1.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
2.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
3.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
4.
1860s
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The 1860s were an extremely different decade with numerous cultural, social, and political upheavals in Europe and America. Revolutions were prevalent in Germany and the Ottoman Empire, the abolition of slavery in America led to the breakdown of the Atlantic Slave Trade, which was already suffering from the abolition of slavery in most of Europe in the late 1820s and ’30s. After the Civil War, turmoil continued in Reconstruction, with the rise of white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, replacement of President of Mexico Benito Juárez at first with Juan Nepomuceno Almonte and then by Emperor Maximilian of Mexico with the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire. Juárez eventually manages to recover his position, on 18 October 1860, the first Convention of Peking formally ended the Second Opium War. The American Civil War lasted from 1861 to 1865, the Paraguayan War starts in South America, with the invasion of Paraguay by the Triple Alliance. It will kill almost 60% of the country’s population, the main phase of the New Zealand Wars between British colonials and the Māori population begins with the First Taranaki War in 1860. The most significant campaign is the Invasion of Waikato in 1863, the Kingdom of Prussia under Bismarck invaded Denmark in 1864, which ended in the division of Schleswig, the location of a pro-German revolt, between Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Though Prussia and Austria had both fought side by side in war, Prussia later attacked Austria in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. The technological and logistical superiority of Prussias armed forces obliterated Austria and its allies, by the end of these conflicts, Prussia was seen as the most powerful state in Germany, and had total hegemony over the other German states. The NGF was formed after the Austro-Prussian war, uniting the states of north Germany, the Bhutan War between the British Empire and Bhutan lasted from 1864 to 1865. It ended in a British victory and the loss of some Bhutanese territory to British India, beginning of the Reconstruction era under President Andrew Johnson. 1863–64 January Uprising in the Russian Empire, on 19 July 1864 the fall of Nanjing formally ended the 14-year Taiping Rebellion. Italian Unification under King Victor Emmanuel II, Wars for expansion and national unity continue until the incorporation of the Papal States. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, 15th and last of the Tokugawa shoguns loses control to the Meiji Emperor, the samurai class fails to survive while the daimyōs turn to politics. The Dominion of Canada is created by the British North America Act on July 1,1867, President of the United States Abraham Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, April 14,1865. King of Madagascar Radama II is captured by soldiers and strangled to death, manuel Isidoro Belzu, President of Bolivia is assassinated. Father of Canadian Confederation, Thomas DArcy McGee is assassinated by Patrick J. Whelan, sakamoto Ryōma, a prominent figure in the Bakumatsu era in Japan and part of the movement to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate, is assassinated along with Nakaoka Shintarō at a Kyoto inn in 1867. The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA is completed in 1869, the Suez Canal in Egypt is opened in 1869
5.
1870s
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The 1870s continued the trends of the previous decade, as new empires, imperialism and militarism rose in Europe and Asia. The United States was recovering from the American Civil War, germany unified in 1871 and began its Second Reich. Labor unions and strikes occurred worldwide in the part of the decade. The Reconstruction era of the United States brought a legacy of bitterness, franco-Prussian War resulted in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic and the German Empire. The Anglo-Zulu War lasted from 11 January 1879 to 4 July 1879, the Third Carlist War was the last Carlist War in Spain. Bulgaria and Romania declared independence following a war against the Ottoman Empire, the Sioux battled the United States Cavalry and resisted encroachment by white settlers on the Great Plains. Passive resistance was used to prevent the confiscation of Māori land at Parihaka in New Zealand, the German Empire and Alliance System emerged. Racial and economic politics in Americas Reconstruction were bitter, pessimistic, the Gilded Age began in 1874, lasting until 1896. The prototype telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the first version of the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, the steam drill is invented in 1879. Ludwig Boltzmann statistically defined thermodynamic entropy,1873 Weltausstellung in Vienna,1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia and 1878 Exposition universelle in Paris. Members of the association, which soon included Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar, the group soon became known as the Impressionists. Jeanne Calment, born 1875, would become the longest-living human being in recorded history. She lived until 1997, at the age of 122 and she still holds the record as of 2016. Lewis Carroll publishes Through the Looking-Glass
6.
1880s
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The 1880s was a decade that began on January 1,1880, and ended on December 31,1889. They occurred at the period of the Second Industrial Revolution. Most Western countries experienced an economic boom, due to the mass production of railroads. The modern city as well as the rose to prominence in this decade as well. The 1880s were also part of the Gilded Age, which lasted from 1874 to 1907, aceh War War of the Pacific Mahdist War 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War 13 September 1882 — British troops occupy Cairo, and Egypt becomes a British protectorate. American Indian Wars 20 July 1881 — Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of his people in surrender to United States troops at Fort Buford in Montana. Frequent lynchings of African Americans in Southern United States during the years 1880–1890 and this would be followed over the next few decades by conquest of almost the entirety of the remaining uncolonised parts of the continent, broadly along the lines determined. 3 August 1881, The Pretoria Convention peace treaty is signed,1884, International Meridian Conference in Washington D. C. held to determine the Prime Meridian of the world. 1884–1885, Berlin Conference, when the western powers divided Africa, the United States had five Presidents during the decade, the most since the 1840s. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Grover Cleveland, may to August,1883, Krakatoa, a volcano in Indonesia, erupted cataclysmically,36,000 people were killed, the majority being killed by the resulting tsunami. September 1887, The Yellow river flooded and killed about 900,000 people, the 1880s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts,13 March 1881 — Assassination of the Tsar of the Russian Empire Alexander II of Russia. 19 September 1881 — James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States 2 March 1882 — Roderick Maclean fails to assassinate Queen Victoria,3 April 1882 — Bob Ford assassinates Jesse James, legendary outlaw. 6 May 1882 - Lord Frederick Cavendish, Chief Secretary for Ireland,1880, Oliver Heaviside of Camden Town, London, England receives a patent for the coaxial cable. In 1887, Heaviside introduced the concept of loading coils, in the 1890s, Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin would both create the loading coils and receive a patent of them, failing to credit Heavisides work. 1880–1882, Development and commercial production of lighting was underway. Thomas Edison of Milan, Ohio, established Edison Illuminating Company on December 17,1880, based at New York City, it was the pioneer company of the electrical power industry. Edisons system was based on creating a power plant equipped with electrical generators. Copper electrical wires would then connect the station with other buildings, Pearl Street Station was the first central power plant in the United States
7.
1890s
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The phrase, The Gay Nineties, was not coined until the 1920s. This decade was also part of the Gilded Age, a phrase coined by Mark Twain, alluding to the seemingly profitable era that was riddled with crime and poverty. In the United States, the 1890s were marked by an economic depression sparked by the Panic of 1893. As of January 23,2017, there is only 1 verified living person who was born in the 1890s. On December 29,1890,365 troops of the US 7th Cavalry, supported by four Hotchkiss guns, surrounded an encampment of Miniconjou and Hunkpapa Sioux near Wounded Knee Creek, the Army had orders to escort the Sioux to the railroad for transport to Omaha, Nebraska. One day earlier, the Sioux had been cornered and agreed to themselves in at the Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota. They were the very last of the Sioux to do. the process of disarming the Sioux, the 7th Cavalry quickly suppressed the Sioux fire, and the surviving Sioux fled, but US cavalrymen pursued and killed many who were unarmed. By the time it was over, about 146 men, women, twenty-five troopers also died, some believed to have been the victims of friendly fire as the shooting took place at point-blank range in chaotic conditions. Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, with a number later dying from hypothermia. The incident is noteworthy as the engagement in history in which the most Medals of Honor have been awarded in the military history of the United States. This was the last tribe to be invaded which broke the backbone of the American Indian Wars,1891, Chilean Civil War fought from January to September. José Manuel Balmaceda, President of Chile, and the Chilean Army loyal to him face Jorge Montts Junta, the latter was formed by an alliance between the National Congress of Chile and the Chilean Navy. 1891, Tobacco Protest in Qajar dynasty Persia, on March 20,1890, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, Shah of Iran granted a concession to Major G. F. Talbot for a full monopoly over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for fifty years. In exchange, Talbot paid the shah an annual sum of £15,000 in addition to a quarter of the profits after the payment of all expenses. Now they were forced to seek permits from the Tobacco Régie as well as required to inform the concessionaires of the amount of tobacco produced, during the spring of 1891 mass protests against the Régie began to emerge in major Iranian cities. Initially it was the bazaaris who led the opposition under the conviction that it was their income, the reference to the Hidden Imam, a critical person in Shia Islam, meant that Shirazi was using the strongest possible language to oppose the Régie. Initially there was skepticism over the legitimacy of the fatwa, however Shirazi would later confirm the declaration,1892, The Johnson County War in Wyoming. Actually this range war took place in April 1892 in Johnson County, Natrona County, the combatants were the Wyoming Stock Growers Association and the Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers Association
8.
