1.
1881 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1881. February 13 – The first issue of the feminist newspaper La Citoyenne is published by Hubertine Auclert in France, april – William Poels production of Shakespeares Hamlet at St. Georges Hall, London, reverts to the first quarto text and avoids elaborate scene changes. April 23 – Gilbert and Sullivans Patience, a satire on Oscar Wilde and aestheticism, july 29 – Law on the Freedom of the Press passed in France. August 17 – The Pushkin Prize is established by the Russian Academy of Sciences, the first of the three-volume History of Woman Suffrage, is published by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton in the United States, aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoys historical drama Tsar Boris receives its première, posthumously, at Anna Brenkos Pushkin Theater in Moscow. The literary review and movement La Jeune Belgique is founded by poet Max Waller, the Pali Text Society is founded by British scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids for the study of Pali texts. Dominics Mrs. G. John H. Watson first meet at Bart’s Hospital, London, prior to the events commencing on March 4 narrated in Conan Doyles A Study in Scarlet
2.
1891 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1891. January – The Strand Magazine is first published in London, on June 25 Arthur Conan Doyles private consulting detective Sherlock Holmes appears in it for the first time, in the story A Scandal in Bohemia. January 31 – Henrik Ibsens play Hedda Gabler is first performed, at the Königliches Residenz-Theater in Munich, the first British performance is on April 20 at the recently reopened Vaudeville Theatre, London, with Elizabeth Robins as Hedda and co-directing. March 13 – Henrik Ibsens play Ghosts achieves a single London performance, to evade the Lord Chamberlains Offices censorship it has to be staged privately by the Independent Theatre Society, but still attracts strong criticism on moral grounds. May 21 – Maurice Maeterlincks play Intruder is premièred at Paul Forts Theatre dArt in Paris, late June – In a meeting of decadent poets in London, Oscar Wilde is first introduced to Lord Alfred Douglas by Lionel Johnson at Wildes Tite Street home. July 1 – International Copyright Act of 1891 comes into effect in the United States permitting foreign authors to register their works for copyright, on July 3, the first such work, the play Saints and Sinners by English author Henry Arthur Jones, is registered. August 22 – Israel Zangwills The Big Bow Mystery, the first classic full-length locked room mystery, october 9 – Émile Zolas stage adaptation of his novel Thérèse Raquin achieves a single London performance, its English stage première. To evade the Lord Chamberlains Offices censorship it has to be staged privately by the Independent Theatre Society, september 4 – Ambrose Bierce dates the preface of Tales of Soldiers and Civilians for this day, although it will not actually be issued until 1892. It includes An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge, one of his best known works, december – Thomas Hardy writes The Sons Veto, which he regards as his best short story. December 7 – Maurice Maeterlincks play The Blind is premièred, tristan Bernard has his first work published in La Revue Blanche and adopts his pseudonym. Sophia Alice Callahans Wynema, a Child of the Forest is published, publication of the first complete 1-volume popular German language translation of Shakespeares plays. Approximate date – Edmund Clerihew Bentley, G. K. Chesterton and fellow pupils of St Pauls School, London, grant Allen – The Great Taboo Hall Caine – The Scapegoat J. M. Gardener – Is This Your Son, My Lord. André Gide – Les Cahiers dAndré Walter George Gissing – New Grub Street Thomas Hardy A Group of Noble Dames Tess of the dUrbervilles J. -K
3.
1895 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1895. January–May – Publication of H. G. Wells first scientific romance, the first book editions are published by Henry Holt and Company in New York on May 7 and by Heinemann in London on May 29. January 3 – Première of Oscar Wildes comedy An Ideal Husband at the Haymarket Theatre in London, january 5 Première of Henry Jamess historical drama Guy Domville at St Jamess Theatre in London is booed. A. E. Waite ceases to publish and edit his own occult periodical The Unknown World, january 12 – The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty is registered in England and begins acquiring properties and making them accessible to the public. Carlyles House in Chelsea is one of the first to be opened, february 14 – Première of Oscar Wildes last play, the comedy The Importance of Being Earnest, at St. James Theatre, London. In a meeting on March 25 at the Café Royal in London, Frank Harris, april/May – Pan, a German arts and literary magazine, is first published, in Berlin. April 3–5 – Libel case of Wilde v Queensberry at the Old Bailey in London, april 6 – Oscar Wilde is arrested at the Cadogan Hotel, London, for unlawfully committing acts of gross indecency with certain male persons and detained on remand in Holloway Prison. April 29 – Joseph Conrads novel Almayers Folly is published in London by T. Fisher Unwin, Conrads first published work, may 23 – Representatives of the Astor Library and Lenox Library agree to merge and form the New York Public Library. On November 21 he is transferred to Reading Gaol, Henry Irving becomes the first actor invested with a knighthood. October The American Historical Review is published for the first time, stephen Cranes American Civil War novel The Red Badge of Courage is first published in book format by D. Appleton & Company in New York. It receives strong criticism on moral grounds, Hardy later claims that Walsham How, Bishop of Wakefield, december 19 – Robert Frost marries Elinor Miriam White at Lawrence, Massachusetts. George du Mauriers novel Trilby, serialized in 1894, is first published in book form. It is also adapted as a play, Trilby, first in the United States with Wilton Lackaye as Svengali and Virginia Harned in the title rôle, then in England with Herbert Beerbohm Tree and Dorothea Baird. The stage version is so successful that Tree is able to use the profits to build Her Majestys Theatre, william Poel establishes the Elizabethan Stage Society to promote productions of plays by Shakespeare and his contemporaries in the performance style of the English Renaissance theatre. Abdallah bin Hemedi bin Ali Ajjemys Habari za Wakilindi is the first Swahili novel, Publication in Boston of Castello Holfords utopian novel Aristopia, A Romance-History of the New World, the first full-length alternate history in English. Ernest Thayer recites Casey at the Bat at a Harvard class reunion, the first edition of the Times Atlas of the World is published at the office of The Times newspaper in London. Hall Caine travels in the United States and Canada, where he represents the British Society of Authors, grant Allen The British Barbarians The Woman Who Did John Kendrick Bangs – A House-Boat on the Styx Rhoda Broughton – Scylla or Charybdis
4.
