J. Lennox, is inaugurated. October - Work begins on St Agathas Church, Sparkbrook, Birmingham, october 6 - John Rylands Library in Manchester, England, designed by Basil Champneys, is inaugurated. December 15 - Glasgow School of Art opens its new building, raffles Hotel, Singapore, designed by Regent Alfred John Bidwell of Swan and Maclaren, is completed. Café Museum in Vienna, with interior designed by Adolf Loos, is opened, approximate date - The Saitta House in Dyker Heights, Brooklyn, New York, designed by John J. Petit, is completed. In 2007, it is listed on both the State and National Register of Historic Places, auguste Choisy - Histoire de larchitecture Ellen Key - Beauty for All Royal Gold Medal - George Frederick Bodley. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Tony Garnier
20.
1889 in art
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February 2 – Sixth annual exhibition of Les XX opens in Brussels, including the first important display of Paul Gauguins work. May 6 – October 31 – Exposition Universelle in Paris, with the Eiffel Tower as its entrance arch, may 8 – Van Gogh moves from Arles to the Saint-Paul asylum in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. July 15 – The Scottish National Portrait Gallery opens in Edinburgh in premises designed by Rowand Anderson, july 23 – Marie Triepcke marries fellow-artist Peder Severin Krøyer in Augsburg. August 17 – The 9 by 5 Impression Exhibition opens in Melbourne, edvard Munch stages his first one-man exhibition and wins a state scholarship to study in Paris. The Skulpturensammlung moves into the Albertinum in Dresden, the Imperial Museum of Nara is established in Japan
21.
1889 in literature
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This article presents lists of literary events and publications in 1889. February 12 – Henrik Ibsens symbolic drama The Lady from the Sea receives its first performances simultaneously in Oslo, april 24 – The Garrick Theatre in London, financed by playwright W. S. Gilbert, opens with a performance of Pineros The Profligate. May 30 – English publisher Henry Vizetelly is prosecuted for obscenity for the time in London. June – Algernon Methuen begins publishing books in England, the origin of Methuen Publishing, september 3 – Jerome K. Jeromes comic fictional English travelogue set on the River Thames, Three Men in a Boat, is published in Bristol. November – Leo Tolstoys novella The Kreutzer Sonata is circulated in clandestine copies, september 14 – The Volkstheater, Vienna opens with a performance of Der Fleck auf der Ehr by its Dramaturg, Ludwig Anzengruber, who dies on December 10 from blood poisoning. December 12 – English poet Robert Browning dies at Ca Rezzonico in Venice on the day his book Asolando, Fancies and facts is published. Anton Manwel Caruanas Ineż Farruġ is the first novel originated in the Maltese language, marcel Proust begins a years service in the French army, stationed at Coligny Barracks in Orléans. Theodore Roosevelt publishes the first of four volumes of The Winning of the West in the United States, with three more by 1896. Rider Haggard – Cleopatra Jerome K. Jerome – Three Men in a Boat John Law – In Darkest London George A. Edgar Wallace – The Dark Eyes of London Oscar Wilde – The Portrait of Mr. W. H. C
22.
1889 in music
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Events in the year 1889 in music. January 4 - Anton Seidl conducts Das Rheingold at the Metropolitan Opera, november 20 - Gustav Mahler premieres his Symphony No. E. W. Rogers m. A. E. Duran Deau Down Went McGinty w. m, joseph Flynn Four Little Curly Headed Coons by James W. Wheeler Little Annie Rooney w. m. Michael Nolan Oh, Promise Me w. Clement Scott m, harry Dacre Slide Kelly Slide w. m. John W. Kelly Take A Pair Of Sparkling Eyes w. W. S. Gilbert m. Arthur Sullivan The Thunderer m, john Philip Sousa The Washington Post m. John Philip Sousa Edward Elgar - Queen Marys Song Enrique Granados - Danzas españolas Augusta Holmès - Ode triomphale Hubert Parry Ode on Saint Cecilias Day Symphony No,3, in C major, The English Symphony No
23.
Eiffel Tower
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The Eiffel Tower is a wrought iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed, the Eiffel Tower is the most-visited paid monument in the world,6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. The tower is 324 metres tall, about the height as an 81-storey building. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres on each side, due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres. Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second-tallest structure in France after the Millau Viaduct, the tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top levels upper platform is 276 m above the ground – the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union, tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually only accessible by lift. Eiffel openly acknowledged that inspiration for a tower came from the Latting Observatory built in New York City in 1853, sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments. Little progress was made until 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as president of France and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as minister for trade. On 12 May, a commission was set up to examine Eiffels scheme and its rivals, which, after some debate about the exact location of the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. Eiffel was to all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition. He later established a company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself. The proposed tower had been a subject of controversy, drawing criticism from those who did not believe it was feasible and these objections were an expression of a long-standing debate in France about the relationship between architecture and engineering. And for twenty years … we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the column of bolted sheet metal. Gustave Eiffel responded to criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian pyramids. Will it not also be grandiose in its way, and why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris. Indeed, Garnier was a member of the Tower Commission that had examined the various proposals, some of the protesters changed their minds when the tower was built, others remained unconvinced. Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible
24.
