1.
1879 in art
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Events from the year 1879 in art. April 10–May 11 – Fourth Impressionist exhibition in Paris, arranged by Gustave Caillebotte at 28 avenue de lOpéra, ford Madox Brown begins painting the The Manchester Murals in Manchester Town Hall. Chicago Academy of Fine Arts established, guimet Museum of Asian art established in Lyon, France. Museum of Fine Arts Berne established in Switzerland, kate Greenaways first book, with her own colour illustrations, Under the Window, Pictures & Rhymes for Children, is published in London
2.
1880 in art
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Events from the year 1880 in art. October – Vincent van Gogh enrolls in an art course at the Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts in Brussels. Fifth Impressionist exhibition in Paris, at 10 rue des Pyramides, the realist painter Jean-François Raffaëlli is also invited by Degas to exhibit. Silver Studio founded by Arthur Silver in London for textile and wallpaper design, anton Mauve paints Changing Pasture, his palette and usage of colour influences Vincent van Gogh. Michael Ancher marries fellow painter Anna Brøndum, national Gallery of Canada established in Ottawa. Grand Prix de Rome, painting, Henri Lucien Doucet, Grand Prix de Rome, sculpture, Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Grand Prix de Rome, music, Lucien Joseph Edouard Hillemacher
3.
1881 in art
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Events from the year 1881 in art. April – Sixth Impressionist exhibition in Paris, at Nadars studio, august 31 – English painters Thomas Cooper Gotch and Caroline Burland Yates marry at Newlyn. The Société des Artistes Français is established, with William-Adolphe Bouguereau as its first president. Vincent van Gogh returns from study in Brussels to his parents home in Etten where he produces a number of works, including the start of his series of peasant character studies. Art Gallery of South Australia established in Adelaide, St. Louis School and Museum of Fine Arts established at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, under the direction of Halsey Ives. Dante Gabriel Rossettis Ballads and Sonnets published
4.
1882 in art
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Events from the year 1882 in art. April 9 – English poet and artist Dante Gabriel Rossetti dies aged 53 of Brights disease at Birchington-on-Sea in the care of his brother, march 1 – Seventh Impressionist exhibition in Paris opens at 251 rue Saint-Honoré. August – Vincent van Gogh starts painting in oil on the sea coast at Scheveningen, walter Langley moves to Newlyn on the coast of Cornwall, becoming the first resident artist of the Newlyn School. The gallery of botanical illustrations made and donated by Marianne North is opened at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, the Royal Manchester Institution transfers its galleries and collections to Manchester Corporation as Manchester Art Gallery. Todor Švrakić, Serbian painter January 14 – Timothy H
5.
1883 in art
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20 April – Claude Monet moves to the house in Giverny which will be his main residence for the rest of his life. 28 October – Les XX established in Brussels by Octave Maus, L. Wyllie – Toil, Glitter, Grime and Wealth on a Flowing Tide 3 February – Camille Bombois, French naïve painter. 18 February – Jacques Ochs, French artist, épée and foil fencer,12 April Francis Cadell, Scottish Colourist painter Imogen Cunningham, American photographer. 24 June – Jean Metzinger, French painter and art theorist,16 July – Charles Sheeler, American modernist painter and photographer. 31 July – Erich Heckel, German painter and printmaker,19 August – Coco Chanel, French fashion designer. 14 September – Richard Gerstl, Austrian painter and draughtsman,9 November – Charles Demuth, American painter. 4 December – Felice Casorati, Italian painter,24 December – Stojan Aralica, famous Serbian Impressionist painter and academic. 26 December – Maurice Utrillo, French painter, date unknown – Charles Jourdan, French fashion designer
6.
1884 in art
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February 2 – First annual exhibition of Les XX opens at the Palais des Beaux-Arts in Brussels. Artists invited to show in addition to members of the group include Auguste Rodin, James McNeill Whistler, march – Theo van Gogh starts buying and selling Impressionist works, beginning with a painting by Pissarro. April – Camille Pissarro moves to Éragny-sur-Epte, may 15–July 15 – Groupe des Artistes Indépendants stages the first officially sanctioned open exhibition of contemporary art in Paris. July 29 – Société des Artistes Indépendants established in Paris under the leadership of Albert Dubois-Pillet, august 30 – Austrian painter Marianne Preindlsberger marries English painter Adrian Scott Stokes
7.
1885 in art
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July 13 – New building for the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, designed by Pierre Cuypers, opens. August – First public display of works by Vincent van Gogh, Glasgow Boys first exhibit collectively, at the Glasgow Institute of the Fine Arts. Aberdeen Art Gallery opens in Scotland, birmingham Museum and Art Gallery opens in England. The Guildhall Art Gallery opens in the City of London, crocker Art Gallery is presented to the people of Sacramento, California. John Everett Millais is granted a baronetcy in the United Kingdom, the first artist to be honoured with a hereditary title
8.
1886 in art
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April 28 – Paul Cézanne marries his model and former lover Marie-Hortense Fiquet, despite having publicly stated that he has no feelings for her. May–June – Eighth and last collective Impressionist exhibition in Paris at 1 rue Laffitte introduces Georges Seurats A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, august 21 – September 21 – Second exhibition by the Société des Artistes Indépendants in Paris. October 28 – Dedication of Frédéric Auguste Bartholdis Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor, P. H. Emerson publishes his first photographic book, Life and Landscape on the Norfolk Broads. Publication in French of Irish-born writer George Moores autobiographical novel Confessions of a Young Man describing bohemian life in 1870s Paris among the Impressionists, publication of Émile Zolas novel LŒuvre based on his friendship with Paul Cézanne
9.