1897 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1897. January–March – Oscar Wilde, imprisoned in Reading Gaol in England, writes his letter to his lover, Lord Alfred Douglas, january 2 – Newspapers in London, England erroneously report the death of Mark Twain. It is believed that the rumors began when Twains cousin had become ill, Twain makes his famous statement the report of my death was an exaggeration. April–December – H. G. Wells science fiction novel The War of the Worlds is serialised in Pearsons Magazine, april 13 – The Grand Guignol is opened in Paris by Oscar Méténier. May 19 – Oscar Wilde is released early this morning from Pentonville Prison in London and this afternoon he visits Hatchards bookshop briefly before catching an evening train to Newhaven en route to exile on the continent under the name Sebastian Melmoth. On May 18 he had staged a reading of a version at the Lyceum Theatre. July 2 – Yorkshire Dialect Society founded, the oldest such society in England, july 25 – Writer Jack London sails to join the Klondike Gold Rush where he will write his first successful stories. October – First issue Albina, the Romanian literary and agriculturalist magazine aimed at a peasant readership, put out in Bucharest by Ioan Kalinderu, George Coșbuc, november 1 – The Library of Congress Building in Washington, D. C. is opened. December 30 – The comedy The White Horse Inn, by Oscar Blumenthal and Gustav Kadelburg, opens in Berlin, decades later it will be turned into a popular, hall Caines novel The Christian is published, becoming the first in Britain to sell a million copies. Anna Katharine Greens That Affair Next Door introduces the first female fictional character in a novel, Amelia Butterworth. Benito Pérez Galdós is elected to the Real Academia Española, the publisher Doubleday is founded as the Doubleday & McClure Company by Frank Nelson Doubleday in partnership with magazine publisher Samuel McClure in New York City. The publisher Commercial Press is founded as the first modern publishing organisation in China by 26-year-old Xia Ruifang and three friends in Shanghai
5.
1898 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1898. January 13 – Émile Zolas open letter to Félix Faure, President of France, on the Dreyfus affair, on February 23, Zola is convicted of criminal libel in connection with Jaccuse. Following dismissal of his appeal he flees to London to escape imprisonment, in August he begins writing his novel Fécondité in the suburbs. February 5–June 18 – M. P. February 25 – Première of Frank Wedekinds Earth Spirit, first of his Lulu plays, in Leipzig, in a production by Carl Heine, March 25 – O. Henry is imprisoned in Ohio Penitentiary, Columbus, for embezzlement. May 28 – Max Beerbohm succeeds George Bernard Shaw as theatre critic of The Saturday Review, june – First appearance of E. W. Hornungs fictional gentleman thief A. J. Raffles in the story The Ides of March in Cassells Magazine. Peadar Ua Laoghaires story Séadna begins serialization in Ireland as the first Irish language novel, Gerald Duckworth establishes the publishers Gerald Duckworth and Company in London. Henry Jamess novella In the Cage is among their first years output, English designer C. R. Ashbee begins book production at the Essex House Press. Joseph Wrights English Dialect Dictionary begins publication, the Generation of 98 writers and thinkers are active in Spain. The term Young Poland is coined after a manifesto by Artur Górski, published in the Kraków newspaper Życie, to signify the period of modernism in the Polish arts. Burks, American writer September 15 – J. Slauerhoff, Dutch poet and novelist September 16 – H. A. S. Lewis, English novelist and childrens writer December 27 – W. C
6.
1899 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1899. January 21 – French actress Sarah Bernhardt, having taken over management of the Paris theatre which she renames the Théâtre Sarah-Bernhardt, opens in the title rôle of Victorien Sardous La Tosca. On May 20 she premières an adaptation of Shakespeares Hamlet with herself in the title rôle March 20 – W. H. Davies, tramp-poet, loses his foot trying to jump a freight train at Renfrew, april – Karl Kraus establishes the radical periodical Die Fackel in Vienna. April–June – Rainer Maria Rilke travels to Moscow to meet Leo Tolstoy, may–December – Winston Churchills only work of fiction, Savrola, A Tale of the Revolution in Laurania, is serialized in Macmillans Magazine. May 8 – The Irish Literary Theatre, founded by W. B, Yeats, Augusta, Lady Gregory, George Moore and Edward Martyn, stages its first performance in Dublin, a version of Yeats verse drama The Countess Cathleen. June 20 – English writer Edward Thomas marries Helen Noble at Fulham register office, september 1 – The National Theatre in Norway opens with performances of pieces by Holberg. September – The British Mutoscope and Biograph Companys King John becomes the first known film based on a Shakespeare play, november 6 – William Gillettes play Sherlock Holmes, based on the writings of Arthur Conan Doyle, opens in New York City with himself in the title rôle. November 7 – Anton Chekhovs Uncle Vanya receives its metropolitan première at the Moscow Art Theatre with Konstantin Stanislavski directing and playing the rôle of Astrov and Olga Knipper as Yeléna. December 12 – Herbert Putnam is appointed Librarian of Congress in the United States, december – The imprisoned William Sydney Porters pseudonym O. Henry first appears over the short story Whistling Dicks Christmas Stocking in this months McClures Magazine. Curtis Brown established in London by American Albert Curtis Brown, edgar Rice Burroughs begins working in his fathers business. Simon Pokagons O-gi-maw-kwe Mit-I-gwa-ki is published, the first novel both by and about Native Americans in the United States, Arthur Machens wife Amy dies after a long illness, an event that has a devastating effect on him. Lin Shus first translation into Chinese from a Western text, The Lady of the Camellias as 巴黎茶花女遺事, is published, Leo Tolstoys last novel, Resurrection, is published serially in Niva. First series of the Arden Shakespeare under the editorship of W. J. Craig begins publication by Methuen in London with an edition of Hamlet edited by Edward Dowden. A. Henty – The Golden Canon E. W. Hornung – The Amateur Cracksman Henry James – The Awkward Age Selma Lagerlöf – The Tale of a Manor Octave Mirbeau – The Torture Garden A. E. W. M. Edwards, Guernsey-born writer July 11 – E. B
7.