Exposition Universelle (1889)
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The Exposition Universelle of 1889 was a worlds fair held in Paris, France, from 6 May to 31 October 1889. It was held during the year of the 100th anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, an event considered symbolic of the beginning of the French Revolution. The 1889 Exposition covered an area of 0.96 km2, including the Champ de Mars, the Trocadéro, the quai dOrsay, a part of the Seine. Transport around the Exposition was partly provided by a 3 kilometre 600 millimetre gauge railway by Decauville and it was claimed that the railway carried 6,342,446 visitors in just six months of operation. Some of the used on this line later saw service on the Chemins de Fer du Calvados. The main symbol of the Fair was the Eiffel Tower, which served as the arch to the Fair. The 1889 fair was held on the Champ de Mars in Paris, which had been the site of the earlier Paris Universal Exhibition of 1867, since the lifts had not been completed when the Exposition opened, the first visitors had to walk up to the second floor platform. Workers had worked through the night the day before the exhibition opened to complete the construction needed to safely allow patrons to set foot upon the structure. No one other than construction personnel were allowed higher than the second floor platform, an equally significant building constructed for the fair was the Galerie des machines, designed by architect Ferdinand Dutert and engineer Victor Contamin. It was reused at the exposition of 1900 and then destroyed in 1910, at 111 meters, the Galerie spanned the longest interior space in the world at the time, using a system of hinged arches made of steel or iron. Although often described as being constructed of steel, it was made of iron. There is a description, with illustrations, of the Expositions two famous buildings in the British journal Engineering. A follow-up report appears a late issue with this summation, the exhibition will be famous for four distinctive features, the 28 June issue of Engineering also mentions a remarkable Great Model of the Earth created by Theodore Villard and Charles Cotard. There were unseasonal thunderstorms in Paris during that summer of 1889, causing distress to the canopies and decoration of the exposition. The Exhibition included a building by the Paris architect Pierre-Henri Picq and this was an elaborate iron and glass structure decorated with ceramic tiles in a Byzantine-Egyptian-Romanesque style. After the Exposition the building was shipped to Fort de France and reassembled there, known as the Schoelcher Library, initially it contained the 10,000 books that Victor Schoelcher had donated to the island. Today it houses over 250,000 books and an ethnographic museum, a Negro village where 400 people were displayed constituted the major attraction. At the Exposition, the French composer Claude Debussy first heard Javanese gamelan music and this influenced some of his later compositions
25.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
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Gustave Eiffel
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Alexandre Gustave Eiffel was a French civil engineer and architect. A graduate of École Centrale Paris, he made his name with various bridges for the French railway network and he is best known for the world-famous Eiffel Tower, built for the 1889 Universal Exposition in Paris, and his contribution to building the Statue of Liberty in New York. After his retirement from engineering, Eiffel focused on research into meteorology and aerodynamics, Gustave Eiffel was born in France, in the Côte-dOr, the first child of Catherine-Mélanie and Alexandre Bönickhausen. He was a descendant of Jean-René Bönickhausen, who had emigrated from the German town of Marmagen, the family adopted the name Eiffel as a reference to the Eifel mountains in the region from which they had come. Although the family used the name Eiffel, Gustaves name was registered at birth as Bönickhausen. The business was successful enough for Catherine Eiffel to sell it in 1843, both men spent a lot of time with the young Eiffel, teaching him about everything from chemistry and mining to theology and philosophy. During his second year he chose to specialize in chemistry, however, shortly afterwards Nepveus company went bankrupt, but Nepveu found Eiffel a job designing a 22 m sheet iron bridge for the Saint Germaine railway. These were constructed with the aid of compressed air caissons and hydraulic rams, Eiffel was initially given the responsibility of assembling the metalwork and eventually took over the management of the entire project from Nepveu, who resigned in March 1860. Following the completion of the project on schedule Eiffel was appointed as the engineer of the Compagnie Belge. Further promotion within the company followed, but the business began to decline, at the same time he was employed by Jean-Baptiste Kranz to assist him in the design of the exhibition hall for the Exposition Universelle which was to be held in 1867. Eiffels principal job was to draw up the arch girders of the Galerie des Machines, at the end of 1866 Eiffel managed to borrow enough money to set up his own workshops at 48 Rue Fouquet in Levallois-Perret. On 6 October 1868 he entered partnership with Théophile Seyrig, like Eiffel a graduate of the École Centrale. In 1875, Eiffel et Cie were given two important contracts, one for a new terminus for the line from Vienna to Budapest, the station in Budapest was an innovative design. The bridge over the Douro came about as the result of a competition held by the Royal Portuguese Railroad Company and this was greater than the longest arch span which had been built at the time. Eiffels proposal was for a bridge deck was supported by five iron piers. The price quoted by Eiffel was FF, the members included Jean-Baptiste Krantz, Henri Dion and Léon Molinos, both of whom had known Eiffel for a long time, their report was favorable, and Eiffel got the job. On-site work began in January 1876 and was complete by the end of October 1877, the Exposition Universelle in 1878 firmly established his reputation as one of the leading engineers of the time. As well as exhibiting models and drawings of work undertaken by the company, one of these, a pavilion for the Paris Gas Company, was Eiffels first collaboration with Stephen Sauvestre, who was later to become the head of the companys architectural office
27.