1887 in art
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The year 1887 in art involved some significant events. February – Fourth annual exhibition of Les XX, at the Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique in Brussels, artists invited to show in addition to members of the group include Walter Sickert, Camille Pissarro, Berthe Morisot and Georges-Pierre Seurat. The major work shown is Seurats A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, march 26 – June 8 – Third exhibition by the Société des Artistes Indépendants in Paris. November 14 – Paul Gauguin and Charles Laval return to Paris from Martinique, december – Vincent van Gogh arranges an exhibition of paintings by himself, Émile Bernard, Louis Anquetin, and Toulouse-Lautrec in the Restaurant du Chalet,43 Avenue de Clichy, Montmartre, Paris. Bernard and Anquetin sell their first painting, van Gogh exchanges work with Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh begins his first Sunflowers series of paintings in Paris. Walter Crane illustrates The Architecture of Art, Charles Lang Freers first Asian art purchase is a painted Japanese fan. Sir John Everett Millais painting Bubbles is acquired for advertising purposes by Pears soap, february 5 – Albert Paris Gütersloh, Austrian painter and writer. March 23 – Juan Gris, Spanish painter and sculptor, march 25 – Josef Čapek, Czech painter. April 29 – Stanley Cursiter, Scottish painter and curator, may – Jacob Steinhardt, German-born Israeli painter and woodcut artist. May 12 – Leo Michelson, Latvian-American painter and sculptor, may 21 Barker Fairley, English-born Canadian painter, writer, and educator. May 30 – Alexander Archipenko, Ukrainian sculptor, June 20 – Kurt Schwitters, German Dadaist painter and writer. July 7 – Marc Chagall, Russian-Belarusian-French painter, july 28 – Marcel Duchamp, influential French artist. September 24 – Frank Newbould, English poster artist, october 6 – Le Corbusier, French architect and painter. October 9 – Manuel Ortiz de Zárate, Chilean painter, october 13 – Kate Lechmere, English painter associated with the Vorticists and milliner. November 1 – L. S. Lowry, English painter, november 15 – Georgia OKeeffe, American painter
10.
1888 in art
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February – Fifth annual exhibition of Les XX, at the Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique in Brussels. W. W. January 17 – Mohamed Nagy, Egyptian painter, february 22 – Horace Pippin, self-taught African-American painter. March 14 – Marc-Aurèle Fortin, Canadian painter, march 19 – Josef Albers, German artist, mathematician and educator. April 6 – Hans Richter, German painter, graphic artist, avant-gardist, june 12 – Tom Purvis, English poster artist. July 10 – Giorgio de Chirico, Greek-Italian painter, august 13 – Gleb W. Derujinsky, Russian-American sculptor. August 14 – Sydney Carline, English painter, war artist, august 30 – Siri Derkert, Swedish artist, sculptor and political campaigner. November 7 – Mariano Andreu, Spanish painter, enamelling master, sculptor, november 11 – Johannes Itten, Swiss colour theorist, painter and designer. Stanley Royle, English post-impressionist landscape painter
11.
1890 in art
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January 18 – February 23 – Seventh annual exhibition of Les XX in Brussels includes a display of work by Vincent van Gogh. Henry de Groux criticises his paintings but Albert Aurier praises them, from the exhibition, van Gogh sells The Red Vineyard to Anna Boch, said to be the only sale of his work during his lifetime. March 20 – April 27 – The Société des Artistes Indépendants show in Paris includes a display of van Gogh paintings. May 20 – Van Gogh moves to Auvers-sur-Oise on the edge of Paris in the care of Dr Paul Gachet where he will produce around seventy paintings in as many days, more than a dozen are size 30 canvases. June–July – Van Gogh develops his double-square painting technique, e. g. in the July paintings Wheatfield with Crows, July 27 – Death of Vincent van Gogh, van Gogh perhaps paints Tree Roots, then apparently shoots himself, dying two days later. September 20 – Theo van Gogh, assisted by Émile Bernard, november – Lucien Pissarro settles permanently in London. Claude Monet begins painting his Haystacks series, wellington – Eventide William R. Coats – Ypsilanti Water Tower, winner of Most Phallic Building contest Grand Prix de Rome, painting. Grand Prix de Rome, sculpture, Paul-Jean-Baptiste Gasq, Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Emmanuel Pontremoli. Zeev Raban, Polish Jewish painter Jean Xceron, Greek-American painter Petar Dobrović, Serbian Expressionist painter
12.
1891 in art
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May 10 – Danish sculptor Anne Marie Brodersen marries her compatriot, the classical composer Carl Nielsen, in St Marks English Church, Florence, the couple having first met on March 2 in Paris. June – Sidney Paget produces his first illustrations for Arthur Conan Doyles Sherlock Holmes stories in The Strand Magazine, henri Matisse begins his studies at the Académie Julian. Correspondence of Marie Bashkirtseff and Gustave Flaubert is published, paul Gauguin sails to French Polynesia. Impressionist Armand Guillaumin wins 100,000 francs in the French state lottery and is able to devote himself to painting full-time, félix Vallotton makes his first woodcuts. William-Adolphe Bouguereau The Goose Girl Work Interrupted Frank Bramley – For Of Such Is The Kingdom Of Heaven Edward Burne-Jones – Sponsa de Libano Philip Hermogenes Calderon – St. W. W
13.
1892 in art
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However, his paintings evoke bitter controversy and after one week the exhibition is closed, Munchs paintings are moved to the Equitable Palast. James McNeill Whistler stages his major retrospective exhibition, Nocturnes, Marines and Chevalet pieces at Goupil & Cies London gallery, fatata te Miti Spirit of the Dead Watching When Will You Marry. 14 May – Marjorie Watson-Williams, English painter,30 May – Fernando Amorsolo, Filipino painter. 31 May – Michel Kikoine, painter,15 July – Walter Benjamin, German philosopher, comparatists and art critic. July 19 – Suzanne Malherbe, French illustrator and designer, July 24 – Marcel Gromaire, French painter. 7 August – Einar Forseth, Swedish artist,16 August – Otto Messmer, American animator. 11 October – Anton Räderscheidt, German painter,16 October – Adolf Ziegler, German painter and politician. 23 November – Romain de Tirtoff, Russian-born French artist and designer,7 December – Stuart Davis, painter
14.