1887 in poetry
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Nationality words link to articles with information on the nations poetry or literature. George Frederick Cameron, Lyrics on Freedom, Love and Death, sarah Anne Curzon, Laura Secord, the Heroine of 1812, A Drama, and Other Poems. The Canadian Birthday Book, poetry anthology, william Douw Lighthall, Thoughts, Moods and Ideals, Crimes of Leisure
8.
1889 in poetry
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Nationality words link to articles with information on the nations poetry or literature. June 8 – English poet and Jesuit priest Gerard Manley Hopkins dies aged 54 in Dublin of typhoid, he is buried in Glasnevin Cemetery, william Wilfred Campbell, Lake lyrics and other poems Arthur Wentworth Hamilton Eaton, Acadian Legends and Lyrics, Canada Sophia Almon Hensley, Poems. James McIntyre, Poems of James McIntyre, anthologies Songs of the Great Dominion, Voices from the Forests and Waters, the Settlements and Cities of Canada. Tripathi, Lilavatijivankala, a tribute to his daughter, Indian, writing in Gujarati Verner von Heidenstam, Vallfart och vandringsår
9.
1889 in art
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February 2 – Sixth annual exhibition of Les XX opens in Brussels, including the first important display of Paul Gauguins work. May 6 – October 31 – Exposition Universelle in Paris, with the Eiffel Tower as its entrance arch, may 8 – Van Gogh moves from Arles to the Saint-Paul asylum in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. July 15 – The Scottish National Portrait Gallery opens in Edinburgh in premises designed by Rowand Anderson, july 23 – Marie Triepcke marries fellow-artist Peder Severin Krøyer in Augsburg. August 17 – The 9 by 5 Impression Exhibition opens in Melbourne, edvard Munch stages his first one-man exhibition and wins a state scholarship to study in Paris. The Skulpturensammlung moves into the Albertinum in Dresden, the Imperial Museum of Nara is established in Japan
10.
1889 in architecture
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The year 1889 in architecture involved some significant events. March 31 - Eiffel Tower in Paris, designed by Gustave Eiffel, is inaugurated, at 300 m, its height exceeds the previous tallest structure in the world by 130 m. May 6–October 31 - Exposition Universelle in Paris, with the Eiffel Tower as its entrance arch, the Galerie des machines, designed by architect Ferdinand Dutert and engineer Victor Contamin, at 111 m, spans the longest interior space in the world at this time. July 12 - Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament, designed by Bryan J. Klinch, is completed, october 15 - Amsterdam Centraal railway station in the Netherlands, designed by Pierre Cuypers with roof engineered by L. J. Eijmer, is opened. December 9 - Auditorium Building in Chicago, designed by Louis Sullivan, custom House designed by Charles McLay in Brisbane, Australia is completed. Georgia State Capitol in Atlanta, designed by Edbrooke and Burnham, is completed, first Presbyterian Church, designed by George D. Mason and Zachariah Rice, is built. Mole Antonelliana in Turin, Italy, designed by Alessandro Antonelli, is completed, palau Güell in Barcelona, designed by Antoni Gaudí, is completed. Science Hall in University of Minnesota Old Campus Historic District, Minneapolis, designed by Leroy Buffington, germania Bank Building in Saint Paul, Minnesota, designed by J. Walter Stevens assisted by Harvey Ellis, is built. Royal Gold Medal - Charles Thomas Newton, may 10 - Mihran Mesrobian, Armenian-born American May 21 - R
11.
1889 in music
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Events in the year 1889 in music. January 4 - Anton Seidl conducts Das Rheingold at the Metropolitan Opera, november 20 - Gustav Mahler premieres his Symphony No. E. W. Rogers m. A. E. Duran Deau Down Went McGinty w. m, joseph Flynn Four Little Curly Headed Coons by James W. Wheeler Little Annie Rooney w. m. Michael Nolan Oh, Promise Me w. Clement Scott m, harry Dacre Slide Kelly Slide w. m. John W. Kelly Take A Pair Of Sparkling Eyes w. W. S. Gilbert m. Arthur Sullivan The Thunderer m, john Philip Sousa The Washington Post m. John Philip Sousa Edward Elgar - Queen Marys Song Enrique Granados - Danzas españolas Augusta Holmès - Ode triomphale Hubert Parry Ode on Saint Cecilias Day Symphony No,3, in C major, The English Symphony No
12.