Galerie des machines
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The Galerie des machines was a pavilion built for the Exposition Universelle in Paris. Located in the Grenelle district, the pavilion was made of iron, steel. A similarly-named structure was erected for the 1878 exposition, but the 1889 version was by far the largest vaulted building to have yet been built. It was reused for the 1900 exposition, and later used as a velodrome, agricultural exhibition hall, the Galerie des machines was built for the Universal Exposition of 1889 at the foot of the Champ de Mars in front of the École Militaire. Its architect was Ferdinand Dutert, assisted by the architects Blavette, the responsible engineer was Victor Contamin, assisted by the engineers Charton and Pierron. The structure was built by the Société des Forges de Fives-Lille and the Cail factory, the Galerie des machines formed a huge glass and metal hall with an area of 115 by 420 metres and a height of 48.324 metres, it was free of internal supports. The framework consisted of twenty trusses, the structure incorporated the three-pin hinged arch, developed for bridge building. The Galerie des machines gave the exposition of 1889 an area of about 8 hectares of usable space. It was estimated in 1889 that the building was enough to hold fifteen thousand horses in the ground floor. The largest vaulted building at the time was St Pancras railway station, built in London in 1868, with a span of 73 metres, the Palais des Machines had a span of 115 metres and height of 45 metres. The proportions of the structure were unfamiliar to people accustomed to heavy stone arches, the trusses were small at the base and larger higher up, and were light and narrow. The Belgian Vierendeel said, this lack of proportion produces a bad effect, the supports of the Galerie des Machines show another fault, they are too empty. During its twenty years of existence, the Galerie des machines was used for various purposes, standing beside it was the Grande Roue de Paris, a Ferris wheel, one of the main attractions of the exhibition of 1900. The Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus show was held in the gallery from November 30,1901 to Mars 16,1902. From 1902, Henri Desgrange asked the architect Gaston Lambert to modify the Galerie des machines in order to create a track for cycling competitions, the wooden track 333 metres across was built in 20 days. The velodrome, nicknamed La Glacière or the Vel dHiv, was inaugurated on 20 December 1903, in 1905 Gabriel Poulain defeated all comers. The annual General Agricultural Competition was held there until 1908, on 20 May 1904 the newspaper Le Matin organized a military competition, the Army Walk. The Galerie des machines was transformed into a of vast camp in which the competitors would rest, eat, during the general strike of 1 May 1906, the troops assigned to policing the city were stationed there, six battalions of the 4th, 47th and 2nd infantry regiments
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Ferdinand Dutert
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Charles Louis Ferdinand Dutert was a French architect. Charles Louis Ferdinand Dutert was born on 21 October 1845 in Douai and he was admitted to the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in 1863, and studied in the studios of Hippolyte Lebas and Léon Ginain. Entering twice for the Prix de Rome, he won the Grand Prize for Architecture in 1869 for a project called Palace of the French embassy in the capital of a powerful state and he stayed in the Villa Medici between 1870 and 1873. Returning to France, he was active in his department of origin, Dutert was chosen as architect for the Palais des Machines at the Exposition Universelle, and was fully responsible for its architectural design. He was assisted in the work by the architects Blavette, Deglane and Eugène Hénard, the great hall was 420 metres long and 115 metres wide, covering 4.5 hectares. It rose to 45 metres in height, the engineer Victor Contamin was responsible for the technical design of the huge steel structure, including calculations to ensure the structural integrity of the immense arches. Talking of the Palais des Machines, Hénard said it successfully combined aesthetic appearance with engineering function, Dutert also contributed to the Exposition Universelle. He died at his home at 41 Avenue Kléber in the 16th arrondissement of Paris on 12 February 1906, the same year Édouard Houssin made a bust that is held in the musée de la Chartreuse de Douai. Historical - structural reflections Paper written by Javier Estévez Cimadevila & Isaac López César about the structure of The Galerie des Machines
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Victor Contamin
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Victor Contamin was a French structural engineer, an expert on the strength of materials such as iron and steel. He is known for the Galerie des machines of the Exposition Universelle in Paris and he also pioneered the use of reinforced concrete. Victor Contamin was born in Paris in 1840 and he was admitted to the École centrale des arts et manufactures in Paris in 1857, and graduated in second place in 1860. One of his teachers was Jean-Baptiste-Charles-Joseph Bélanger, a disciple of Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis, Bélanger treated Contamin with great affection, and gave him much advice when he left the school. Contamins first work experience was in Spain, in 1863 he joined the Chemins de Fer du Nord railway company as a designer, attached to the department responsible for the tracks. He was successively promoted to Inspector, Engineer and Chief Engineer and he also taught the course on Applied Mechanics at the École centrale from 1865 to 1873, and then held the chair of Applied Resistance until 1891. In 1874 Contamin published a textbook entitled Cours de résistance appliquée, as a recognized expert on the strength of materials, in 1886 Contamin was made responsible for control of metal structures in the 1889 exposition. He was to all plans and projects in terms of the strength requirements for the buildings. He was also responsible for checking receipt of materials, strength testing and monitoring the erection of iron structures and his approval of the quality of the materials, workshop production and on-site work was required for release of public funds. As he noted in a letter to La revue le Travail in December 1888, Contamin and his team checked all the calculations and all the metal installations, including the 300 metres tower that Gustave Eiffel was