1900s (decade)
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The 1900s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1900, and ended on December 31,1909. The term nineteen-hundreds can also equally be used for the years 1900–1999, the Edwardian era covers a similar span of time. There are several varieties of how individual years of the decade are pronounced in English. Using 1906 as an example, they are nineteen-oh-six, nineteen-six, which variety is most prominent depends somewhat on global region and generation. In American English, nineteen-oh-six is the most common, nineteen-six is less common, nineteen-ought-six is recognized, the strength of the comedic effect diminished during the aughts of the next century, as the public grew used to questioning how to refer to an ohs or aughts decade. Russo-Japanese War establishes the Empire of Japan as a world power, battle of Riyadh was a minor battle of the Unification of Saudi Arabia. Battle of Dilam was a battle of the Unification War between Rashidi and Saudi rebels. First Saudi–Rashidi War was engaged between the Saudi loyal forces of the newborn Emirate of Riyadh versus the Emirate of Hail, demand for Home Rule for Ireland Herero and Namaqua Genocide in German South-West Africa. January 1,1901, British colonies in Australia federate, forming the Commonwealth of Australia May 20,1902 — Cuba gains independence from the United States, june 7,1905 — The Norwegian Parliament declares the union with Sweden dissolved, and Norway achieves full independence. October 5,1908 — Bulgaria declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire, April 19,1902 — A magnitude 7.5 earthquake rocks Guatemala, killing 2,000. May 8,1902 — In Martinique, Mount Pelée erupts, destroying the town of Saint-Pierre, April 7,1906 — Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples. September 18,1906 — A typhoon and tsunami kill an estimated 10,000 in Hong Kong, January 14,1907 — An earthquake in Kingston, Jamaica kills more than 1,000. December 28,1908 — An earthquake and tsunami destroys Messina, Sicily and Calabria, April 26,1900 — The Great Lumber Fire of Ottawa–Hull kills 7 and leaves 15,000 homeless. The fire began on a wharf and spread to the adjacent piers, warehouses, may 3,1901 — The Great Fire of 1901 begins in Jacksonville, FL, USA. July 10,1902 – The Rolling Mill Mine disaster in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, August 10,1903 — Paris Métro train fire. December 30,1903 — A fire at the Iroquois Theater in Chicago, February 7,1904 — The Great Baltimore Fire in Baltimore, USA destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours. June 15,1904 — A fire aboard the steamboat General Slocum in New York Citys East River kills 1,021, june 28,1904 — The Danish ocean liner SS Norge runs aground and sinks close to Rockall, killing 635, including 225 Norwegian emigrants. January 22,1906 — The SS Valencia strikes a reef off Vancouver Island, Canada, the 1900s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts, July 29,1900 — King Umberto I of Italy is assassinated by Italian-born anarchist Gaetano Bresci
9.
1910s
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The 1910s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1910, and ended on December 31,1919. The 1910s represented the culmination of European militarism which had its beginnings during the half of the 19th century. The murder triggered a chain of events in which, within 33 days, the conflict dragged on until a truce was declared on November 11,1918, leading to the controversial, one-sided Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on June 28,1919. However, each of these states had large German and Hungarian minorities, the decade was also a period of revolution in a number of countries. Russia also had a similar fate, since World War I led to a collapse in morale as well as to economic chaos and this atmosphere encouraged the establishment of Bolshevism, which was later renamed as communism. Like the Mexican Revolution, the Russian Revolution of 1917, known as the October Revolution, much of the music in these years was ballroom-themed. Many of the restaurants were equipped with dance floors. Prohibition in the United States began January 16,1919, with the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, armenian Genocide during and just after World War I. Wadai War Italo-Turkish War First Balkan Wars – two wars took place in South-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. Saudi-Ottoman War Latvian War of Independence - a military conflict in Latvia between the Republic of Latvia and the Russian SFSR. The Russian Revolution is the term for the series of revolutions in Russia in 1917. April 13,1919 - The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, at Amritsar in the Punjab Province of British India, sows the seeds of discontent, xinhai Revolution causes the overthrow of Chinas ruling Qing Dynasty, and the establishment of the Republic of China. Madero proclaims the elections of 1910 null and void, and calls for a revolution at 6 p. m. against the illegitimate presidency/dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. The revolution lead to the ouster of Porfirio Díaz six months later, the Revolution progressively becomes a civil war with multiple factions and phases, culminating with the Mexican Constitution of 1917, but combat would persist for three more years. Germany abolishes its monarchy and becomes under the rule of a new elected government called the Weimar Republic, federal Reserve Act is passed by United States Congress, establishing a Central Bank in the US. George V becomes king in Britain, fourteen Points as designed by United States President Woodrow Wilson advocates the right of all nations to self-determination. Rise to power of the Bolsheviks in Russia under Vladimir Lenin, creating the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, easter Rising against the British in Ireland, eventually leads to Irish independence. Several nations in Eastern Europe get their own state, thereby replacing major multiethnic empires
10.
1920s
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The 1920s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1920, and ended on December 31,1929. French speakers refer to the period as the Années folles, emphasizing the social, artistic. The economic prosperity experienced by many countries during the 1920s was similar in nature to that experienced in the 1950s and 1990s, each period of prosperity was the result of a paradigm shift in global affairs. These shifts in the 1920s, 1950s, and 1990s, occurred in part as the result of the conclusion of World War I and Spanish flu, World War II, the 1920s saw foreign oil companies begin operations throughout South America. Venezuela became the second largest oil producing nation. In some countries the 1920s saw the rise of political movements. Communism spread as a consequence of the October Revolution and the Bolsheviks’ victory in the Russian Civil War, fear of the spread of Communism led to the emergence of far right political movements and fascism in Europe. The devastating Wall Street Crash in October 1929 is generally viewed as a harbinger of the end of 1920s prosperity in North America, the Roaring Twenties brought about several novel and highly visible social and cultural trends. These trends, made possible by sustained economic prosperity, were most visible in major cities like New York, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, “Normalcy” returned to politics in the wake of hyper-emotional patriotism during World War I, jazz blossomed, and Art Deco peaked. For women, knee-length skirts and dresses became socially acceptable, as did bobbed hair with a marcel wave, the women who pioneered these trends were frequently referred to as flappers. The media began to focus on celebrities, especially sports heroes, large baseball stadiums were built in major U. S. cities, in addition to palatial cinemas. Most independent countries passed womens suffrage after 1918, especially as a reward for support of the war effort and endurance of its deaths. Egypt officially becomes an independent country through the Declaration of 1922, though it remains under the military. Prohibition was finally repealed in 1933, organized crime turns to smuggling and bootlegging of liquor, led by figures such as Al Capone, boss of the Chicago Outfit. The Immigration Act of 1924 places restrictions on immigration, the major sport was baseball and the most famous player was Babe Ruth. The Lost Generation, was the name Gertrude Stein gave to American writers, poets, and artists living in Europe during the 1920s. A peak in the early 1920s in the membership of the Ku Klux Klan of four to five million members, followed by a rapid decline down to an estimated 30,000 members by 1930. The Scopes Trial, which declared that John T. Scopes had violated the law by teaching evolution in schools, major armed conflict in Ireland including Irish War of Independence resulting in Ireland becoming an independent country in 1922 followed by the Irish Civil War
11.