1893 in art
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May 1 – The 1893 Worlds Fair, also known as the Worlds Columbian Exposition, opens to the public in Chicago, USA, with a Romanesque statue of Columbia overlooking the man-made lake. The first United States commemorative postage stamps are issued for the Exposition, among other art exhibits are two bronze calves by Anne Marie Carl-Nielsen. June 14 – Opening of Shelley Memorial at University College, Oxford, june 29 – Unveiling of the Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain at Piccadilly Circus in London, with a gilded aluminium statue of Anteros, designed by Alfred Gilbert. Ford Madox Brown completes painting the The Manchester Murals in Manchester Town Hall, the National Sculpture Society is founded in the United States. Alois Riegls Stilfragen, Grundlegungen zu einer Geschichte der Ornamentik is published in Berlin, henri Rousseau gives up his job as a Paris toll collector and moves to a studio in Montparnasse where he lives and paints full-time. December – Unter den Linden in Berlin holds an exhibition of Edvard Munchs work, including six paintings entitled Study for a Series, Love, W. January 30 – Prince Grigory Gagarin, soldier and painter February 21 – John Pettie, painter March 16 – William H
15.
1894 in art
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February – Oscar Wildes play Salome is first published in English, with illustrations by Aubrey Beardsley. April – The Yellow Book begins publication by John Lane and Elkin Mathews – The Bodley Head in London, june 5 – Opening of Racławice Panorama in Lwów. August 23 – Jack Butler Yeats marries fellow artist Mary Cottenham White, the Della Robbia Pottery is established as part of the Arts and Crafts movement by Harold Rathbone and Conrad Dressler in Birkenhead, England. Lucien Pissarro sets up the Eragny Press in England, bernard Berenson publishes The Venetian Painters of the Renaissance, with an Index to their Works
16.
1895 in art
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January 1 – Alphonse Muchas lithographed poster for the play Gismonda starring Sarah Bernhardt is posted in Paris. Bernhardt is so satisfied with its success that she gives Mucha a six-year contract, april 13 – The Russian Museum is established in Saint Petersburg by Nicholas II. April 30 – First Venice Biennale opens, july 3 – Paul Gauguin leaves France to settle permanently in Polynesia. October – Edvard Munch exhibits a series of his Love paintings in Christiania. November – Paul Cézanne has his first solo exhibition, at the Paris gallery of Ambroise Vollard, bernard Berenson publishes Lorenzo Lotto, An Essay in Constructive Art Criticism. P. H. Emerson publishes his last photographic book, Marsh Leaves, M. H. de Young Memorial Museum opened in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco. W. Godward Mischief And Repose The Muse Erato At Her Lyre Winslow Homer – Cannon Rock George W. L
17.
1896 in art
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January 24 – Painter Sir Frederic Leighton is created 1st Baron Leighton in the peerage of the United Kingdom one day before his death in London of angina pectoris. February – Edvard Munch moves to Paris and concentrates on printmaking, december – Walter Crane publishes Of The Decorative Illustration of Books, Old and New. A bout of typhoid fever puts an end to Maurice de Vlamincks career as a cyclist, william Merritt Chase founds Parsons The New School for Design as the Chase School of Art in Greenwich Village, New York. At Giverny Claude Monet begins painting his Mornings on the Seine series, interior design gallery Maison de lArt Nouveau opens in Paris. Max Beerbohm publishes Caricatures of Twenty-five Gentlemen in London, his first collection of drawings, bernard Berenson publishes Florentine Painters of the Renaissance. The Royal Society of Miniature Painters, Sculptors and Gravers is founded, hubert von Herkomer is made a knight in the United Kingdom
18.
1897 in art
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April 3 – Vienna Secession founded by artists including Gustav Klimt, Koloman Moser, Josef Hoffmann, Joseph Maria Olbrich, Max Kurzweil. May 1 – Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek art museum opened in Copenhagen, may 27 – A Separate Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture is staged at Sukiennice Museum in Main Square, Kraków. August 4 – The Lady of Elche Iberian sculpture is found at LAlcúdia near Elche in Spain, september – Edvard Munch stages a major retrospective in Christiania. October 27 – First meeting of the Society of Polish Artists Sztuka in Kraków, at Giverny, Claude Monet begins painting his Water Lilies series, which will continue until the end of his life. Elbridge Ayer Burbank begins painting portraits of Native Americans in the United States from life, women photographers Zaida Ben-Yusuf and Gertrude Käsebier open portrait studios in New York City. A Book of Fifty Drawings by Aubrey Beardsley is published, bernard Berenson publishes Central Italian Painters of the Renaissance. Ogata Gekkō – Ryu sho ten J. W. and Mrs. I
19.
1889 in architecture
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The year 1889 in architecture involved some significant events. March 31 - Eiffel Tower in Paris, designed by Gustave Eiffel, is inaugurated, at 300 m, its height exceeds the previous tallest structure in the world by 130 m. May 6–October 31 - Exposition Universelle in Paris, with the Eiffel Tower as its entrance arch, the Galerie des machines, designed by architect Ferdinand Dutert and engineer Victor Contamin, at 111 m, spans the longest interior space in the world at this time. July 12 - Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament, designed by Bryan J. Klinch, is completed, october 15 - Amsterdam Centraal railway station in the Netherlands, designed by Pierre Cuypers with roof engineered by L. J. Eijmer, is opened. December 9 - Auditorium Building in Chicago, designed by Louis Sullivan, custom House designed by Charles McLay in Brisbane, Australia is completed. Georgia State Capitol in Atlanta, designed by Edbrooke and Burnham, is completed, first Presbyterian Church, designed by George D. Mason and Zachariah Rice, is built. Mole Antonelliana in Turin, Italy, designed by Alessandro Antonelli, is completed, palau Güell in Barcelona, designed by Antoni Gaudí, is completed. Science Hall in University of Minnesota Old Campus Historic District, Minneapolis, designed by Leroy Buffington, germania Bank Building in Saint Paul, Minnesota, designed by J. Walter Stevens assisted by Harvey Ellis, is built. Royal Gold Medal - Charles Thomas Newton, may 10 - Mihran Mesrobian, Armenian-born American May 21 - R
20.