building. He said of the Eiffel Tower, The flag that is flying from the summit of the tower is the flag of 89 and this flag needed a large pedestal, with large dimensions. It was Mr. Eiffel who built it with the help of his dedicated collaborators and we are glad to honor them Contamin was one of the pioneers of the use of reinforced concrete. He worked with Anatole de Baudot on a design for the Saint-Jean-de-Montmartre church, Paris, Contamin worked with the architect Ferdinand Dutert on the design of the Galerie des Machines for the 1889 exposition. Contamin was responsible for the design of the Galerie des Machines. The Galerie des machines formed a glass and metal hall with an area of 115 by 420 metres. The iron and glass structure used three-pin hinged arches, which had developed for bridge building. This was the first time the arch had been used on such a large scale. The Galerie des Machines was re-used for the 1900 exposition, many of the writers who discussed the Galerie des Machines gave Victor Contamin much of the credit, since they assumed it was primarily an engineering feat
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Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
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Hofburg
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The Hofburg is the former imperial palace in the centre of Vienna, Austria. It was the principal winter residence, as Schönbrunn Palace was the summer residence. Since 1279 the Hofburg area has been the seat of government. The Hofburg has been expanded over the centuries to various residences, the imperial chapel, the imperial library, the treasury, the Burgtheater, the Spanish Riding School. The palace faces the Heldenplatz ordered under the reign of Emperor Francis Joseph I, as part of what was planned to become the Kaiserforum, the name translates as Royal Castle, which denotes its origins when it was initially constructed during the Medieval Age. Initially constructed as the seat of the Dukes of Austria in the 13th century, from 1438 to 1583 and from 1612 to 1806, it was the seat of the Habsburg kings and emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, thereafter the seat of the Emperor of Austria until 1918. It has continued its role as the seat of the head of state and is used by the Austrian Federal President. It is also the permanent conference seat of the Organization for Security, presently the Burghauptmannschaft is under the jurisdiction of the Federal Ministry of Economy. In September 1958 parts of the Hofburg were opened to the public as a convention centre, in the first ten years the Burghauptmannschaft operated the convention centre, since 1969 a private company has been managing the international congress and events center. Every year the centre hosts about 300 to 350 events with around 300,000 to 320,000 guests. Among the events are conventions and meetings as well as banquets, trade fairs, concerts, the oldest sections originate from the 13th century and were primarily constructed by the last of the Babenbergers or by Ottakar II of Bohemia. Previously the castle of the Austrian rulers had been located on the square called Am Hof, the castle had a square-shaped outline with four turrets, surrounded by a moat and a drawbridge that led to the inside. These oldest sections of the castle form the Swiss Court. There situated are a chapel, from the 15th century, and the treasury, which holds, among other objects, the imperial insignia of the Holy Roman Empire. The Court Music Chapel is located in the Court Chapel and this is where the Vienna Boys Choir traditionally sing for Sunday mass. The appearance of the Swiss Court was given during the reign of Emperor Ferdinand I during the Renaissance, the entry Swiss Gate displays the many titles of Emperor Ferdinand I and the insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece painted on the ceiling. An adjoining section of the Swiss Wing houses the Radetzky Apartments, next to the Knights Hall is the Guard Room, where the duty officer of the Household Guards kept watch over the emperor. The lower section of this wing once accommodated the imperial kitchen, although not physically connected to the rest of the complex, the imperial mews of the Hofburg were originally built as a residence for the then crown prince Maximilian II
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Imperial Natural History Museum
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Located in Vienna, the Museum was named in German as K. k. Later, the Museum became part of the Natural History Museum of Vienna, in 1886, Austrian geologist and paleontologist Franz Ritter von Hauer became second superintendent of the Imperial Natural History Museum. The main building for the Museum was constructed between 1871-1891, see more about the current museum at, Naturhistorisches Museum. The new Imperial Royal Natural History Court Museum thus documented the benevolent sentiment of the Imperial Household, excavations for the construction of the new Museum of Nature started in the fall of 1871, and construction was completed more than ten years later. On April 29,1876, Emperor Franz Joseph I signed the document certifying the Natural History Court Museum, Hochstetter proposed a new organization for the museum and its collections. Felix Karrer became Secretary of the Wissenschaftlicher Club and founder of the Mineralogy collection of the department, by 1886, Rudolf Köchlin became scientific assistant and, later, maintained an inventory of the collection and even kept a diary. Hochstetter died on July 18,1884, and did not live to see the completion of the building for whose founding he had been so actively engaged and his successor as superintendent was Franz Ritter von Hauer, a geologist and paleontologist. In the presence of the Emperor, the new K. k, Naturhistorisches Hofmuseum was inaugurated on August 10,1889. Initially, it was open to four days per week—free on Thursdays, Saturdays and Sundays. During 1889, the Mineralogisch-Petrographische Abteilung was under the directorship of Aristides Brezina, the repayment of this loan had to be repaid in a series of complicated transactions, effected within a time-frame of ten years. Unfortunately these redemptions included also samples of silver and gold from the former Ambrasian Collection of Archduke Ferdinand II, despite this, the acquisition of the Hidden Collection is of special significance for the Viennese museum. In accordance with terms, the geologic and paleontological collection. Instead, the imitations of precious stones and some other mineralogical items were entrusted to the Imperial Natural History Court Museum. Koechlin became an assistant in 1892 and was promoted to assistant custodian in 1896, in the same year, Friedrich Berwerth was put in-charge of the department, taking over from Aristides Brezina, who retired on August 30. Voluntary, unpaid assistance, from 1896 to the end of the Monarchy was provided by Felix Karrer, alternately by Anton Pelinka, Hermann Graber, Friedrich Wachter and Karl Hlawatsch. In one last transaction before the collapse of the Monarchy, the managed to purchase, during the years 1906-1907. A patron of note at the start of the 20th century was Kommerzialrat Isidor Weinberger and he was one of the great sponsors of mineralogy, and the collection of the Natural History Court Museum is indebted to him for many beautiful specimens. Website for Naturhistorisches Museum, at www. nhm-wien. ac. at