Henrik Ibsen
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Henrik Johan Ibsen was a major 19th-century Norwegian playwright, theatre director, and poet. He is often referred to as the father of realism and is one of the founders of Modernism in theatre and he is the most frequently performed dramatist in the world after Shakespeare, and A Dolls House became the worlds most performed play by the early 20th century. Several of his dramas were considered scandalous to many of his era. Ibsens later work examined the realities that lay behind many façades and it utilized a critical eye and free inquiry into the conditions of life and issues of morality. The poetic and cinematic early play Peer Gynt, however, has strong surreal elements, Ibsen is often ranked as one of the most distinguished playwrights in the European tradition. Richard Hornby describes him as a profound poetic dramatist—the best since Shakespeare and he is widely regarded as the most important playwright since Shakespeare. He influenced other playwrights and novelists such as George Bernard Shaw, Oscar Wilde, Arthur Miller, James Joyce, Eugene ONeill, Ibsen was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1902,1903, and 1904. Ibsen wrote his plays in Danish and they were published by the Danish publisher Gyldendal, born into a merchant family connected to the patriciate of Skien, Ibsen shaped his dramas according to his family background. He was the father of Prime Minister Sigurd Ibsen, Ibsens dramas continue in their influence upon contemporary culture and film with notable film productions including A Dolls House featuring Jane Fonda and A Master Builder featuring Wallace Shawn. Ibsen was born to Knud Ibsen and Marichen Altenburg, in a merchant family, in the small port town of Skien in Telemark county. Ibsens grandfather, ship captain Henrich Ibsen, had died at sea in 1797, Knud Ibsens paternal ancestors were ship captains of Danish origin, but he decided to become a merchant, having initial success. His marriage to Marichen Altenburg, a daughter of ship-owner Johan Andreas Altenburg, theodore Jorgenson points out that Henriks ancestry reached back into the important Telemark family of Paus both on the fathers and on the mothers side. Hedvig Paus must have well known to the young dramatist. Henrik Ibsen was fascinated by his parents strange, almost incestuous marriage, Henriks sister Hedvig would write about their mother, She was a quiet, lovable woman, the soul of the house, everything to her husband and children. She sacrificed herself time and time again, There was no bitterness or reproach in her. The Ibsen family eventually moved to a city house, Snipetorp, owned by Knud Ibsens half-brother, Ibsen would both model and name characters in his plays after his own family. At fifteen, Ibsen was forced to leave school and he moved to the small town of Grimstad to become an apprentice pharmacist and began writing plays. In 1846, when Ibsen was age 18, a liaison with a servant produced a child, whose upbringing Ibsen had to pay for until the boy was in his teens
13.
The Lady from the Sea
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The Lady from the Sea is a play written in 1888 by Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen inspired by the ballad Agnete og Havmanden. The drama is notable in the Ibsen corpus for introducing the portrayal of Hilde Wangel who is portrayed in Ibsens later play The Master Builder. The character portrayal of Hilde Wangel has been portrayed twice in film as a culturally relevant portrayal. She is the daughter of a lighthouse-keeper, and grew up where the fjord met the open sea and she is married to Doctor Wangel, a doctor in a small town in West Norway. He has two daughters by his previous wife, now deceased and he and Ellida have a son who dies as a baby, which puts a big strain on their marriage. Wangel, fearing for Ellida’s mental health, has invited up Arnholm, Bolette’s former tutor, however, Arnholm thinks that it is Bolette waiting for him and he proposes. She agrees to marry her former teacher because she sees this as her opportunity to get out into the world. Some years earlier Ellida was deeply in love and engaged to a sailor, nevertheless, he asked her to wait for him to come and fetch her. She tried to break the engagement, but he had too great a hold over her, the sailor then returns all these years later to claim her. Ellida then has to choose between her lover or her husband. Dr Wangel finally recognizes her freedom to choose since he understands that he has no other options and this goes in his favour as she then chooses him. The play ends with the leaving and Ellida and Wangel taking up their lives again together. Kvinnan från havet is a ballet by choreographer Birgit Cullberg, the ballet was premiered at the Royal Opera, Stockholm, with ballerina and actress Kari Sylwan in the title role. Opera with music by Alexander Muno and a libretto by Francis Hüsers, world premiere,29 April 2011, Opernzelt, Heidelberg The Lady from the Sea. Opera by Craig Armstrong and Zoë Strachan, the Lady from the Sea at Project Gutenberg The Lady from the Sea public domain audiobook at LibriVox Summary and Characters at Ibsen. net
14.
Oslo
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Oslo is the capital and the most populous city in Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality, founded in the year 1040, and established as a kaupstad or trading place in 1048 by Harald Hardrada, the city was elevated to a bishopric in 1070 and a capital under Haakon V of Norway around 1300. Personal unions with Denmark from 1397 to 1523 and again from 1536 to 1814, after being destroyed by a fire in 1624, the city was moved closer to Akershus Fortress during the reign of Christian IV of Denmark and renamed Christiania in his honour. It was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838, following a spelling reform, it was known as Kristiania from 1877 to 1925, at which time its original Norwegian name was restored. Oslo is the economic and governmental centre of Norway, the city is also a hub of Norwegian trade, banking, industry and shipping. It is an important centre for industries and maritime trade in Europe. The city is home to companies within the maritime sector, some of which are among the worlds largest shipping companies, shipbrokers. Oslo is a city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission intercultural cities programme. Oslo is considered a city and ranked Beta World City in studies carried out by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group. It was ranked one in terms of quality of life among European large cities in the European Cities of the Future 2012 report by fDi magazine. A survey conducted by ECA International in 2011 placed Oslo as the second most expensive city in the world for living expenses after Tokyo. In 2013 Oslo tied with the Australian city of Melbourne as the fourth most expensive city in the world, as of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, while the population of the citys urban area was 942,084. The metropolitan area had an population of 1.71 million. The population was during the early 2000 increasing at record rates and this growth stems for the most part from international immigration and related high birth rates, but also from intra-national migration. The immigrant population in the city is growing faster than the Norwegian population. As of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, the urban area extends beyond the boundaries of the municipality into the surrounding county of Akershus, the total population of this agglomeration is 942,084. To the north and east, wide forested hills rise above the city giving the location the shape of a giant amphitheatre. The urban municipality of Oslo and county of Oslo are two parts of the entity, making Oslo the only city in Norway where two administrative levels are integrated
15.