1889 in literature
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This article presents lists of literary events and publications in 1889. February 12 – Henrik Ibsens symbolic drama The Lady from the Sea receives its first performances simultaneously in Oslo, april 24 – The Garrick Theatre in London, financed by playwright W. S. Gilbert, opens with a performance of Pineros The Profligate. May 30 – English publisher Henry Vizetelly is prosecuted for obscenity for the time in London. June – Algernon Methuen begins publishing books in England, the origin of Methuen Publishing, september 3 – Jerome K. Jeromes comic fictional English travelogue set on the River Thames, Three Men in a Boat, is published in Bristol. November – Leo Tolstoys novella The Kreutzer Sonata is circulated in clandestine copies, september 14 – The Volkstheater, Vienna opens with a performance of Der Fleck auf der Ehr by its Dramaturg, Ludwig Anzengruber, who dies on December 10 from blood poisoning. December 12 – English poet Robert Browning dies at Ca Rezzonico in Venice on the day his book Asolando, Fancies and facts is published. Anton Manwel Caruanas Ineż Farruġ is the first novel originated in the Maltese language, marcel Proust begins a years service in the French army, stationed at Coligny Barracks in Orléans. Theodore Roosevelt publishes the first of four volumes of The Winning of the West in the United States, with three more by 1896. Rider Haggard – Cleopatra Jerome K. Jerome – Three Men in a Boat John Law – In Darkest London George A. Edgar Wallace – The Dark Eyes of London Oscar Wilde – The Portrait of Mr. W. H. C
21.
1889 in music
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Events in the year 1889 in music. January 4 - Anton Seidl conducts Das Rheingold at the Metropolitan Opera, november 20 - Gustav Mahler premieres his Symphony No. E. W. Rogers m. A. E. Duran Deau Down Went McGinty w. m, joseph Flynn Four Little Curly Headed Coons by James W. Wheeler Little Annie Rooney w. m. Michael Nolan Oh, Promise Me w. Clement Scott m, harry Dacre Slide Kelly Slide w. m. John W. Kelly Take A Pair Of Sparkling Eyes w. W. S. Gilbert m. Arthur Sullivan The Thunderer m, john Philip Sousa The Washington Post m. John Philip Sousa Edward Elgar - Queen Marys Song Enrique Granados - Danzas españolas Augusta Holmès - Ode triomphale Hubert Parry Ode on Saint Cecilias Day Symphony No,3, in C major, The English Symphony No
22.
Les XX
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Les XX was a group of twenty Belgian painters, designers and sculptors, formed in 1883 by the Brussels lawyer, publisher, and entrepreneur Octave Maus. For ten years Les Vingt, as they called themselves, held an exhibition of their art. Artists invited over the years included Camille Pissarro, Claude Monet, Georges Seurat, Paul Gauguin, Paul Cézanne, Les XX was in some ways a successor to the group LEssor. The rejection of Ensors The Oyster Eater in 1883 by LEssor Salon, in 1893, the society of Les XX was transformed into La Libre Esthétique. Les XX was founded on 28 October 1883 in Brussels and held shows there between 1884 and 1893, usually in January–March. Unlike LEssor, which had also set up in opposition to the Salon. Instead Octave Maus acted as the secretary of Les XX, while other duties, a further nine artists were invited to join to bring the group membership of Les XX to twenty. In addition to the exhibits of its Belgian members, foreign artists were invited to exhibit. There was a tie between art, music and literature among the Les XX artists. Concerts included recently composed music by Claude Debussy, Ernest Chausson, leading exponents of the Symbolist movement who gave lectures include Stéphane Mallarmé, Théodore de Wyzewa and Paul Verlaine. Together with Maus, the influential jurist Edmond Picard and the Belgian poet Emile Verhaeren provided the force behind an associated periodical, LArt Moderne. This publication aggressively defended Les XX from attacks by critics and members of the visiting public, Picard polemically fomented tensions both with the artistic establishment and within Les XX. By 1887, six of the more original members had left, sometimes under pressure from Picard and Maus. Altogether, Les XX had 32 members during the ten years of its existence, the later exhibitions were all held at the Museum of Modern Art of Brussels. The first of ten annual exhibitions was held on 2 February at the Palais des Beaux-Arts in Brussels, apart from the members of Les XX, there were exhibitions by Adriaan Jozef Heymans, Jan Stobbaerts, Auguste Rodin, James Abbott McNeill Whistler and Max Liebermann. Exhibition of Xavier Mellery and Jan Toorop, exhibits of Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Odilon Redon and Claude Monet, including Le pont dArgenteuil and La Manneporte à Étretat. First performance of César Francks Violon Sonata, Walter Sickert, Camille Pissarro, Berthe Morisot and Georges-Pierre Seurat exhibit, with Seurat and Signac present at the opening. The major work shown is Seurats A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, in July, Les XX had an exhibition in Amsterdam, The Netherlands
23.