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German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
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Amsterdam Centraal station
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Amsterdam Centraal is the largest railway station of Amsterdam, Netherlands, and a major national railway hub. Used by 162,000 passengers a day, it is the second-busiest railway station in the country after Utrecht Centraal, national and international railway services at Amsterdam Centraal are provided by NS, the principal rail operator in the Netherlands. Amsterdam Centraal is the terminus of Amsterdam Metro Routes 51,53. It is also served by a number of GVB tram and ferry routes as well as local and regional bus routes operated by GVB, Connexxion, Amsterdam Centraal was designed by Dutch architect Pierre Cuypers and first opened in 1889. It features a Gothic/Renaissance Revival station building and a cast iron platform roof spanning approximately 40 metres, Amsterdam Centraal was designed by Pierre Cuypers, who is also known for his design of the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. While Cuypers was the architect, it is believed that he focused mostly on the decoration of the station building. The station was built by contractor Philipp Holzmann, the new central station replaced Amsterdam Willemspoort Station, which had closed in 1878, as well as the temporary Westerdok Station used from 1878 to 1889. In the first proposal, the station would be situated between the Leidseplein and the Amstel river, Cuypers design of the station building in many ways strongly resembled his other architectural masterpiece, the Rijksmuseum, of which the construction had begun in 1876. It features a palace-like, Gothic/Renaissance Revival facade, with two turrets and many details and stone reliefs referring to the capital citys industrial and commercial importance. Cuypers station reflects the nationalistic mood in the late nineteenth-century Netherlands, with its many decorative elements glorifying the nations economic. As with the Rijksmuseum, the overall architecture reminded many contemporaries of medieval cathedrals. Finally, the plan made its way through the Amsterdam municipal council by a narrow majority, the station is built on three interconnected artificial islands in the IJ lake. These islands were created with sand taken from the dunes near Velsen, the islands together are known as Stationseiland. Like many other structures in Amsterdam, the station was built on wooden piles, the construction of the station was delayed because of the instability of the soil, which set back the completion of the work by several years. The station building was completed in 1884, but the commission to Cuypers did not include the roofwork of the platforms, therefore, the station did not yet feature its distinctive station roof. This roof, consisting of 50 curved trusses and a span of almost 45 meters, was designed by L. J. Eijmer, the roof was manufactured by Andrew Handyside and Company of Derby, England. Cuypers did design the decorations for the trusses and the gable ends, on 15 October 1889, the station was officially opened, drawing large numbers of crowds. The visitors were charged 0.25 guilders to see the station, the waterways would soon be replaced by tramways and cars as the primary modes of transport in the city
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Pierre Cuypers
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Petrus Josephus Hubertus Cuypers was a Dutch architect. His name is most frequently associated with the Amsterdam Central Station, more representative for his oeuvre, however, are numerous churches, of which he designed more than 100. Moreover, he restored a number of monuments. Cuypers was born in Roermond, the son of a church painter, after he studied at the urban college in Roermond, he moved to Antwerp in 1844 to study architecture at the Royal art academy. He was taught by Frans Andries Durlet, Frans Stoop and Ferdinand Berckmans, Cuypers was a good student, in 1849, he gained the Prix dExcellence of the academy. From 1875 he led the restoration of the front of the Mainz Cathedral. In doing so, he created as a pole to the western tower group the high, gothic likely eastern tower helmet, replacing a bell floor. After a tour in the German Rheinland, he returned to Roermond, in 1852, he opened a workshop where ecclesiastical art was manufactured. Cuypers ecclesiastical work was strongly influenced by 13th century French architecture and by the writings of his friends Eugene Viollet-le-Duc. Cuypers built a number of churches all across the Netherlands. Highlights from these first period are the Lamberts Church in Veghel, from 1870 onwards Cuypers style became more influenced by the native Gothic styles of the Netherlands as well as Gothic styles from other countries like Norway and Italy. He also experimented with centralizing ground-plans and other non-conventional layouts, in this second part of his career he built some of his best work. After 1883 he was assisted by his son Joseph Cuypers in much of his work, Cuypers led a large number of restorations. An early example of this is the restoration of the Munster Church in Roermond. Pierre Cuypers was the uncle of Eduard Cuypers who trained in his practice as a young man, other relatives who became architect are his grandsons Pierre Cuypers jr. and Theo Taen. Cuypers was a practising Roman Catholic and a member of the Lay Dominicans, as such, he was buried in the Dominican habit. He died in his town of Roermond, aged 93. A. J. C. van Leeuwen, Pierre Cuypers architect, het complete werk, Rotterdam, Nederlands Architectuurinstituut,2007
36.