Norwegian language
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Norwegian is a North Germanic language spoken mainly in Norway, where it is the official language. Along with Swedish and Danish, Norwegian forms a continuum of more or less mutually intelligible local and regional variants. These Scandinavian languages, together with Faroese and Icelandic as well as extinct languages. Faroese and Icelandic are hardly mutually intelligible with Norwegian in their spoken form because continental Scandinavian has diverged from them, as established by law and governmental policy, the two official forms of written Norwegian are Bokmål and Nynorsk. The official Norwegian Language Council is responsible for regulating the two forms, and recommends the terms Norwegian Bokmål and Norwegian Nynorsk in English. Two other written forms without official status also exist, one and it is regulated by the unofficial Norwegian Academy, which translates the name as Standard Norwegian. Nynorsk and Bokmål provide standards for how to write Norwegian, no standard of spoken Norwegian is officially sanctioned, and most Norwegians speak their own dialects in all circumstances. Thus, unlike in other countries, the use of any Norwegian dialect. Outside Eastern Norway, this variation is not used. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Danish was the written language of Norway. As a result, the development of modern written Norwegian has been subject to strong controversy related to nationalism, rural versus urban discourse, historically, Bokmål is a Norwegianised variety of Danish, while Nynorsk is a language form based on Norwegian dialects and puristic opposition to Danish. The unofficial form known as Riksmål is considered more conservative than Bokmål, Norwegians are educated in both Bokmål and Nynorsk. A2005 poll indicates that 86. 3% use primarily Bokmål as their written language,5. 5% use both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and 7. 5% use primarily Nynorsk. Thus, 13% are frequently writing Nynorsk, though the majority speak dialects that resemble Nynorsk more closely than Bokmål. Broadly speaking, Nynorsk writing is widespread in western Norway, though not in major urban areas, examples are Setesdal, the western part of Telemark county and several municipalities in Hallingdal, Valdres, and Gudbrandsdalen. It is little used elsewhere, but 30–40 years ago, it also had strongholds in rural parts of Trøndelag. Today, not only is Nynorsk the official language of four of the 19 Norwegian counties, NRK, the Norwegian broadcasting corporation, broadcasts in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and all governmental agencies are required to support both written languages. Bokmål is used in 92% of all publications, and Nynorsk in 8%
16.
Weimar
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Weimar is a city in the federal state of Thuringia, Germany. It is located between Erfurt in the west and Jena in the east, approximately 80 kilometres southwest of Leipzig,170 kilometres north of Nuremberg and 170 kilometres west of Dresden. Together with the neighbour-cities Erfurt and Jena it forms the metropolitan area of Thuringia with approximately 500,000 inhabitants. Weimar is well known because of its cultural heritage and its importance in German history. The city was a point of the German Enlightenment and home of the leading characters of the literary genre of Weimar Classicism. Until 1948, Weimar was the capital of Thuringia, today, many places in the city centre have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage sites and tourism is one of the leading economic sectors of Weimar. Relevant institutions in Weimar are the Bauhaus University, the Liszt School of Music, in 1999, Weimar was the European Capital of Culture. Archaeological finds dating back to the Thuringii epoch show that the Weimar part of the Ilm valley was settled early, the oldest records regarding Weimar date to 899. Its name changed over the centuries from Wimares through Wimari to Wimar and finally Weimar, it is derived from Old High German wīh-, another theory derives the first element from OHG win. The place was the seat of the County of Weimar, first mentioned in 949, in 1062 it was united with the County of Orlamünde to the new County of Weimar-Orlamünde, which existed until the Thuringian Counts War in 1346 and fell to the Wettins afterwards. The Weimar settlement emerged around the wooden castle and two small churches dedicated to St Peter, and to St James. In 1240, the count founded the monastery in Oberweimar. Soon after, the counts of Weimar founded the town, which was an independent parish since 1249, from 1262 the citizens used their own seal. Nevertheless, the influence of the Weimar counts was declining as the influence of the Wettins in Thuringia increased. Hence, the new town was relatively marginal in a regional context. The settlement around St James Church developed into a suburb during the 13th century, after becoming part of the Wettins territory in 1346, urban development improved. The Wettins fostered Weimar by abolishing socage and granting privileges to the citizens, now Weimar became equal to other Wettinian cities like Weißensee and grew during the 15th century, with the establishment of a town hall and the current main church. Weimar acquired woad trade privileges in 1438, the castle and the walls were finished in the 16th century, making Weimar into a full city
17.