1889
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As of the start of 1889, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 A total eclipse of the Sun is seen over parts of California, wovoka experiences a vision leading to the start of the Ghost Dance movement in the Dakotas. January 4 – An Act to Regulate Appointments in the Marine Hospital Service of the United States is signed by President Grover Cleveland and it establishes a Commissioned Corps of officers as a predecessor to the modern-day U. S. January 5 – Preston North End F. C. is declared the winner of the inaugural Football League in England, january 8 – Herman Hollerith receives a patent for his electric tabulating machine in the United States. January 15 – The Coca-Cola Company is originally incorporated as the Pemberton Medicine Company in Atlanta, january 22 – Columbia Phonograph is formed in Washington, D. C. January 30 – Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria, and his mistress Baroness Mary Vetsera commit a suicide in the Mayerling hunting lodge. February 5 – The first issue of Glasgow University Magazine is published, February 15 – The first issue of La Solidaridad is published. February 11 – The Meiji Constitution of Japan is adopted, the 1st Diet of Japan convenes in 1890, February 22 – President Grover Cleveland signs a bill admitting North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Washington as U. S. states. March 4 – Benjamin Harrison is sworn in as President of the United States, March 9 – Yohannes IV, Emperor of Ethiopia, is killed in the Battle of Metemma, Sudanese forces, who had been almost defeated, rally and destroy the Ethiopian army. Yohannes is probably the worlds last ruler ever to die in battle, Menelik II proclaims himself as the successor on March 25. March 11 – The North Carolina Legislature issues a charter for the creation of Elon College, March 15 – Samoan crisis, German and American warships keep each other at bay in a standoff in Apia harbor, ending when a cyclone blows in and sinks them all. March 22 – English Association football team Sheffield United F. C. formed at the Adelphi Hotel, March 23 – Claiming to be the Promised Messiah and Mahdi, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad founds the Ahmadiyya Muslim community in Punjab Province. March 31 – The Eiffel Tower is inaugurated, at 300 m, its height exceeds the previous tallest structure in the world by 130 m. Contemporary critics regard it as aesthetically displeasing, april 1 – Following a failed attempt at a coup, French defense minister Georges Boulanger is forced to flee the country. April 10 – The Hammarby Roddförening is founded in Sweden, april 16 – Charlie Chaplin is born in London, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. April 20 – Adolf Hitler is born at Braunau am Inn in Austria-Hungary on the border with Bavaria, april 22 – At high noon in Oklahoma Territory, thousands rush to claim land in the Land Rush of 1889. Within hours the cities of Oklahoma City and Guthrie are formed, may 2 – Menelik II, Emperor of Ethiopia, signs a treaty of amity with Italy, giving Italy control over what will become Eritrea. May 6 – The Exposition Universelle opens in Paris with the Eiffel Tower as its entrance arch, the Galerie des machines, at 111 m, spans the longest interior space in the world at this time
12.
1890
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As of the start of 1890, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 The Kingdom of Italy establishes Eritrea as its colony in the Horn of Africa, in Michigan, the wooden steamer Mackinaw burns in a fire on the Black River. January 2 The steamship Persia is wrecked off Corsica,130 lives are lost, alice Sanger becomes the first female staffer in the White House. January 25 The United Mine Workers of America is founded, nellie Bly completes her round-the-world journey in 72 days. February 9 – The Weather Bureau is established within the United States Department of Agriculture, february 17 – The British steamship Duburg is wrecked in the South China Sea,400 lives are lost. February 24 – Chicago is selected to host the Columbian Exposition March 1 The British steamship Quetia founders in the Torres Straits,124 lives are lost, léon Bourgeois succeeds Jean Antoine Ernest Constans as French Minister of the Interior. March 3 – The first American football game in Ohio State University history is played in Delaware, Ohio, against Ohio Wesleyan, March 4 – The Forth Bridge across the Firth of Forth in Scotland is opened to rail traffic. March 8 – North Dakota State University is founded in Fargo, March 17 – The first railway in Transvaal, the Randtram, opens between Boksburg and Braamfontein in Johannesburg. March 20 – Kaiser Wilhelm II dismisses Otto von Bismarck, March 27 – The March 1890 middle Mississippi Valley tornado outbreak,24 significant tornadoes are spawned by one system killing least 146 people. March 28 – Washington State University is founded in Pullman, april 2 – Kashihara Shrine, a landmark spot in Nara Prefecture, Japan, officially built by Emperor Mutsuhito. April 14 – First International Conference of American States in Washington DC, may 1 – A coordinated series of mass rallies and one-day strikes held throughout many cities and mining towns in Europe and North America to demand an eight-hour workday. May 2 – Oklahoma Territory becomes effective, may 12 – The first ever official English County Championship cricket match begins in Bristol, Yorkshire beats Gloucestershire by 8 wickets. May 20 – Dutch artist Vincent van Gogh moves to Auvers-sur-Oise on the edge of Paris in the care of Dr Paul Gachet where he will produce around seventy paintings in as many days, may 31 – The 5-story skylight Arcade opens in Cleveland, Ohio. June 1 – The United States Census Bureau begins using Herman Holleriths tabulating machine to tabulate census returns using punched card input, june 12 – In Michigan, the wooden steamer Ryan is lost near Thunder Bay Island. June 20 – The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde published by Philadelphia-based Lippincotts Monthly Magazine, june 27 – Canadian-born boxer George Dixon defeats the British bantamweight champion in London, giving him claim to be the first black world champion in any sport. July 1 – Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty is signed by Great Britain and Germany, July 2 – The Sherman Antitrust Act and Sherman Silver Purchase Act become United States law. July 3 – Idaho is admitted as the 43rd U. S. state, July 10 – Wyoming is admitted as the 44th U. S. state. July 13 – In Minnesota, storms result in the Sea Wing disaster on Lake Pepin, July 14 – First recorded use of lime-green to describe a color
13.
1891
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As of the start of 1891, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Paying of old age pensions begins in Germany, january 5 – Beginning of the Australian shearers strike that leads indirectly to the foundation of the Australian Labor Party. January 16 – The Chilean Civil War of 1891 breaks out, january 20 – Jim Hogg becomes the first native Texan to be governor of that state. January 27–May 2 – Jamaica International Exhibition, january 29 – Liliuokalani is proclaimed Queen of Hawaii. January 31 – The Portuguese republican revolution breaks out in the city of Porto. February – Beginning of the Tobacco Protest in Iran, february 14 – In the FA Cup quarter final in English Association football, a goal is deliberately stopped by handball on the goal line. An indirect free kick is awarded, since the penalty kick and this event probably changes public opinion on the penalty kick, seen previously as an Irishmans motion. February 15 – Allmänna Idrottsklubben sports club is founded in Stockholm, february 21 – Springhill, Nova Scotia, suffers a serious mining disaster. March 3 – The International Copyright Act of 1891 is passed by the 51st United States Congress, march 12 – Djurgårdens IF sports club is founded in Stockholm. March 14 – In New Orleans, a lynch mob storms the Old Parish Prison and lynches 11 Italians arrested, march 15 – Jesse W. Reno patents the first escalator at Coney Beach. March 17 – The British steamship SS Utopia, carrying Italian migrants to New York, sinks in the harbor of Gibraltar after collision with the battleship HMS Anson. March 18 – Official opening of the London–Paris telephone system, april 1 The Wrigley Company is founded in Chicago. The London–Paris telephone system is opened to the general public. April 5 – Census in the United Kingdom,15.6 million people live in cities of 20,000 or more in England, may – Mirza Ghulam Ahmad claims to be the Promised Messiah and the Mahdi awaited in Islam. May 1 Troops fire on a workers May Day demonstration in support of the 8-hour workday in Fourmies, France, killing 9, the first Fascio dei lavoratori is founded by Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida in Catania, Sicily. May 5 – The Music Hall in New York has its opening and first public performance. May 11 – Ōtsu incident, Tsesarevich Nikolay Alexandrovich of Russia survives an assassination attempt while visiting Japan, may 15 – Pope Leo XIII issues the encyclical Rerum novarum on the rights and duties of capital and labor, resulting in the creation of many Christian Democrat parties throughout Europe. May 20 – Thomas Edisons prototype kinetoscope is first displayed at Edisons Laboratory, june 1 – The Johnstown Inclined Plane opens in Johnstown, Pennsylvania
14.