Auditorium Building (Chicago)
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The Auditorium Building in Chicago is one of the best-known designs of Louis Sullivan and Dankmar Adler. Completed in 1889, the building is located at the northwest corner of South Michigan Avenue and Congress Street. The building, which when constructed was the largest in the United States and the tallest in Chicago, was designed to be a complex, including offices, a theater. As a young apprentice, Frank Lloyd Wright worked on some of the interior design, the Auditorium Theatre is part of the Auditorium Building and is located at 50 East Congress Parkway. The theater was the first home of the Chicago Civic Opera and it currently hosts the season performances of the Joffrey Ballet. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 17,1970 and it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1975, and was designated a Chicago Landmark on September 15,1976. In addition, it is a historic district contributing property for the Chicago Landmark Historic Michigan Boulevard District, since 1947, the Auditorium Building has been part of Roosevelt University. He was said to have wanted to make culture accessible to the working classes of Chicago. The building was to include a block and a first class hotel. Peck persuaded many Chicago business tycoons to go on board with him, including Marshall Field, Edson Keith, Martin A. Ryerson, Charles L. Hutchinson, the association hired the renowned architectural firm of Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan to design the building. At the time, a young Frank Lloyd Wright was employed at the firm as draftsman, and he may have contributed to the design. The Auditorium was built for a syndicate of businessmen to house a large opera house, to provide an economic base it was decided to wrap the auditorium with a hotel. Hence Adler & Sullivan had to plan a complex multiple-use building, fronting on Michigan Avenue, overlooking the lake, was the hotel while the offices were placed to the west on Wabash Avenue. The entrance to the auditorium is on the south side beneath the tall blocky eighteen-story tower, the rest of the building is a uniform ten stories, organized in the same way as Richardsons Marshall Field Wholesale Store. The Auditorium is a heavy, impressive structure externally, and was striking in its day when buildings of its scale were less common. When completed, it was the tallest building in the city, one of the most innovative features of the building was its massive raft foundation, designed by Adler in conjunction with engineer Paul Mueller. The soil beneath the Auditorium consists of blue clay to a depth of over 100 feet. Adler and Mueller designed a floating mat of crisscrossed railroad ties, topped with a layer of steel rails embedded in concrete
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Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
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Louis Sullivan
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Louis Henry Sullivan was an American architect, and has been called the father of skyscrapers and father of modernism. Along with Wright and Henry Hobson Richardson, Sullivan is one of the trinity of American architecture. Form follows function is attributed to him although he credited the origin of the concept to an ancient Roman architect, in 1944, he was the second architect in history to posthumously receive the AIA Gold Medal. Louis Henry Sullivan was born to a Swiss-born mother, née Andrienne List, and he learned that he could both graduate from high school a year early and bypass the first two years at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology by passing a series of examinations. Entering MIT at the age of sixteen, he studied architecture there briefly, after one year of study, he moved to Philadelphia and took a job with architect Frank Furness. The Depression of 1873 dried up much of Furnesss work, at that point Sullivan moved on to Chicago in 1873 to take part in the building boom following the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. He worked for William LeBaron Jenney, the architect credited with erecting the first steel frame building. After less than a year with Jenney, Sullivan moved to Paris and he returned to Chicago and began work for the firm of Joseph S. Johnston & John Edelman as a draftsman. Johnston & Edleman were commissioned for the design of the Moody Tabernacle, in 1879 Dankmar Adler hired Sullivan. A year later, Sullivan became a partner in the firm and this marked the beginning of Sullivans most productive years. Adler and Sullivan initially achieved fame as theater architects, while most of their theaters were in Chicago, their fame won commissions as far west as Pueblo, Colorado, and Seattle, Washington. After 1889 the firm known for their office buildings, particularly the 1891 Wainwright Building in St. Louis. Prior to the century, the weight of a multistory building had to be supported principally by the strength of its walls. The development of cheap, versatile steel in the half of the nineteenth century changed those rules. America was in the midst of social and economic growth that made for great opportunities in architectural design. A much more urbanized society was forming and the society called out for new, the mass production of steel was the main driving force behind the ability to build skyscrapers during the mid-1880s. By assembling a framework of steel girders, architects and builders suddenly could create tall, slender buildings with a strong, the rest of the building elements—walls, floors, ceilings, and windows—were suspended from the skeleton, which carried the weight. This new way of constructing buildings, so-called column-frame construction, pushed them up rather than out, the steel weight-bearing frame allowed not just taller buildings, but permitted much larger windows, which meant more daylight reaching interior spaces