August Strindberg
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Johan August Strindberg was a Swedish playwright, novelist, poet, essayist and painter. From his earliest work, Strindberg developed innovative forms of action, language. He is considered the father of modern Swedish literature and his The Red Room has frequently described as the first modern Swedish novel. In Sweden, Strindberg is known as an essayist, painter, poet, and especially as a novelist and playwright, but in other countries he is known mostly as a playwright. The Royal Theatre rejected his first major play, Master Olof, in 1872, it was not until 1881, at the age of thirty-two, that its première at the New Theatre gave him his theatrical breakthrough. In Miss Julie, characterisation replaces plot as the predominant dramatic element and the role of heredity. During the 1890s he spent significant time abroad engaged in scientific experiments, a series of psychotic attacks between 1894 and 1896 led to his hospitalization and return to Sweden. Under the influence of the ideas of Emanuel Swedenborg, he resolved after his recovery to become the Zola of the Occult, in 1898 he returned to play-writing with To Damascus, which, like The Great Highway, is a dream-play of spiritual pilgrimage. He also returned to writing historical drama, the genre with which he had begun his play-writing career and he helped to run the Intimate Theatre from 1907, a small-scale theatre, modeled on Max Reinhardts Kammerspielhaus, that staged his chamber plays. Strindberg was born on 22 January 1849 in Stockholm, Sweden, in his autobiographical novel The Son of a Servant, Strindberg describes a childhood affected by emotional insecurity, poverty, religious fanaticism and neglect. When he was seven, Strindberg moved to Norrtullsgatan on the northern, a year later the family moved near to Sabbatsberg, where they stayed for three years before returning to Norrtullsgatan. He attended a school in Klara for four years, an experience that haunted him in his adult life. He was moved to the school in Jakob in 1860, which he found far more pleasant, in the autumn of 1861, he was moved to the Stockholm Lyceum, a progressive private school for middle-class boys, where he remained for six years. As a child he had a keen interest in science, photography. His mother, Strindberg recalled later with bitterness, always resented her sons intelligence and she died when he was thirteen, and although his grief lasted for only three months, in later life he came to feel a sense of loss and longing for an idealized maternal figure. Less than a year after her death, his father married the childrens governess, according to his sisters, Strindberg came to regard them as his worst enemies. He passed his exam in May 1867 and enrolled at the Uppsala University. Strindberg spent the few years in Uppsala and Stockholm, alternately studying for exams
18.
Naturalism (theatre)
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Naturalism is a movement in European drama and theatre that developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It refers to theatre that attempts to create an illusion of reality through a range of dramatic, zola’s term for naturalism is la nouvelle formule. The three primary principles of naturalism are first, that the play should be realistic, and the result of a study of human behavior. The characters should be flesh and blood, their motivations and actions should be grounded in their heredity, the presentation of a naturalistic play, in terms of the setting and performances, should be realistic and not flamboyant or theatrical. The single setting of Miss Julie, for example, is a kitchen, second, the conflicts in the play should be issues of meaningful, life-altering significance — not small or petty. And third, the play should be simple — not cluttered with complicated sub-plots or lengthy expositions, darwinian understandings pervade naturalistic plays, especially in the determining role of the environment on character, and as motivation for behavior. Naturalism was first advocated explicitly by Émile Zola in his 1880 essay entitled Naturalism on the Stage, Naturalistic writers were influenced by the theory of evolution of Charles Darwin. They believed that ones heredity and social environment determine ones character, whereas realism seeks only to describe subjects as they really are, naturalism also attempts to determine scientifically the underlying forces influencing the actions of its subjects. Naturalistic works are opposed to romanticism, in subjects may receive highly symbolic, idealistic. They often include uncouth or sordid subject matter, for example, Émile Zolas works had a frankness about sexuality along with a pervasive pessimism, Naturalistic works exposed the dark harshness of life, including poverty, racism, sex, prejudice, disease, prostitution, and filth. As a result, Naturalistic writers were frequently criticized for being too blunt
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Miss Julie
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Miss Julie is a naturalistic play written in 1888 by August Strindberg. It is set on Midsummers Eve on the estate of a Count in Sweden, the young woman of the title is drawn to a senior servant, a valet named Jean, who is particularly well-traveled, well-mannered and well-read. The action takes place in the kitchen of Miss Julies fathers manor, where Jeans fiancée, on this night the relationship between Miss Julie and Jean escalates rapidly to feelings of love and is subsequently consummated. Over the course of the play Miss Julie and Jean battle until Jean convinces her that the way to escape her predicament is to commit suicide. One theme of the play is Darwinism, a theory that was a significant influence on the author during his naturalistic period, the play is preceded by a remarkable author’s preface, which concerns itself with Strindberg’s ideas of naturalism and how they apply to his play, Miss Julie. With the preface Strindberg talks about ideas of the aristocracy and classism arguably even more so than the play itself, in the preface he describes both Jean and Julie as stereotypical representation of their class and society. Miss Julie is especially condemned by Strindberg as a character which does not mean that the man-hating half-woman has not existed in every age. Zola’s term for naturalism is la nouvelle formule, the three primary principles of naturalism are first, that the play should be realistic, and the result of a careful study of human behavior and psychology. The characters should be flesh and blood, their motivations and actions should be grounded in their heredity, the presentation of the play in terms of the setting and performances should be realistic and not flamboyant or theatrical. The single setting of Miss Julie, for example, is a kitchen, second, the conflicts in the play should be issues of meaningful, life-altering significance — not small or petty. And third, the play should be simple — not cluttered with complicated sub-plots or lengthy expositions, Strindberg was keenly aware that the French playwrights had been unable to achieve naturalism, and he felt that he could do it. The play was written as Strindberg was creating a new theatre of his own, The Scandinavian Naturalistic Theatre, Miss Julie would be the premier offering. Strindberg’s wife, Siri von Essen, would star in the title role, after Strindberg agreed to a small amount of censorship, the play was published a few weeks before the first production. With disastrous timing for the new theatre, the censors announced during the dress rehearsal, however, Strindberg managed to get around the censors by having Miss Julie premiered a few days later at the Copenhagen University Student Union. Miss Julie, Strong-willed daughter of the Count who owns the estate, raised by her late mother to think like and act like a man, she is a confused individual. She is aware of the power she holds but switches between being above the servants and flirting with Jean and she longs to fall from her pillar, an expression symbolically put across as a recurring dream she has. He tells a story of seeing Miss Julie many times as a child and loving her even then, there is good evidence both for and against its veracity. He left the town and traveled widely, working different jobs as he went