Brussels
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Brussels, officially the Brussels-Capital Region, is a region of Belgium comprising 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels which is the capital of Belgium. The Brussels-Capital Region is a part of both the French Community of Belgium and the Flemish Community, but is separate from the region of Flanders or Wallonia. The region has a population of 1.2 million and an area with a population of over 1.8 million. Brussels is the de facto capital of the European Union as it hosts a number of principal EU institutions, the secretariat of the Benelux and the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization are also located in Brussels. Today, it is considered an Alpha global city, historically a Dutch-speaking city, Brussels has seen a language shift to French from the late 19th century onwards. Today, the majority language is French, and the Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. All road signs, street names, and many advertisements and services are shown in both languages, Brussels is increasingly becoming multilingual with increasing numbers of migrants, expatriates and minority groups speaking their own languages. The most common theory of the origin of Brussels name is that it derives from the Old Dutch Broekzele or Broeksel, meaning marsh, Saint Vindicianus, the bishop of Cambrai made the first recorded reference to the place Brosella in 695 when it was still a hamlet. The origin of the settlement that was to become Brussels lies in Saint Gaugericus construction of a chapel on an island in the river Senne around 580. The official founding of Brussels is usually situated around 979, when Duke Charles of Lower Lotharingia transferred the relics of Saint Gudula from Moorsel to the Saint Gaugericus chapel, Charles would construct the first permanent fortification in the city, doing so on that same island. Lambert I of Leuven, Count of Leuven gained the County of Brussels around 1000 by marrying Charles daughter, as it grew to a population of around 30,000, the surrounding marshes were drained to allow for further expansion. The Counts of Leuven became Dukes of Brabant at about this time, in the 13th century, the city got its first walls. After the construction of the city walls in the early 13th century, to let the city expand, a second set of walls was erected between 1356 and 1383. Today, traces of it can still be seen, mostly because the small ring, Brabant had lost its independence, but Brussels became the Princely Capital of the prosperous Low Countries, and flourished. In 1516 Charles V, who had been heir of the Low Countries since 1506, was declared King of Spain in St. Michael and St. Gudula Cathedral in Brussels. Upon the death of his grandfather, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in 1519 and it was in the Palace complex at Coudenberg that Charles V abdicated in 1555. This impressive palace, famous all over Europe, had expanded since it had first become the seat of the Dukes of Brabant. In 1695, during the Nine Years War, King Louis XIV of France sent troops to bombard Brussels with artillery, together with the resulting fire, it was the most destructive event in the entire history of Brussels
24.
Paul Gauguin's exhibit at Les XX, 1889
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Paul Gauguins exhibit at Les XX in 1889 was the first important display of Paul Gauguins works, and added to the recognition that he had begun to receive in 1888. The annual exhibition was organized by Les XX, and participation was by invitation only, Gauguins exhibit comprised paintings from Martinique, Britanny and Arles. Many of these can be identified easily, but for several items the discussion is not yet closed, after Gauguins return from Martinique at the end of November 1887, he found support in Theo van Gogh, who showed Gauguins recent work from the Caribics from December 1887. Since then, Gauguin evidently considered Theo van Gogh to be his dealer and promoter, around this time, Gauguin also received the invitation to exhibit with Les XX in Brussels, in February 1889. Theo van Gogh had forwarded Octave Mauss invitation to Gauguin when Gauguin was already in Arles, Gauguin wrote to his friend Emile Schuffenecker with the good news of his invitation from Les XX. Shortly afterwards he received another invitation from Edouard Dujardin of La Revue Indépendante to exhibit in their rooms. Gauguin quickly rejected this due to a review that had appeared in the Revue almost a year earlier, it had been written by Félix Fénéon. Six of these were included in Gauguins selection for Les XX,1889. November 13, Theo wrote to Gauguin that already two paintings were sold, and a third, la ronde de petites Bretonnes, would need a minor rework to be sold, too. About ten days later, this rework was done, and the ready to be shipped back to Paris. Evidently, he left some minor studies back in the Yellow House – which he now offered Vincent van Gogh in exchange for the major version of the Sunflowers –. By this time, his brother had already acquired Gauguins portrait of Vincent, the dispute on identification of the items included is still not finished. Delevoy, Robert L. Les XX, Bruxelles, catalogue Raisonné of the Paintings, Skira editore, Milan & Wildenstein Institute, Paris 2002 ISBN 88-8491-137-0 Vincent van Goghs display at Les XX,1890
25.