1892
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As of the start of 1892, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Ellis Island begins accommodating immigrants to the United States, January 15 –James Naismiths rules for basketball are published for the first time in the Springfield YMCA International Training Schools newspaper, in an article titled A New Game. February 18 – Pennsauken Township, New Jersey is incorporated, February 27 – Rudolf Diesel applies for a patent on his compression ignition engine. February 29 – St. Petersburg, Florida is incorporated, march 1 – Theodoros Deligiannis ends his term as Prime Minister of Greece and Konstantinos Konstantopoulos takes office. March 6–8 – Exclusive Agreement, Rulers of the Trucial States sign an agreement by which they become de facto British protectorates, march 11 – First basketball game ever played in public, between students and faculty at the Springfield YMCA. The final score is 5–1 in favor of the students, with the goal for the faculty being scored by Amos Alonzo Stagg. A crowd of 200 spectators watches the game, march 13 – Ernest Louis, a grandson of Queen Victoria, becomes Grand Duke of Hesse and the Rhine on the death of his father, Grand Duke Louis IV. March 15 – The Liverpool Football Club is founded by John Houlding, Houlding decides to form his own team after Everton leaves Anfield in an argument over rent. March 18 – Sir Frederick Stanley announces his intention to donate the Stanley Cup, march 20 – The first ever French rugby championship final takes place in Paris. Pierre de Coubertin referees the match, which Racing Club de France wins 4–3 over Stade Français, march 31 – The worlds first fingerprinting bureau is formally opened by the Buenos Aires Chief of Police, it has been operating unofficially since the previous year. April – The Johnson County War breaks out between small farmers and large ranchers in Wyoming, April 15 – The General Electric Company is established through the merger of the Thomson-Houston Company and the Edison General Electric Company. April 29 – Redondo Beach, California, USA is founded, may 7 – The Cook Islands issue their first postage stamps. May 19 – Battle of Yemoja River, British troops defeat Ijebu infantry in modern-day Nigeria, may 20 – Last broad gauge Down train from Paddington on Great Western Railway. May 22 – The British conquest of Ijebu Ode marks a major extension of power into the Nigerian interior. May 24 – Prince George becomes Duke of York, may 28 – In San Francisco, John Muir organizes the Sierra Club. June 4 – Abercrombie & Fitch is established by David T. Abercrombie, june 5 – An oil fire in Oil City, Pennsylvania, kills 130 people. June 7 – Homer Plessy is arrested for sitting on the car in Louisiana. June 11 – The Limelight Department, later one of the worlds first film studios, is established in Melbourne
15.
1893
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As of the start of 1893, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 2 – Webb C. Ball introduces railroad chronometers, which become the general railroad timepiece standards in North America, january 13 – The Independent Labour Party of the United Kingdom has its first meeting. January 15 – The Telefon Hírmondó service starts with around 60 subscribers in Budapest, january 21 – The Cherry Sisters first perform in Marion, Iowa. February 1 – Thomas Edison finishes construction of the first motion picture studio in West Orange, february 19 – The SS Naronic is believed to have sunk due to a storm. February 23 – Rudolf Diesel receives a patent for the diesel engine, february 24 – American University is established by an Act of Congress in Washington, D. C. February 28 – USS Indiana, the first battleship in the United States Navy comparable to other battleships of this time, is launched. March 4 – Grover Cleveland is sworn in as President of the United States, march 10 – Ivory Coast becomes a French colony. March 20 – In Belgium, Adam Worth is sentenced to 7 years for robbery, april 1 – The rank of Chief Petty Officer is established in the United States Navy. April 6 – The iconic Salt Lake Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is dedicated after 40 years of construction, april 8 – The first recorded college basketball game occurs in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania between the Geneva College Covenanters and the New Brighton YMCA. April 17 – Riots of Mons during the Belgian general strike of 1893, The day after, april 17 – The sorority Alpha Xi Delta is founded at Lombard College in Galesburg, Illinois. May – The Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland is formed, may 1 – The 1893 Worlds Fair, also known as the Worlds Columbian Exposition, opens to the public in Chicago, USA. The first United States commemorative postage stamps are issued for the Exposition, may 5 – Panic of 1893, A crash on the New York Stock Exchange starts a depression. May 9 – Edisons 1½ inch system of Kinetoscope is first demonstrated in public at the Brooklyn Institute, may 10 – Nix v. Hedden, the United States Supreme Court legally declares the tomato to be a vegetable. June 6 – Prince George, Duke of York marries Mary of Teck, june 7 – Gandhi commits his first act of civil disobedience in India. June 17 – Gold is found in Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, june 20 – The Wengernalpbahn railway in Wengen, Switzerland is opened. June 20 – Lizzie Borden acquitted of murdering her parents in Fall River, june 22 – The flagship HMS Victoria of the British Mediterranean Fleet collides with HMS Camperdown and sinks in 10 minutes, Vice-admiral Sir George Tryon goes down with his ship. July 1 – U. S. President Grover Cleveland is operated on in secret, July 6 – The small town of Pomeroy, Iowa, is nearly destroyed by a tornado,71 people are killed and 200 injured. July 11 A revolution led by general and politician José Santos Zelaya takes over power in Nicaragua
16.
1894
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As of the start of 1894, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. February – In Korea, peasant unrest erupts in the Donghak Peasant Revolution, both China and Japan send military forces, claiming to come to the ruling Joseon dynasty governments aid. January 7 – William Kennedy Dickson receives a patent for motion picture film, january 9 – New England Telephone and Telegraph installs the first battery-operated telephone switchboard in Lexington, Massachusetts. February 17 – American outlaw John Wesley Hardin is released from prison, march 12 – For the first time, Coca-Cola is sold in bottles. March 21 – A syzygy of planets occurs as Mercury transits the Sun as seen from Venus, march 25 – Coxeys Army, the first significant protest march in the United States, departs from Massillon, Ohio, for Washington, D. C. January 4 – A military alliance is established between the French Third Republic and the Russian Empire, february 12 French anarchist Émile Henry sets off a bomb in a Paris café, killing one person and wounding twenty. The barque Elisabeth Rickmers of Bremerhaven is wrecked at Haurvig, Denmark, february 15 – At 04,51 GMT, French anarchist Martial Bourdin attempts to destroy the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, England, with a bomb, killing himself instead. April 11 – Britain establishes a Protectorate over Uganda, April 16 – Manchester City Football Club is formed in England. April 21 A bituminous coal miners strike closes mines across the central United States, April 23 – St. April 27 – Canadas largest known landslide occurred in Saint-Alban, Quebec. Displacing 185 million cubic metres of rock and dirt, leaving a 40 metres scar, may – Bubonic plague breaks out in the Tai Ping Shan area of Hong Kong. May 1 Coxeys Army arrives in Washington, Coxey is arrested, the May Day Riots break out in Cleveland, Ohio. May 11 – Pullman Strike, Three thousand Pullman Palace Car Company factory workers go on a strike in Illinois. May 14 A meteor shower is seen in southern France, Blackpool Tower is opened in Blackpool, England. May 21 – The Manchester Ship Canal and Docks are opened by Queen Victoria, june 22 – Dahomey becomes a French colony. June 23 – The International Olympic Committee is founded at the Sorbonne, Paris, june 24 – Sadi Carnot, president of France, is assassinated. June 30 – The Tower Bridge in London opens for traffic, july – A fire at the site of the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago destroys most of the remaining buildings. July 4 The Republic of Hawaii is proclaimed by Sanford B, the football club FC La Chaux-de-Fonds is founded in Switzerland. July 22 – Paris–Rouen Competition for Horseless Carriages, the first automobile competition, august 1 – War is declared between the Qing Empire of China and the Empire of Japan, over their rival claims of influence on their common ally, the Joseon dynasty of Korea
17.