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University of Copenhagen
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The University of Copenhagen is the oldest university and research institution in Denmark. Founded in 1479 as a studium generale, it is the second oldest institution for education in Scandinavia after Uppsala University. The university has 23,473 undergraduate students,17,398 postgraduate students,2,968 doctoral students, the university has four campuses located in and around Copenhagen, with the headquarters located in central Copenhagen. Most courses are taught in Danish, however, many courses are offered in English. The university has several thousands of students, about half of whom come from Nordic countries. The university has had 8 alumni become Nobel laureates and has produced one Turing Award recipient, the rector, the prorector and the director of the university is appointed by the university board. The rector in turn appoints directors of the different parts of the central administration, the deans appoint heads of 50 departments. There is no faculty senate and faculty is not involved in the appointment of rector, deans, hence the university has no faculty governance, although there are elected Academic Boards at faculty level who advise the deans. The governing body manages a budget of about BDKK8.3. The University is organized into six faculties and about 100 departments, the University employs about 5,600 academic staff and 4,400 technical and administrative staff. The total number of enrolled students is about 40,000 annually, UCPH has established an international graduate talent program which provides grants for international Ph. D, students and a tenure track carrier system. UCPH operates about fifty master’s programmes taught in English, and has arranged about 150 exchange agreements with institutions and 800 Erasmus agreements. Each year there are about 1,700 incoming exchange students,2,000 outbound exchange students and 4,000 international degree-seeking students, about 3,000 Ph. D. students study there each year. South Campus – houses the Faculty of Humanities and a proportion of the Faculty of Science. In the winter of 2016–2017, the Faculty of Law and the Faculty of Theology will also move to South Campus, frederiksberg Campus – home to sections of the Faculty of Science and the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences. The Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences and the Faculty of Science also use the Taastrup Campus, the Faculty of Science also has facilities in Helsingør, Hørsholm and Nødebo. The University of Copenhagen was founded in 1479 and is the oldest university in Denmark, between the closing of the Studium Generale in Lund in 1536 and the establishment of the University of Aarhus in the late 1920s, it was the only university in Denmark. The university became a centre of Roman Catholic theological learning, but also had faculties for the study of law, medicine, between 1675 and 1788, the university introduced the concept of degree examinations
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Siri von Essen
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Sigrid Siri Sofia Matilda Elisabet von Essen was a Swedish-speaking Finnish noblewoman and actress. She was the daughter of the noble Finnish-Swedish captain and landowner Carl Reinhold von Essen and she married Major Baron Carl Gustaf Wrangel af Sauss in 1872, with whom she had a daughter, Sigrid. After their divorce, she married the Swedish dramatist and writer August Strindberg in 1877, together they had three children, two daughters, Karin Smirnov and Greta, and a son, Hans. Historically, Siri von Essen has been remembered mainly because of the effect she had on Strindberg, the marital problems and the effect they had on his works attracted attention already by their contemporaries. She is considered to be the inspiration for many of his works about marital- and their correspondence from 1875-76 was published in 1919. During the late years of their marriage, Strindberg suspected her of having an affair with the Danish woman Marie David and her second spouse encouraged her acting dream. She did not enroll in the Dramatens elevskola, but studied drama privately under the tutelage of Knut Almlöf and Betty Almlöf. In early 1877, she debuted on stage at the Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm as Camille in A Theatre play by L. Leroy and her debut was considered a moderate success. The critics recommended her grace, natural way of acting and intelligence in her interpretation, Strindberg considered her too lazy in her acting and advised her to be more energetic. Strindberg wrote several plays for her, which were created for her way of acting, after 1877, Siri von Essen, encouraged by Strindberg, wrote articles for newspapers and publications and translated plays. She was the reporter of Morgonbladet in Helsingfors in 1876 and for Morgenbladet in Copenhagen in 1881 and she continued with her translation work after having moved to Finland in 1893. Sigrid Sofia Matilda Elisabet Essen, von, urn, sbl,15517, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon, Strindberg, dieci appunti nella vita del Padre, in Saveria Chemotti, Padri nostri. Archetipi e modelli delle relazioni tra padri e figlie, Padova, Il Poligrafo,2010, works by or about Siri von Essen in libraries
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Garrick Theatre
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The Garrick Theatre is a West End theatre, located on Charing Cross Road, in the City of Westminster, named for the stage actor David Garrick. It opened in 1889 with The Profligate, a play by Arthur Wing Pinero, in its early years, the Garrick appears to have specialised in the performance of melodrama. The theatre later became associated with comedies, including No Sex Please, Were British, there was previously another theatre that was sometimes called the Garrick in London, on Leman Street, opened in 1831 and demolished in 1881. The new Garrick Theatre was financed in 1889 by the playwright W. S. Gilbert, the author of over 75 plays, including the Gilbert and Sullivan comic operas. It was designed by Walter Emden, with C. J. Phipps brought in as a consultant to help with the planning on the site after an underground river was discovered in the excavation. Originally the theatre had 800 seats on four levels, but the level has since been closed. The theatres first manager was Gilberts friend John Hare, the first play at the theatre, The Profligate, by Arthur Wing Pinero