Exposition Universelle (1889)
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The Exposition Universelle of 1889 was a worlds fair held in Paris, France, from 6 May to 31 October 1889. It was held during the year of the 100th anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, an event considered symbolic of the beginning of the French Revolution. The 1889 Exposition covered an area of 0.96 km2, including the Champ de Mars, the Trocadéro, the quai dOrsay, a part of the Seine. Transport around the Exposition was partly provided by a 3 kilometre 600 millimetre gauge railway by Decauville and it was claimed that the railway carried 6,342,446 visitors in just six months of operation. Some of the used on this line later saw service on the Chemins de Fer du Calvados. The main symbol of the Fair was the Eiffel Tower, which served as the arch to the Fair. The 1889 fair was held on the Champ de Mars in Paris, which had been the site of the earlier Paris Universal Exhibition of 1867, since the lifts had not been completed when the Exposition opened, the first visitors had to walk up to the second floor platform. Workers had worked through the night the day before the exhibition opened to complete the construction needed to safely allow patrons to set foot upon the structure. No one other than construction personnel were allowed higher than the second floor platform, an equally significant building constructed for the fair was the Galerie des machines, designed by architect Ferdinand Dutert and engineer Victor Contamin. It was reused at the exposition of 1900 and then destroyed in 1910, at 111 meters, the Galerie spanned the longest interior space in the world at the time, using a system of hinged arches made of steel or iron. Although often described as being constructed of steel, it was made of iron. There is a description, with illustrations, of the Expositions two famous buildings in the British journal Engineering. A follow-up report appears a late issue with this summation, the exhibition will be famous for four distinctive features, the 28 June issue of Engineering also mentions a remarkable Great Model of the Earth created by Theodore Villard and Charles Cotard. There were unseasonal thunderstorms in Paris during that summer of 1889, causing distress to the canopies and decoration of the exposition. The Exhibition included a building by the Paris architect Pierre-Henri Picq and this was an elaborate iron and glass structure decorated with ceramic tiles in a Byzantine-Egyptian-Romanesque style. After the Exposition the building was shipped to Fort de France and reassembled there, known as the Schoelcher Library, initially it contained the 10,000 books that Victor Schoelcher had donated to the island. Today it houses over 250,000 books and an ethnographic museum, a Negro village where 400 people were displayed constituted the major attraction. At the Exposition, the French composer Claude Debussy first heard Javanese gamelan music and this influenced some of his later compositions
26.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
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Eiffel Tower
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The Eiffel Tower is a wrought iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed, the Eiffel Tower is the most-visited paid monument in the world,6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. The tower is 324 metres tall, about the height as an 81-storey building. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres on each side, due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres. Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second-tallest structure in France after the Millau Viaduct, the tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top levels upper platform is 276 m above the ground – the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union, tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually only accessible by lift. Eiffel openly acknowledged that inspiration for a tower came from the Latting Observatory built in New York City in 1853, sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments. Little progress was made until 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as president of France and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as minister for trade. On 12 May, a commission was set up to examine Eiffels scheme and its rivals, which, after some debate about the exact location of the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. Eiffel was to all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition. He later established a company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself. The proposed tower had been a subject of controversy, drawing criticism from those who did not believe it was feasible and these objections were an expression of a long-standing debate in France about the relationship between architecture and engineering. And for twenty years … we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the column of bolted sheet metal. Gustave Eiffel responded to criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian pyramids. Will it not also be grandiose in its way, and why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris. Indeed, Garnier was a member of the Tower Commission that had examined the various proposals, some of the protesters changed their minds when the tower was built, others remained unconvinced. Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible
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Arles
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Arles is a city and commune in the south of France, in the Bouches-du-Rhône department, of which it is a subprefecture, in the former province of Provence. A large part of the Camargue is located on the territory of the commune, the city has a long history, and was of considerable importance in the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis. The Roman and Romanesque Monuments of Arles were listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1981, the Dutch post-Impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh lived in Arles from 1888 to 1889 and produced over 300 paintings and drawings during his time there. An international photography festival has held in the city since 1970. The river Rhône forks into two branches just upstream of Arles, forming the Camargue delta and its area is 758.93 km2, which is more than seven times the area of Paris. Arles has a Mediterranean climate with an annual temperature of 14.6 °C. The summers are warm and moderately dry, with averages between 22 °C and 24 °C, and mild winters with a mean temperature of about 7 °C. The city is constantly, but especially in the months, subject to the influence of the mistral. Rainfall is fairly evenly distributed from September to May, with the summer drought being less marked than in other Mediterranean areas, the Ligurians were in this area from about 800 BC. Later, Celtic influences have been discovered, the city became an important Phoenician trading port, before being taken by the Romans. The Romans took the town in 123 BC and expanded it into an important city, however, it struggled to escape the shadow of Massalia further along the coast. Its chance came when it sided with Julius Caesar against Pompey, Massalia backed Pompey, when Caesar emerged victorious, Massalia was stripped of its possessions, which were transferred to Arelate as a reward. The town was established as a colony for veterans of the Roman legion Legio VI Ferrata. Its full title as a colony was Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelatensium Sextanorum, Arelate was a city of considerable importance in the province of Gallia Narbonensis. It covered an area of some 99 acres and possessed a number of monuments, including an amphitheatre, triumphal arch, Roman circus, theatre, ancient Arles was closer to the sea than it is now and served as a major port. It also had the southernmost bridge on the Rhône, very unusually, the Roman bridge was not fixed but consisted of a pontoon-style bridge of boats, with towers and drawbridges at each end. The boats were secured in place by anchors and were tethered to twin towers built just upstream of the bridge and this unusual design was a way of coping with the rivers frequent violent floods, which would have made short work of a conventional bridge. Nothing remains of the Roman bridge, which has replaced by a more modern bridge near the same spot
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The Volpini Exhibition, 1889