1895
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As of the start of 1895, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 5 – Dreyfus affair, French officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his army rank, january 17 – Félix Faure is elected President of French Republic after the resignation of Jean Casimir-Perier. January 21 – The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty is founded in England by Octavia Hill, Robert Hunter, february 9 – Mintonette, later known as volleyball, is created by William G. Morgan at Holyoke, Massachusetts. February 11 – The lowest ever UK temperature of −27.2 °C is recorded at Braemar in Aberdeenshire and this record is equalled in 1982 and again in 1995. February 14 – Oscar Wildes last play, the comedy The Importance of Being Earnest, is first shown at St Jamess Theatre in London, february 20 – Venezuelan crisis of 1895, U. S. The bill recommends Venezuela and Great Britain settle their dispute by arbitration, february 25 – The first rebellions take place marking the start of the Cuban War of Independence. March 1 – William Lyne Wilson is appointed United States Postmaster General, March 3 – In Munich, bicyclists have to pass a test and display license plates. March 4 – Japanese troops capture Liaoyang and land in Taiwan, March 18 – First worldwide gasoline bus started in Germany between Siegen and Netphen March 30 – Rudolf Diesel patents the Diesel engine in Germany. April 6 – Oscar Wilde is arrested in London for gross indecency after losing a libel case against the Marquess of Queensberry. April 7 – Nansens Fram expedition to the Arctic reaches 86°13. 6N, april 14 – A major earthquake severely damages Ljubljana, the capital of Carniola. April 16 – The town of Sturgeon Falls, Ontario, is incorporated, april 17 – The Treaty of Shimonoseki is signed between China and Japan. The huge indemnity exacted from China is used to establish the Yawata Iron, april 22 – Gongche Shangshu movement,603 candidates sign a 10, 000-word petition against the Treaty of Shimonoseki. April 27 – The historic Spiral Bridge was constructed to carry U. S.61 over the Mississippi River at Hastings, the picturesque Spiral Bridge was a one-of-a-kind and served the citizens of Hastings for 56 years until it was demolished in 1951 Hastings, Minnesota. May 1 – Dundela Football, Sports & Association Club formed in Belfast, may 2 – Gongche Shangshu movement, Thousands of Beijing scholars and citizens protest against the Treaty of Shimonoseki. May 24 – Anti-Japanese officials led by Tang Ching-sung in Taiwan declare independence from the Qing dynasty, may 25 – R. v. June 5 Liberal Revolution begins in Ecuador, being the civil war more intense in this country. June 11 Britain annexes Tongaland, between Zululand and Mozambique, paris–Bordeaux–Paris is sometimes called the first automobile race in history or the first motor race. June 20 The Kiel Canal, connecting the North Sea to the Baltic across the base of the Jutland peninsula in Germany, is officially opened, Treaty of Amapala establishes union of Nicaragua, Honduras and El Salvador begins. June 28 – The United States Court of Private Land Claims rules that James Reaviss claim to Barony of Arizona is wholly fictitious, night of July 10–July 11 – The Doukhobors pacifist protests culminate in the Burning of the ass in the South Caucasus
18.
Kingdom of Italy
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The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state. Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia in 1866, Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power. Italy entered into a Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations. Fascist Italy is the era of National Fascist Party rule from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government, according to Payne, Fascist regime passed through several relatively distinct phases. The first phase was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, then came the second phase, the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper from 1925 to 1929. The third phase, with activism, was 1929–34. The war itself was the phase with its disasters and defeats. Italy was allied with Nazi Germany in World War II until 1943 and it switched sides to the Allies after ousting Mussolini and shutting down the Fascist party in areas controlled by the Allied invaders. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the referendum of 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic, the Kingdom of Italy claimed all of the territory which is modern-day Italy. The development of the Kingdoms territory progressed under Italian re-unification until 1870, the state for a long period of time did not include Trieste or Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, which are in Italy today, and only annexed them in 1919. After the Second World War, the borders of present-day Italy were founded, the Kingdom of Italy was theoretically a constitutional monarchy. Executive power belonged to the monarch, as executed through appointed ministers, two chambers of parliament restricted the monarchs power—an appointive Senate and an elective Chamber of Deputies. The kingdoms constitution was the Statuto Albertino, the governing document of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In theory, ministers were responsible to the king. However, in practice, it was impossible for an Italian government to stay in office without the support of Parliament, members of the Chamber of Deputies were elected by plurality voting system elections in uninominal districts. A candidate needed the support of 50% of those voting, and of 25% of all enrolled voters, if not all seats were filled on the first ballot, a runoff was held shortly afterwards for the remaining vacancies. After a brief multinominal experimentation in 1882, proportional representation into large, regional, Socialists became the major party, but they were unable to form a government in a parliament split into three different factions, with Christian Populists and classical liberals
19.
Umberto I of Italy
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It can also refer to Humbert I, Count of Savoy and to Humbert I of Viennois, Dauphin of the Viennois. Umberto I, nicknamed the Good, was the King of Italy from 9 January 1878 until his assassination on 29 July 1900. Umbertos reign saw Italy attempt colonial expansion into the Horn of Africa, successfully gaining Eritrea, in 1882, he approved the Triple Alliance with the German Empire and Austria-Hungary. He was deeply loathed in leftist circles because of his conservatism and he was especially hated by anarchists, who attempted an assassination on him during the first year of his reign. He was killed by another anarchist, Gaetano Bresci, two years after the Bava-Beccaris massacre. The son of Victor Emmanuel II and Archduchess Adelaide of Austria, Umberto was born in Turin and his education was entrusted to, amongst others, Massimo Taparelli, marquis dAzeglio and Pasquale Stanislao Mancini. From March 1858 he had a career in the Sardinian army. It proved difficult to find any royal bride for either of the sons of king Victor Emmanuel II and their conflict with the papacy did not help these matters. Not many eligible Catholic royal brides were easily available for young Umberto. At first, Umberto was to marry Archduchess Mathilde of Austria, on 21 April 1868 Umberto married his first cousin, Margherita Teresa Giovanna, Princess of Savoy. Their only son was Victor Emmanuel, prince of Naples, the King warded off the blow with his sabre, but Cairoli, in attempting to defend him, was severely wounded in the thigh. The would-be assassin was condemned to death, even though the law allowed the death penalty if the King was killed. The King commuted the sentence to one of penal servitude for life, passanante would later die in a psychiatric institution. In foreign policy Umberto I approved the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany, repeatedly visiting Vienna, many in Italy, however, viewed with hostility an alliance with their former Austrian enemies, who were still occupying areas claimed by Italy. Umberto was also favorably disposed towards the policy of colonial expansion inaugurated in 1885 by the occupation of Massawa in Eritrea, Italy expanded into Somalia in the 1880s as well. In the summer of 1900, Italian forces were part of the Eight-Nation Alliance which participated in the Boxer Rebellion in Imperial China, through the Boxer Protocol, signed after Umbertos death, the Kingdom of Italy gained a concession territory in Tientsin. Umbertos attitude towards the Holy See was uncompromising, in an 1886 telegram, he declared Rome untouchable and affirmed the permanence of the Italian possession of the Eternal City. The reign of Umberto I was a time of social upheaval, the protesters included the young Benito Mussolini, then a member of the socialist party
20.
Prime Minister of Italy
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The office of Prime Minister is established by Articles 92 through to 96 of the Constitution of Italy. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Republic after each general election, prior to the establishment of the Italian Republic, the position was called President of the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of Italy. King Victor Emmanuel III removed Mussolini from office in 1943 and the position was restored with Marshal Pietro Badoglio becoming Prime Minister in 1943, Alcide De Gasperi became the first Prime Minister of the Italian Republic in 1946. The Prime Minister is the President of the Council of Ministers—which holds executive power, the position is similar to those in most other parliamentary systems. The formal Italian order of precedence lists the office as being ceremonially the fourth most important Italian state office, as the President of the Council of Ministers the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet. In addition the Prime Minister leads a political party and generally commands the majority in the Parliament. Article 95 of the Italian constitution provides that the Prime Minister directs, the Prime Ministers activity has often consisted of mediating between the various parties in the majority coalition, rather than directing the activity of the Council of Ministers. The office was first established in 1848 in Italys predecessor state, the Kingdom of Sardinia—although it was not mentioned in its constitution, from 1848 to 1861 ten Prime Ministers governed the Kingdom, most of them being right-wing politicians. After the Unification of Italy and the establishment of the kingdom, in fact the candidate for office was appointed by the king, and presided over a very unstable political system. The first Prime Minister was Camillo Benso di Cavour, who was appointed on 23 March 1861, from 1861 to 1911 Historical Right and Left Prime Ministers alternatively governed the country. One of the most famous and influential Prime Ministers of this period was Francesco Crispi, a patriot and statesman. He led the country for six years, from 1887 until 1891, Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as Bismarck, Gladstone and Salisbury. Originally an enlightened Italian patriot and democrat liberal, he went on to become a bellicose authoritarian prime minister, ally, and admirer of Bismarck. His career ended amid controversy and failure due to becoming involved in a banking scandal. He is often seen as a precursor of the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, in 1892 Giovanni Giolitti, a young leftist politician, was elected Prime Minister by king Umberto I, but after less than a year he was forced to resign and Crispi returned to power. In 1903 after a period of instability he was appointed head of the government. Giolitti was the Prime Minister five times between 1892 and 1921 and the second-longest serving Prime Minister in Italian history, after Mussolini, under his influence, the Italian Liberals did not develop as a structured party. They were instead a series of informal personal groupings with no links to political constituencies
21.