and starring Hare, opened on 24 April 1889. Sydney Grundys long-running French-style comedy A Pair of Spectacles opened here in February 1890, Mrs Patrick Campbell starred five years later in Pineros The Notorious Mrs. Ebbsmith. In 1900, the theatre hosted J. M. Barries The Wedding Guest, the only piece actually premiered by W. S. Gilbert here was Harlequin and the Fairys Dilemma, a Domestic Pantomime. In 1921, Basil Rathbone played Dr. Lawson in The Edge o Beyond at the Garrick, in 1925 Henry Daniell played there as Jack Race in Cobra and appeared there again as Paul Cortot in Marriage by Purchase in March 1932. A proposed redevelopment of Covent Garden by the GLC in 1968 saw the theatre under threat, together with the nearby Vaudeville, Adelphi, Lyceum and Duchess theatres. An active campaign by Equity, the Musicians Union, and theatre owners under the auspices of the Save London Theatres Campaign led to the abandonment of the scheme. The gold-leaf auditorium was restored in 1986 by the stage designer Carl Toms, the theatre has mostly been associated with comedies or comedy-dramas. More recent productions are listed below and include No Sex Please, Were British, in 1995, the Royal National Theatres multi-award winning production of J. B. Priestleys An Inspector Calls opened here, having played successful seasons at the Royal National Theatres Lyttelton and Olivier theatres as well as the Aldwych Theatre, the interior retains many of its original features, and was Grade II* listed by English Heritage in September 1960. 1972 – Anthony Shaffers Sleuth transferred 1977 – Side By Side By Sondheim transferred and was a continuing success,111 ISBN 0-7136-5688-3 Whos Who in the Theatre, edited by John Parker, tenth edition, revised, London,1947, pps, 477–478 and 1184. Official Garrick Theatre Website Article on Garrick Theatre Information about the Garrick and other Victorian theatres
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W. S. Gilbert
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Sir William Schwenck Gilbert was an English dramatist, librettist, poet and illustrator best known for the fourteen comic operas produced in collaboration with the composer Sir Arthur Sullivan. The most famous of these include H. M. S, Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance and one of the most frequently performed works in the history of musical theatre, The Mikado. The popularity of works was supported for over a century by year-round performances of them, in Britain and abroad, by the repertory company that they founded. Eleven of the Savoy operas continue to be performed in the English-speaking world and beyond by opera companies, repertory companies, schools. Lines from these works have become part of the English language, such as short, sharp shock, What, and Let the punishment fit the crime. Gilberts creative output included over 75 plays and libretti, and numerous stories, poems and lyrics. He also began to write burlesques and his first comic plays, developing a unique absurdist and he also developed a realistic method of stage direction and a reputation as a strict theatre director. M. S. Pinafore and The Pirates of Penzance, in the 1880s, Gilbert focused on the Savoy operas, including Patience, Iolanthe, The Mikado, The Yeomen of the Guard and The Gondoliers. Gilbert won the lawsuit, but the argument caused hurt feelings among the partnership. Although Gilbert and Sullivan were persuaded to collaborate on two last operas, they were not as successful as the previous ones, in later years, Gilbert wrote several plays, and a few operas with other collaborators. He retired, with his wife and ward, Nancy McIntosh, to a country estate, Gilbert died of a heart attack while attempting to rescue a young woman to whom he was giving a swimming lesson in the lake at his home. Gilbert was born at 17 Southampton Street, Strand, London and his father, also named William, was briefly a naval surgeon, who later became a writer of novels and short stories, some of which were illustrated by his son. Gilberts mother was the former Anne Mary Bye Morris, the daughter of Thomas Morris, Gilberts parents were distant and stern, and he did not have a particularly close relationship with either of them. They quarrelled increasingly, and following the break-up of their marriage in 1876, his relationships with them, especially his mother, Gilbert was nicknamed Bab as a baby, and then Schwenck, after his fathers godparents. As a child, Gilbert travelled to Italy in 1838 and then France for two years with his parents, who returned to settle in London in 1847. He then attended Kings College London, graduating in 1856, instead he joined the Civil Service, he was an assistant clerk in the Privy Council Office for four years and hated it. In 1859 he joined the Militia, a volunteer force formed for the defence of Britain, with which he served until 1878. In 1863 he received a bequest of £300 that he used to leave the service and take up a brief career as a barrister
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Arthur Wing Pinero
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Sir Arthur Wing Pinero was an English actor and later an important dramatist and stage director. Pinero was born in London, the son of Lucy and John Daniel Pinero and his paternal grandfather was from a Sephardic Jewish family, while his other grandparents were from a Christian English background. He studied law at Birkbeck Literary and Scientific Institution before going on the stage, in 1874 he joined R. H. Wyndhams company at the Theatre Royal in Edinburgh. He received good notice in Sheridans The Rivals, in 1884, Pinero began writing plays in the late 1870s while at the Lyceum, including Daisys Escape in 1879 and Bygones in 1880. He became a prolific and successful playwright, authoring fifty-nine plays and his 1923 romance The Enchanted Cottage was successfully filmed in 1924 and 1945. His House in Order was made into a 1928 silent film starring Tallulah Bankhead, both The Magistrate and Dandy Dick were made into films starring Will Hay. His opera in the style of a morality play, The Beauty Stone, has grown somewhat in popularity in recent years, having gained a recording. In Pineros 1888 play Sweet Lavender, which was so popular that it ran for an extraordinary,683 performances, Pinero was knighted in 1909, becoming the second man to be knighted for services to drama alone after W. S. Gilbert. While tremendously popular in his day, his plays are rarely revived, even in his final years he saw his work starting to go out of style. He died in London in 1934, aged 79, however, The Magistrate was newly produced by the Royal National Theatre and ran from November 2012 – January 2013, in the Olivier Theatre starting John Lithgow and Nancy Carroll among others. After much trial and error, he hit on a solution to this recurring problem. At rehearsal, he would explain loudly and clearly how he wanted the scene played, then he would take his place in the stalls, to watch the woman playing it her own way, not his. Immediately he would rush up and shout, Perfect, perfect, play it exactly like that on the night. And for some reason, on the night, they would play it his way, a word of warning, therefore, is neither gratuitous nor unfriendly. The temper of this country, slow to rouse, is becoming an ugly one, the gate may fall from its hinges. Pinero, A Theatrical Life, John Dawick
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