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Neither Gauguin nor his friends could hope to enter this exhibition. However, by chance Emile Schuffenecker found another way that they present their work to the public in conjunction with the exposition. Schuffenecker proposed that the gap could be filled with a display of paintings created by himself, Gauguin, through Schuffenecker, ensured that the Neo-Impressionists Georges Seurat, Paul Signac, Henri-Edmond Cross and Pissarro were excluded from the exhibition. Bernard split his contribution, two of his paintings were shown under the pseudonym Ludovic Nemo and described as peintures pètroles, the final participation was as follows, The catalogue for the exhibition had a somewhat idiosyncratic layout. The title page was followed by a list of contributing artists accompanied by a Gauguin drawing titled Aux Rochers noires, the drawing was a conflation of two of his exhibited paintings, Breton Eve and In the Waves. The next double-page lists Gauguins contribution and reproduces Gauguins Les Faneuses, Émile Bernard continues, illustrated by Reverie. Now, Louis Anquetin precedes Louis Roy and an illustration of his Gardeur de cochons, léon Fauché and a reproduction of his Paysan occupies the next two pages, Charles Laval and George Daniel continue, Femme lisant of the latter is illustrated. The two final pages of the catalogue list two works by Ludovic Némo accompanied by a reproduction, and note that an album of lithographs by Bernard. Notes and references Sources Reff, Theodore, ed. Catalogue de LExposition de Peintures du Groupe Impressioniste et Synthétiste faite dans le local de M. Volpini au Champ-de-Mars 1889, watelet, reprinted by Watelet-Arbelot,1971, and republished in Modern Art in Paris, vol. 28, New York & London Frèches-Thory, Claire, Paul Gauguin, letters to his wife and friends. New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-09109-5 Rewald, post-Impressionism, From Van Gogh to Gauguin, revised edition. London, Secker & Warburg, pp. 255–265 Siberchicot, Clément, Paul Gauguin, Émile Bernard, Charles Laval, une avant-garde au coeur de lExposition universelle, Paris, Classiques Garnier Thomson, Belinda
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Paul Gauguin
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Eugène Henri Paul Gauguin was a French post-Impressionist artist. Underappreciated until after his death, Gauguin is now recognized for his use of color. His work was influential to the French avant-garde and many artists, such as Pablo Picasso. Many of his paintings were in the possession of Russian collector Sergei Shchukin and he was an important figure in the Symbolist movement as a painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramist, and writer. He was also a proponent of wood engraving and woodcuts as art forms. Gauguin was born in Paris, France to Clovis Gauguin and Alina Maria Chazal on June 7,1848 and his birth coincided with revolutionary upheavals throughout Europe that year. His father, a 34-year-old liberal journalist, came from a family of petit-bourgeoisie entrepreneurs residing in Orléans and he was compelled to flee France when the newspaper for which he wrote was suppressed by French authorities. Gauguins mother, the 22-year-old Aline Marie Chazal, was the daughter of Andre Chazal, an engraver, and Flora Tristan and their union ended when Andre assaulted his wife Flora and was sentenced to prison for attempted murder. Paul Gauguins maternal grandmother, Flora Tristan, was the daughter of Thérèse Laisnay. Details of Thérèses family background are not known, her father, Don Mariano, was a Spanish nobleman, members of the wealthy Tristan Moscoso family held powerful positions in Peru. Nonetheless, Don Marianos unexpected death plunged his mistress and daughter Flora into poverty, when Floras marriage with Andre failed, she petitioned for and obtained a small monetary settlement from her fathers Peruvian relatives. She sailed to Peru in hopes of enlarging her share of the Tristan Moscoso family fortune and this never materialized, but she successfully published a popular travelogue of her experiences in Peru which launched her literary career in 1838. An active supporter of early socialist societies, Gauguins maternal grandmother helped to lay the foundations for the 1848 revolutionary movements, placed under surveillance by French police and suffering from overwork, she died in 1844. Her grandson Paul idolized his grandmother, and kept copies of her books with him to the end of his life. In 1850, Clovis Gauguin departed for Peru with his wife Alina and he died of a heart attack en route, and Alina arrived in Peru a widow with the 18-month-old Paul and his 2 ½ year-old sister, Marie. Gauguins mother was welcomed by her granduncle, whose son-in-law would shortly assume the presidency of Peru. To the age of six, Paul enjoyed an upbringing, attended by nursemaids. He retained a vivid memory of period of his childhood which instilled indelible impressions of Peru that haunted him the rest of his life
31.
Charles Laval
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Charles Laval was a French painter associated with the Synthetic movement and Pont-Aven School. Laval was born in Paris, and was a contemporary and friend of Paul Gauguin, Gauguin created a portrait of him in 1886 looking at one of Gauguins Ceramic sculptures, entitled Still Life with Profile of Laval. Paul Gauguin and Laval both came to Pension Gloanec in Pont-Aven in 1886 and became friends, in search of an exoticism that could provide the key to art, Gauguin and Laval went to Panama in 1887. To gain some subsidies, Laval performs academic portraits, using his experience received from Leon Bonnat, a series of mishaps caused Laval and Gauguin to leave the Central America for the island of Martinique. There he made a series of landscapes speckled with bright colors. Laval died of illness complicated by tuberculosis in 1894 at the age of 32, laval’s self-portrait came about because of an agreement between Van Gogh and several of his friends. Van Gogh asked Laval, Paul Gauguin and Émile Bernard to send him a portrait, Van Gogh was impressed by Lavals contribution. He included a drawing of the Laval portrait in a letter to Theo. He described Lavals painting as powerful, distinguished and precisely one of the paintings that you talk about, that one has in ones possession before others have recognized the talent. John Rewald, Post-Impressionism, from Van Gogh to Gauguin, Paris,1961 Wladyslawa Jaworska, Gauguin and the School of Pont-Aven, Neuchatel,1971 Sophie Monneret, Impressionism and his era, vol
32.
Scottish National Portrait Gallery
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The Scottish National Portrait Gallery is an art museum on Queen Street, Edinburgh. The gallery holds the collections of portraits, all of which are of. It also holds the Scottish National Photography Collection, the gallery reopened on 1 December 2011 after being closed since April 2009 for the first comprehensive refurbishment in its history, which was carried out by Page\Park Architects. The founder of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, David Erskine, 11th Earl of Buchan, formed a collection of Scottish portraits in the late 18th century, eventually John Ritchie Findlay stepped in and paid for the entire building, costing £50,000. The museum was established in 1882, before its new building was completed, the famous collection of portraits housed in the Vasari Corridor in Florence remains only accessible to the public on a limited basis. The work generally restores the gallery spaces to their layout, with areas set aside for education, the shop & café. In total the Portrait Gallery has 60% more gallery space after the changes, the cost of the refurbishment was £17.6 million. The museums collection totals some 3,000 paintings and sculptures,25,000 prints and drawings, in the 16th century most painted portraits are of royalty or the more important nobility, the oldest work in the collection is a portrait of James IV of Scotland from 1507. The gallery holds several works by Bronckhorst and his successor, Adrian Vanson, the first significant native Scot to be a portrait painter, George Jamesone only once got the chance to paint his monarch, when Charles I visited Edinburgh in 1633. The collection includes two Jamesone self-portraits and portraits of the Scottish aristocracy, as well as some imagined portraits of heroes of Scotlands past. There are three portraits by Jamesones talented pupil John Michael Wright and ten aristocratic portraits by Sir John Baptist Medina, also wearing tartan is Flora MacDonald, painted by Richard Wilson in London after her arrest for helping Bonnie Prince Charlie to escape after the 1745 Jacobite Rebellion. The museum owns the iconic portrait of Robert Burns by Alexander Nasmyth and his subjects include Adam Smith, James Beattie and Robert Adam. The later 19th century in Scotland had no such dominant figures, but many fine artists, and saw the beginning of photography
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Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
34.