Giovanni Giolitti
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Giovanni Giolitti was an Italian statesman. He was the Prime Minister of Italy five times between 1892 and 1921 and he is the second-longest serving Prime Minister in Italian history, after Benito Mussolini. He was a prominent leader of the Historical Left and the Liberal Union, under his influence, the Italian Liberals did not develop as a structured party, they were, instead, a series of informal personal groupings with no formal links to political constituencies. Besides putting in place several tariffs, subsidies and government projects, Giolitti also nationalized the private telephone, Liberal proponents of free trade criticized the Giolittian System, although Giolitti himself saw the development of the national economy as essential in the production of wealth. However his highly complex legacy continues to stimulate debate amongst writers. His father Giovenale Giolitti had been working in the avvocatura dei poveri and he died in 1843, a year after Giovanni was born. The family moved in the home of his mother Enrichetta Plochiù in Turin and his mother taught him to read and write, his education in the gymnasium San Francesco da Paola of Turin was marked by poor discipline and little commitment to study. He did not like mathematics and the study of Latin and Greek grammar, preferring the history and reading the novels of Walter Scott, at sixteen he entered the University of Turin and, after three years, he earned a law degree in 1860. His uncle was a member of the Parliament of the Kingdom of Sardinia and a friend of Michelangelo Castelli. However Giolitti did not appear interested in the Risorgimento and differently to many of his fellow students. Subsequently, he pursued a career in administration in the Ministry of Grace and Justice. In 1869 he moved to the Ministry of Finance, becoming an official and working along with important members of the ruling Right, like Quintino Sella. In the same year he married Rosa Sobrero, the granddaughter of Ascanio Sobrero, a famous chemist, who discovered nitroglycerine. In 1877 Giolitti was appointed to the Court of Audit and in 1882 to the Council of State At the 1882 Italian general election he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the Historical Left. This election was a victory for the ruling Left of Agostino Depretis. As deputy he chiefly acquired prominence by attacks on Agostino Magliani, following Depretis’s death on 29 July 1887 Francesco Crispi, a notable politician and patriot, became the leader of the Left group and was also appointed Prime Minister by King Umberto I. On 9 March 1889 Giolitti was selected by Crispi as new Minister of Treasury, but in October 1890, Giolitti resigned from his office due to contrasts with Crispis colonial policy. Menelik informed the press and the scandal erupted
22.
Il Mattino
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Il Mattino is an Italian daily newspaper published in Naples, Italy. Il Mattino was first published on 16 March 1892 by the journalists Edoardo Scarfoglio, the paper is owned and published by Caltagirone Editore. The circulation of Il Mattino was 87,777 copies in 2004.000 readers in 2011, in 2008 the paper had a circulation of 79,573 copies
23.
Naples
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Naples is the capital of the Italian region Campania and the third-largest municipality in Italy, after Rome and Milan. In 2015, around 975,260 people lived within the administrative limits. The Metropolitan City of Naples had a population of 3,115,320, Naples is the 9th-most populous urban area in the European Union with a population of between 3 million and 3.7 million. About 4.4 million people live in the Naples metropolitan area, Naples is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Bronze Age Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, a larger colony – initially known as Parthenope, Παρθενόπη – developed on the Island of Megaride around the ninth century BC, at the end of the Greek Dark Ages. Naples remained influential after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, thereafter, in union with Sicily, it became the capital of the Two Sicilies until the unification of Italy in 1861. Naples was the most-bombed Italian city during World War II, much of the citys 20th-century periphery was constructed under Benito Mussolinis fascist government, and during reconstruction efforts after World War II. The city has experienced significant economic growth in recent decades, and unemployment levels in the city, however, Naples still suffers from political and economic corruption, and unemployment levels remain high. Naples has the fourth-largest urban economy in Italy, after Milan, Rome and it is the worlds 103rd-richest city by purchasing power, with an estimated 2011 GDP of US$83.6 billion. The port of Naples is one of the most important in Europe, numerous major Italian companies, such as MSC Cruises Italy S. p. A, are headquartered in Naples. The city also hosts NATOs Allied Joint Force Command Naples, the SRM Institution for Economic Research, Naples is a full member of the Eurocities network of European cities. The city was selected to become the headquarters of the European institution ACP/UE and was named a City of Literature by UNESCOs Creative Cities Network, the Villa Rosebery, one of the three official residences of the President of Italy, is located in the citys Posillipo district. Naples historic city centre is the largest in Europe, covering 1,700 hectares and enclosing 27 centuries of history, Naples has long been a major cultural centre with a global sphere of influence, particularly during the Renaissance and Enlightenment eras. In the immediate vicinity of Naples are numerous culturally and historically significant sites, including the Palace of Caserta, culinarily, Naples is synonymous with pizza, which originated in the city. Neapolitan music has furthermore been highly influential, credited with the invention of the romantic guitar, according to CNN, the metro stop Toledo is the most beautiful in Europe and it won also the LEAF Award 2013 as Public building of the year. Naples is the Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, Naples sports scene is dominated by football and Serie A club S. S. C. Napoli, two-time Italian champions and winner of European trophies, who play at the San Paolo Stadium in the south-west of the city, the Phlegraean Fields around Naples has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. The earliest Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, sailors from the Greek island of Rhodes established a small commercial port called Parthenope on the island of Megaride in the ninth century BC
24.
Matilde Serao
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Matilde Serao was a Greek-born Italian journalist and novelist. She was the founder and editor of Il Mattino, and she wrote several novels. Matilde was born in the Greek city of Patras to an Italian father, Francesco Serao, and her father had emigrated to Greece from Naples for political reasons. She worked as a schoolmistress in Naples, and later described those years of poverty in the preface to a book of short stories called Leggende Napolitane. With her husband, Edoardo Scarfoglio, she founded Il Corriere di Roma, the paper was short lived, and after its demise Serao established herself in Naples where she edited Il Corriere di Napoli. In 1892 she co-founded Il Mattino with her husband, which became the most important and she established and ran her own newspaper, Il Giorno in 1904 until her death. Most of these have been translated into English and she died in 1927 in Naples. The Ballet Dancer and On Guard, the Dramatic Element in Matilde Seraos Little Masterpieces, Italica, Vol.44, No. New York, Las Americas Publishing Company, new York, Charles Scribners Sons, pp. 294–313. Russo, Teresa G. Matilde Serao, A True Verista for the Female Character, International Social Science Review, Vol.72 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Serao, Matilda. Matilde Serao at the Women Film Pioneers Project Works by Matilde Serao at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Matilde Serao at Internet Archive
25.
Chamber of Deputies (Italy)
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The Chamber of Deputies is a house of the bicameral Parliament of Italy. The two houses form a perfect bicameral system, meaning they perform identical functions, but do so separately. Pursuant to article 56 of the Italian Constitution, the Chamber of Deputies has 630 seats, of which 618 are elected from Italian constituencies, Deputies are styled The Honourable and meet at Palazzo Montecitorio. Previously, the seat of the Chamber of Deputies of the Kingdom of Italy had been briefly at the Palazzo Carignano in Turin and the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. Under the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, from 1939 to 1943, the Chamber is composed of all members meeting in session at the Montecitorio. The assembly also has the right to meetings of the Government. If required, the Government is obligated to attend the session, conversely, the Government has the right to be heard every time it requires. The term of office of the House is five years,61.2 of the Constitution, states that representatives whose term has expired shall continue to exercise their functions until the first meeting of the new Chamber. An extension of the term, provided for by art,60.2, can be enacted only in case of war. Election of members to the Chamber of Deputies is by voluntary, universal, terms last for a total of five years, unless an early dissolution of the Chamber is called by the President of the Republic, at which point a snap election is held. Unlike the Senate, which members to be 40 years of age. The current system for elections to the Chamber of Deputies has been in operation since 2015, the territory of Italy is divided into 100 constituencies electing between 3 and 9 deputies depending on their size. For each constituency, the parties designate a list of candidates, head of list candidates can run in up to 10 constituencies, if two preference votes are expressed, they must be of a different sex, otherwise, the second preference is discarded. Only parties passing a 3% minimum threshold in the first round are assigned seats, if the party receiving the plurality of the votes passes a 40% threshold, it is attributed a minimum of 340 seats. The remaining 277 seats are allocated to the other parties using the largest remainder method. This provision was however rendered null and void by a Constitutional Courts judgment in January 2017, the President of the Chamber of Deputies performs the role of speaker of the house and is elected during the first session after the election. During this time the prerogatives of speaker are assumed by the vicepresident of Chamber of Deputies of the legislature who was elected first. If two were elected simultaneously, the oldest deputy serves as president of Chamber of Deputies, the President of Chamber of Deputies has also the role of President during the Parliament joint sessions, when the upper and lower houses have to vote together
26.