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Dankmar Adler
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Dankmar Adler was a German-born American architect. Adler was born in Stadtlengsfeld, Germany, his mother died when he was born and he came to the United States with his father Liebman, a rabbi, in 1854. Dankmar first landed in Detroit with his father, who took up residence in Detroit as the Rabbi of Congregation Beth-El, Adler had some elementary level education in the City of Detroit and Ann Arbor, before leaving school to become a draftsman. Adler was involved with the Union Army during the Civil War, serving in the Chattanooga, Adler served in the Union Army during the Civil War with the Battery M of the 1st Illinois Artillery. After the war, he worked as an architect in Chicago and he worked first with Augustus Bauer and next with Ozias S. Kinney. Adler formed a partnership with Edward Burling in 1871, they created more than 100 buildings together before ending the partnership, after he began his own firm, Adler hired Louis Sullivan as a draughtsman and designer in 1880, Sullivan was made a partner in the firm in 1883. After a short period, Adler returned to architecture, in partnership with his two sons, but never regaining the prominence he had with Sullivan, Adler and Sullivans Auditorium Building is an early example of splendid acoustical engineering, as is their Kehilath Anshe Maariv Synagogue. Both drew upon the fine acoustics in Adlers earlier Central Music Hall, Adler was an acclaimed expert in acoustics, yet he was unable to explain fully the excellent acoustic properties of his buildings. With his partner Burling and thereafter, as a partner in Adler and Sullivan, Adler is considered a leader in the Chicago school of architecture. The last major building Adler designed was Temple Isaiah, on June 25,1872, Adler married Dila Kohn. Their children include, Abraham K. Adler, Sidney Adler, Adler died in Chicago, Illinois, United States, and his final resting place is the Mount Maryiv Cemetery in Chicago. Photographs and other materials are held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago. The Dankmar Adler Collection of letters, papers, and photographs also includes an autobiography
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Customs House, Brisbane
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Customs House is a heritage-listed customs house at 427 Queen Street, Brisbane CBD, City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. It was designed by Charles H McLay and built from 1886 to 1889 at a cost of ₤38,346 by John Petrie & Son. It was originally used for the collection of duty and was opened in 1889. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 7 February 2005, the collection of custom duties on imported products was particularly important to Queensland where the manufacturing sector was slow to develop. Brisbane was declared a city in 1846. In 1908, seven years after federation, the building was acquired by the federal government, Customs House is within reach of the CityCat catamaran ferry service, as well as the Free Loop Bus. The 1880s building replaced an earlier and much smaller house on the site. The location had been chosen in 1849 following the declaration of Moreton Bay as a port of entry in 1846, a small building was erected for customs purposes in 1850 and in the following decades became increasingly inadequate as Brisbane emerged as the principal commercial centre and port of Queensland. In 1884 the Queensland Government decided to construct a new customs house, in March 1886 a design by Charles McLay was selected from many proposals in the Colonial Architects Office for a new Brisbane Customs House. McLay completed the specification in May 1886 and construction commenced in September that year, Charles McLay was the major designer under the colonial architect George Connolly and was appointed Chief Draftsman in 1889. The contract was let to one of Brisbanes oldest and most respected contractors, John Petrie & Son, retaining walls, fencing, a double staircase down to the river and nearby earth closets were also constructed. The completed building incorporated pedimented gables and a massive colonnade, heraldic scenes in the pediments were precursors to the official Queensland coat of arms, which was not granted until 1893. A curved iron balustrade to the balconies included the initials of the sovereign, Victoria Regina. Red cedar was used extensively for desks, counters, cabinets and tables as well as for a massive, public pride in the new customs house was considerable. In 1891 stables, additional retaining walls and fencing, and more earth closets were erected at a cost of £446, by the mid-1890s gardens and a driveway had been developed. The mature fig tree now at the site was planted about this time. Minor repairs were carried out throughout the 1890s, including work in 1895 after seven feet of water inundated the basement during the 1893 Brisbane River floods. As a consequence of the Federation of Australia, the Brisbane Customs House, in 1906 the inadequacies of the original flat roof were overcome by the installation of a new hipped roof
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Brisbane