Robert Rowand Anderson
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Sir Robert Rowand Anderson, FRSE RSA was a Scottish Victorian architect. Anderson trained in the office of George Gilbert Scott in London before setting up his own practice in Edinburgh in 1860, during the 1860s his main work was small churches in the First Pointed style that is characteristic of Scotts former assistants. By 1880 his practice was designing some of the most prestigious public, Anderson was born at Liberton, outside Edinburgh, the third child of James Anderson, a solicitor, and Margaret Rowand. Educated at George Watsons College, he began an apprenticeship in 1845. He began to study architecture in 1849, attending classes at the Trustees Drawing Academy, in 1857 he took a two-year post as an assistant to George Gilbert Scott, in his office at Trafalgar Square, London. Here he worked alongside many influential architects and he then spent time travelling and studying in France and Italy, also working briefly for Pierre Cuypers in Roermond, Netherlands. In 1860 Anderson returned to Edinburgh, and began working as an architect with the Royal Engineers, undertaking works on coastal defences, all of these were carried out alongside his work for the Royal Engineers, and show the influence of Scotts church designs. Anderson set up his own independent practice in 1868 and his first significant commission came in 1871, for the restoration of St Vigeans Parish Church, Angus. He went on to win the competition to design the Catholic Apostolic Church in Edinburgh, Anderson joined the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, where he met future clients including the Marquis of Bute. In 1873 a short-lived partnership with David Bryce began, but was dissolved only a few months later, in 1874 he was invited to submit designs for a competition for the University of Edinburgh Medical Faculty and graduation hall. He undertook further tours to Europe, resulting in the winning Italian Renaissance style design which was finalised in 1877. The design secured Andersons election to the Royal Scottish Academy, although the Medical School was not completed until 1886, and his next major commission came soon after, in 1876, when he was appointed as architect for Glasgow Central Station. In 1878 Anderson designed a new Mount Stuart House in an Italian Gothic style for the 3rd Marquess of Bute, the Scottish National Portrait Gallery was designed in a similar style, and also executed in red sandstone. However, Browne left in 1885, and Hew Wardrop died in 1887 at Udny Castle, notable architects employed within the Anderson practice included Robert Weir Schultz, Robert Lorimer, Sydney Mitchell, and James Jerdan. During the 1880s, Andersons style became increasingly influenced by Scottish historical architecture, possibly as a result of his friendship with architectural historians MacGibbon, the Scottish influence is evident in the Normand Memorial Hall, Dysart, Ardgowan Estate Office, Greenock, and the Pearce Institute, Govan. From the 1890s, restoration became the focus of Andersons architecture and he had already undertaken work at Iona Abbey and Jedburgh Abbey in the 1870s, and now restored Dunblane Cathedral and Paisley Abbey. He became more involved in teaching, helping to set up a School of Applied Art in 1892, in 1903 this merged into the new Edinburgh College of Art, with Anderson as a trustee. In his later years Anderson became difficult to work with, and was perceived as arrogant, another partnership, formed in 1899, was dissolved following lawsuits in 1902
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Portrait
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A portrait is a painting, photograph, sculpture, or other artistic representation of a person, in which the face and its expression is predominant. The intent is to display the likeness, personality, and even the mood of the person, for this reason, in photography a portrait is generally not a snapshot, but a composed image of a person in a still position. A portrait often shows a person looking directly at the painter or photographer, nonetheless, many subjects, such as Akhenaten and some other Egyptian pharaohs, can be recognised by their distinctive features. The 28 surviving rather small statues of Gudea, ruler of Lagash in Sumeria between c.2144 -2124 BC, show a consistent appearance with some individuality. Some of the earliest surviving painted portraits of people who were not rulers are the Greco-Roman funeral portraits that survived in the dry climate of Egypts Fayum district. These are almost the only paintings from the world that have survived, apart from frescos, though many sculptures. Although the appearance of the figures differs considerably, they are considerably idealized, the art of the portrait flourished in Ancient Greek and especially Roman sculpture, where sitters demanded individualized and realistic portraits, even unflattering ones. During the 4th century, the portrait began to retreat in favor of a symbol of what that person looked like. In the Europe of the Early Middle Ages representations of individuals are mostly generalized, true portraits of the outward appearance of individuals re-emerged in the late Middle Ages, in tomb monuments, donor portraits, miniatures in illuminated manuscripts and then panel paintings. Moche culture of Peru was one of the few ancient civilizations which produced portraits and these works accurately represent anatomical features in great detail. The individuals portrayed would have been recognizable without the need for other symbols or a reference to their names. The individuals portrayed were members of the elite, priests, warriors. They were represented during several stages of their lives, the faces of gods were also depicted. To date, no portraits of women have been found, there is particular emphasis on the representation of the details of headdresses, hairstyles, body adornment and face painting. One of the portraits in the Western world is Leonardo da Vincis painting titled Mona Lisa. What has been claimed as the worlds oldest known portrait was found in 2006 in the Vilhonneur grotto near Angoulême and is thought to be 27,000 years old. Profile view, full view, and three-quarter view, are three common designations for portraits, each referring to a particular orientation of the head of the individual depicted. Such terms would tend to have greater applicability to two-dimensional artwork such as photography, in the case of three-dimensional artwork, the viewer can usually alter their orientation to the artwork by moving around it
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