Mahdist Sudan
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Mahdist Sudan was an unrecognized state that attempted unsuccessfully to break Egyptian rule in the Sudan. Developments in Sudan during the late 19th century were influenced by the British position in Egypt. In 1869, the Suez Canal opened and quickly became Britains economic lifeline to India, to defend this waterway, Britain sought a greater role in Egyptian affairs. In 1873, the British government therefore supported a programme whereby an Anglo-French debt commission assumed responsibility for managing Egypts fiscal affairs and this commission eventually forced khedive Ismail to abdicate in favor of his more politically acceptable son, Tawfiq. After the removal in 1877 of Ismail, who had appointed him to the post and his successors lacked direction from Cairo and feared the political turmoil that had engulfed Egypt. As a result, they failed to continue the policies Gordon had put in place, the illegal slave trade revived, although not enough to satisfy the merchants whom Gordon had put out of business. The Sudanese army suffered from a lack of resources, and unemployed soldiers from disbanded units troubled garrison towns, the son of a Dongola boatbuilder, Muhammad Ahmad had become the disciple of Muhammad ash Sharif, the head of the Sammaniyah order. Later, as a sheikh of the order, Muhammad Ahmad spent several years in seclusion and gained a reputation as a mystic, in 1880, he became a Sammaniyah. In 1881, Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi or expected one, some of his most dedicated followers regarded him as directly inspired by Allah. He wanted Muslims to reclaim the Quran and hadith as the sources of Islam. Specifically relating to Sudan, he claimed its poverty was a virtue and denounced worldly wealth, for Muhammad Ahmad, Egypt was an example of wealth leading to impious behavior. Even after the Mahdi proclaimed a jihad, or holy war, against the Turkiyah, the Egyptian government paid more attention when his religious zeal turned to denunciation of tax collectors. To avoid arrest, the Mahdi and a party of his followers, the Ansar, made a march to Kurdufan. From a refuge in the area, he appeals to the sheikhs of the religious orders. Merchants and Arab tribes that had depended on the slave trade responded as well, along with the Hadendoa Beja, who were rallied to the Mahdi by an Ansar captain, Osman Digna. Early in 1882, the Ansar, armed with spears and swords, overwhelmed a British-led 7, 000-man Egyptian force not far from Al Ubayyid and seized their rifles, field guns and ammunition. The Mahdi followed up victory by laying siege to Al Ubayyid. The Ansar,30,000 men strong, then defeated an 8, next the Mahdi captured Darfur and imprisoned Rudolf Carl von Slatin, an Austrian in the khedives service, who later became the first Egyptian-appointed governor of Darfur Province
27.
Fasci Siciliani
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The Fasci Siciliani, short for Fasci Siciliani dei Lavoratori, were a popular movement of democratic and socialist inspiration, which arose in Sicily in the years between 1889 and 1894. The Fasci gained the support of the poorest and most exploited classes of the island by channeling their frustration, the leaders of the movement were not able to keep the situation from getting out of control. Some reforms followed, including compensation and pension schemes. The suppression of the strikes led to an increase in emigration. The immediate demands of the movement were fair land rents, higher wages, lower local taxes, between 1889 and 1893 some 170 Fasci were established in Sicily. According to some sources the movement reached a membership of more than 300,000 by the end of 1893, the Fasci constituted autonomous organizations with their own insignia, uniforms and sometimes even musical bands, and their own local halls for reunions and congresses. They were called Fasci because everyone can break a single stick, while many of the leaders were of socialist or anarchist leanings, few of their supporters were true revolutionaries. Nevertheless, the peasants who assembled into the Fasci were eager for social justice, a crucifix hung beside the red flag in many of their meeting-places, and portraits of the King beside those of the revolutionaries Garibaldi, Mazzini and Marx. Cheers for the King were often heard in their marches that almost resembled quasi-religious processions, many of the Fasci were part of the Italian Workers Party that had been founded at a conference in Genoa on August 14,1892. The rural Fasci in particular were a phenomenon, both ancient and modern. They combined millenarian aspirations with urban intellectual leadership often in contact with workers’ organizations, the Fasci, which included many women, were encouraged by the messianic belief that the start of a new reign of justice was looming and the movement spread like an epidemic. The agrarian crisis between 1888 and 1892 led to a decrease in wheat prices. The island’s main sources of wealth – wine, fruit and sulphur – suffered a heavy blow, the dominant landowning class channeled most of the economic burden on to the peasantry, in the form of higher rents and discriminatory local taxation. As social tension rose, a handful of young and hitherto quite unknown socialist intellectuals – many of them recent graduates of Palermo University – seized their opportunity. The movement grew under the first government of Prime minister Francesco Crispi and coincided with unpopular tax increases, the Italian economy had been sliding into a deep recession since the late 1880s. The first official Fascio was founded on May 1,1891, other leaders included Rosario Garibaldi Bosco in Palermo, Nicola Barbato in Piana dei Greci, Bernardino Verro in Corleone, and Lorenzo Panepinto in Santo Stefano Quisquina. While the ruling elite depicted the men of the Fasci as treasonous socialists, communists and anarchists seeking to overthrow the monarchy, in fact many were devout Catholics and monarchists. The movement sometimes had a nature, characterised by statements as Jesus was a true socialist
28.
Palermo
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Palermo is a city of Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence, Palermo is located in the northwest of the island of Sicily, right by the Gulf of Palermo in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The city was founded in 734 BC by the Phoenicians as Ziz, Palermo then became a possession of Carthage, before becoming part of the Roman Republic, the Roman Empire and eventually part of the Byzantine Empire, for over a thousand years. The Greeks named the city Panormus meaning complete port, from 831 to 1072 the city was under Arab rule during the Emirate of Sicily when the city first became a capital. The Arabs shifted the Greek name into Balarme, the root for Palermos present-day name, eventually Sicily would be united with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies until the Italian unification of 1860. The population of Palermo urban area is estimated by Eurostat to be 855,285, in the central area, the city has a population of around 676,000 people. The inhabitants are known as Palermitani or, poetically, panormiti, the languages spoken by its inhabitants are the Italian language, Sicilian language and the Palermitano dialect. Palermo is Sicilys cultural, economic and touristic capital and it is a city rich in history, culture, art, music and food. Palermo is the main Sicilian industrial and commercial center, the industrial sectors include tourism, services, commerce. Palermo currently has an airport, and a significant underground economy. In fact, for cultural, artistic and economic reasons, Palermo was one of the largest cities in the Mediterranean and is now among the top tourist destinations in both Italy and Europe. It is the seat of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Arab-Norman Palermo. The city is going through careful redevelopment, preparing to become one of the major cities of the Euro-Mediterranean area. Roman Catholicism is highly important in Palermitano culture, the Patron Saint of Palermo is Santa Rosalia whose Feast Day is celebrated on 15 July. The area attracts significant numbers of each year and is widely known for its colourful fruit, vegetable and fish markets at the heart of Palermo, known as Vucciria, Ballarò. Palermo lies in a basin, formed by the Papireto, Kemonia, the basin was named the Conca dOro by the Arabs in the 9th century. The city is surrounded by a range which is named after the city itself. These mountains face the Tyrrhenian Sea, Palermo is home to a natural port and offers excellent views to the sea, especially from Monte Pellegrino
29.