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Brisbane is the capital of and most populous city in the Australian state of Queensland, and the third most populous city in Australia. Brisbanes metropolitan area has a population of 2.35 million, the Brisbane central business district stands on the original European settlement and is situated inside a bend of the Brisbane River, about 15 kilometres from its mouth at Moreton Bay. The demonym of Brisbane is Brisbanite, one of the oldest cities in Australia, Brisbane was founded upon the ancient homelands of the indigenous Turrbal and Jagera peoples. A penal settlement was founded in 1824 at Redcliffe,28 kilometres north of the business district. The city was marred by the Australian frontier wars between 1843 and 1855, and development was set back by the Great Fire of Brisbane. Brisbane was chosen as the capital when Queensland was proclaimed a colony from New South Wales in 1859. During World War II, Brisbane played a role in the Allied campaign. Today, Brisbane is well known for its distinct Queenslander architecture which forms much of the built heritage. It also receives attention for its damaging flood events, most notably in 1974 and 2011. Several large cultural, international and sporting events have held at Brisbane, including the 1982 Commonwealth Games, World Expo 88, the final Goodwill Games in 2001. Prior to white settlement, the Brisbane area was inhabited by the Turrbal and they knew the area that is now the central business district as Mian-jin, meaning place shaped as a spike. The Moreton Bay area was explored by Matthew Flinders. On 17 July 1799, Flinders landed at what is now known as Woody Point, in 1823 Governor of New South Wales Sir Thomas Brisbane instructed that a new northern penal settlement be developed, and an exploration party led by John Oxley further explored Moreton Bay. Oxley discovered, named, and explored the Brisbane River as far as Goodna,20 kilometres upstream from the Brisbane central business district, Oxley recommended Red Cliff Point for the new colony, reporting that ships could land at any tide and easily get close to the shore. The party settled in Redcliffe on 13 September 1824, under the command of Lieutenant Henry Miller with 14 soldiers and 29 convicts. However, this settlement was abandoned after a year and the colony was moved to a site on the Brisbane River now known as North Quay,28 km south, chief Justice Forbes gave the new settlement the name of Edenglassie before it was named Brisbane. Non-convict European settlement of the Brisbane region commenced in 1838, German missionaries settled at Zions Hill, Nundah as early as 1837, five years before Brisbane was officially declared a free settlement. The band consisted of ministers Christopher Eipper and Carl Wilhelm Schmidt and lay missionaries Haussmann, Johann Gottried Wagner, Niquet, Hartenstein, Zillman, Franz, Rode, Doege and they were allocated 260 hectares and set about establishing the mission, which became known as the German Station
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Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
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Georgia State Capitol
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The Georgia State Capitol is an architecturally and historically significant building in Atlanta, Georgia, United States. It has been named a National Historic Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and it is the main office building of Georgias government. The offices of the governor, lieutenant governor, and secretary of state are on the second floor, the fourth floor houses visitors galleries overlooking the legislative chambers and a museum. The capitol site was occupied previously by the first Atlanta City Hall, to encourage the state government to relocate the capital city to rapidly growing and industrialized Atlanta from rural Milledgeville, the city donated the site. The first capitol in Louisville no longer stands, while in Augusta and Savannah the legislature met in makeshift facilities, the legislature also met at other places, including Macon, especially during and just after the Atlanta Campaign of the American Civil War. Like many U. S. state capitols, the Georgia State Capitol is designed to resemble the Classical architectural style of the United States Capitol, in Washington, D. C. Completed in 1889, the building was designed by architects Willoughby J. Edbrooke and Franklin Pierce Burnham, of Chicago, the building was constructed by Miles and Horne, of Toledo, Ohio. Sculptor George Crouch executed all the work on the building. The commission that oversaw the planning and construction of the building included former Confederate general Philip Cook, the Capitol faces west on Washington Street. The façade features a portico, with stone pediment, supported by six Corinthian columns set on large stone piers. Georgias coat of arms, with two figures on each side, is engraved on the pediment, the Capitols interior represents the 19th-century style of its time. It was among the earliest buildings to have elevators, centralized steam heat, Classical pilasters and oak paneling are used throughout the building. The floors of the interior are made of marble from Pickens County, the open central rotunda is flanked by two wings, each with a grand staircase and three-story atrium crowned by clerestory windows. The Capitol building has undergone frequent renovations to adapt to the growth, for this reason, legislative business is often referred to as what is happening under the gold dome by media across the state. The statue Miss Freedom has adorned the dome since the buildings opening, in 1997, the House and Senate chambers were restored to their 1889 appearance with replicated decoration and color schemes. This included the demolition of damaged plaster, the reinstallation of flat plaster at the dome, columns, and walls, the museum within the Capitol, in existence since 1889, houses extensive collections representing the natural and cultural history of Georgia. Native American artifacts, animals, rocks and minerals, and fossils illustrate the diversity of the collections, during restoration or renovation, most of the collection remains in storage. The portraits of governors, statues of famous Georgians, and historic flags from many wars are displayed throughout the Capitol, the Georgia Capitol Museum is a public education institution in the Office of the Secretary of State