Rosario Garibaldi Bosco
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Rosario Garibaldi Bosco was an Italian Republican-inspired socialist, politician and writer. He was one of the leaders of the Fasci Siciliani, a movement of democratic. Born in Palermo, the son of Nicola and Teresa Patorno and he married Concetta Seminara and became a political activist in radical and socialist circles inspired by Napoleone Colajanni, known as the father of Sicilian socialism. As the secretary of worker associations, he collaborated with La Lega sociale in 1882, at the end of 1883, he founded a local radical association and its radical organ LItalia del popolo, of which he became the responsible editor. After being employed as an accountant at a company, at the end of 1884 the association moved toward anarchist ideas. After the dissolution of the Worker League in 1889 and judicial proceedings against him, he reconciled with Colajanni, in 1891, he became the director of his newspaper LIsola. After a trip to Milan and Paris, he abandoned anarchism while studying the model of the Bourse du travail. He founded the Fasci dei lavoratori in Palermo and was part of the committee of the Fasci Siciliani. He was the keenest socialist among the Fasci leaders, in August 1892 he attended the Italian Socialist Party congress at Genoa and on his return obediently purged his fascio of its anarchist and other non-socialist members. His ideal of a democratic front was shared by the Colajanni. Following the repression by the government of Francesco Crispi, he was arrested on January 16,1894 and was brought to trial, acquitted on charges of armed conspiracy, he was nevertheless sentenced to 12 years for incitement to civil war. After two years he was released in March 1896 as the result of a pardon recognizing the excessive brutality of the repression. On May 26,1895, while still in prison for the Fasci revolt and he was a candidate in protest against the repression of the Fasci Siciliani in many national electoral districts. His appointment was canceled because his age was less than required by law. In 1896 he founded the Socialist Federation of Palermo, initially he joined the revolutionary current but passed over to more moderate positions. He wrote regularly for the outlet of the organisation, Il Giornale dei lavoratori. As a result of his more moderate politics that advocated alliances with bourgeois parties, in July 1900,18 socialist deputies were elected in the Palermo city council. He became a councilor and vice-mayor in consecutive city administrations, as a result, he founded the Camera del Lavoro in Palermo in September 1901
30.
Italian Socialist Party
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The Italian Socialist Party was a socialist and, later, social-democratic political party in Italy. Founded in Genoa in 1892, the PSI dominated the Italian left until after World War II, the PSI was disbanded in 1994 as a result of the Tangentopoli scandals. It was part of a wave of new socialist parties at the end of the 19th century and had to endure persecution by the Italian government during its early years. At the start of the 20th century, however, the PSI chose not to oppose the governments led by five-time Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti. This conciliation with the governments and its improving electoral fortunes helped to establish the PSI as a mainstream Italian political party by the 1910s. Despite the partys improving electoral results, however, the PSI remained divided into two branches, the Reformists and the Maximalists. The Reformists, led by Filippo Turati, were mostly in the unions. The Maximalists, led by Costantino Lazzari, were affiliated with the London Bureau of socialist groups, in 1912 the Maximalists led by Benito Mussolini prevailed at the party convention and this led to the split of the Italian Reformist Socialist Party. In the 1919 general election the PSI reached its highest result ever,32. 0% and 156 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, during this time period, Mussolini belonged to the Bolshevik wing of the Italian Socialist Party who purged moderate or reformist socialists. The national syndicalists intended to support Italian republicans in overthrowing the monarchy if such reforms were not made, the dominant internationalist and pacifist wing of the party remained committed to avoiding what it called a bourgeois war. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 the PSI quickly aligned itself in support of the communist Bolshevik movement in Russia, from 1919 to the 1920s the Socialists and the Fascists emerged as prominent rival movements in Italys urban centres, often resorting to political violence in their clashes. In 1919, the Socialist Party of Turin formed the Red Army of Turin, the left-wing of the party broke away in 1921 to form the Communist Party of Italy, a division from which the PSI never been recovered and which had enormous consequences on Italian politics. In 1922, another split occurred when the reformist wing of the party, in 1924 Giacomo Matteotti, a member of the PSU, was assassinated by Fascists and shortly afterwards a Fascist dictatorship was established in Italy. In 1925 the PSI and all political parties except the Fascist Party were banned. The partys leadership remained in exile during the Fascist years and in 1930 the PSU was re-integrated into the PSI, the party was a member of the Labour and Socialist International between 1930 and 1940. In the 1946 general election, the first after World War II, for the 1948 general election the Socialists led by Pietro Nenni chose to take part in the Popular Democratic Front along with the PCI. This caused the split of the faction within the party led by Giuseppe Saragat. The PSI was weakened by the split and was far less organized than the PCI, as a result, the Socialist parliamentary delegation was cut by a half
31.
Genoa
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Genoa is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015,594,733 people lived within the administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of Genoa, over 1.5 million people live in the wider metropolitan area stretching along the Italian Riviera. Genoa has been nicknamed la Superba due to its glorious past, part of the old town of Genoa was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2006. The citys rich history in notably its art, music. It is the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, Niccolò Paganini, Giuseppe Mazzini, Genoa, which forms the southern corner of the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle of north-west Italy, is one of the countrys major economic centres. The city has hosted massive shipyards and steelworks since the 19th century, the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, is among the oldest in the world and has played an important role in the citys prosperity since the middle of the 15th century. Today a number of leading Italian companies are based in the city, including Fincantieri, Selex ES, Ansaldo Energia, Ansaldo STS, Edoardo Raffinerie Garrone, Piaggio Aerospace, the Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC. In ancient times this area was frequented and inhabited by Ligures, Phoenicians, Phocaeans, Greeks, and Etruscans. The city cemetery, dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, testifies to the occupation of the site by the Greeks, but the fine harbour probably saw use much earlier, perhaps by the Etruscans. In the 5th century BC was founded the first oppidum at the foot of the today called the Castle Hill which now is inside the medieval old town. The ancient Ligurian city was known as Stalia, so referred to by Artemidorus Ephesius and Pomponius Mela, Ligurian Stalia was overshadowed by the powerful Marseille and Vada Sabatia, near modern Savona. Stalia had an alliance with Rome through a foedus aequum in the course of the Second Punic War, the Carthaginians accordingly destroyed it in 209 BC. The town was rebuilt and, after the Carthaginian Wars ended in 146 BC. it received municipal rights, the original castrum thenceforth expanded towards the current areas of Santa Maria di Castello and the San Lorenzo promontory. Trades included skins, wood, and honey, goods were shipped to the mainland, up to major cities like Tortona and Piacenza. Among the archeological remains from the Roman period, an amphitheatre was also found, another theory traces the name to the Etruscan word Kainua which means New City and still another from the Latin word ianua, related to the name of the God Janus, meaning door or passage. The latter is in reference to its position at the centre of the Ligurian coastal arch. The Latin name, oppidum Genua, is recorded by Pliny the Elder as part of the Augustean Regio IX Liguria, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogoths occupied Genoa
32.
Filippo Turati
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Filippo Turati was an Italian sociologist, criminologist, poet and Socialist politician. His Inno dei Lavoratori, adapted to music, became the most popular song of the nascent labor movement, Turati became interested in politics, being attracted to the democratic movement before joining the more specific Socialist groups. His most important sociological work of period is Il Delitto e la Questione Sociale. He met Anna Kulischov while working on a survey of conditions in Naples. Kulischov and Costa had split by the time she met Turati, the two immediately fell in love, and lived together until her death in 1925. Turati and Anna Kulischov were the most instrumental intellectuals in the founding of the Italian Socialist Party in 1892 and it was the most influential Marxist review in Italy before World War I. Shut down by Benito Mussolinis Fascist regime, it was reestablished after World War II, in the years following the partys foundation, the Italian government attempted to suppress it. Turati advocated alliances with other Italian democratic forces, meant to defeat the governments reactionary policies, in 1898 Turati was arrested and charged with being the inspirator of the popular riot that broke out in the whole country against the rise of the bread price. He was freed the following year, in 1901, Giuseppe Zanardelli, a Liberal, became Prime Minister – accompanied by Giovanni Giolitti as the Minister of the Interior – Giolitti who would dominate Italian politics until 1915. When the party Directorate refused to sanction the vote, he convinced the deputies to do so anyway, between 1901 and 1906, power in the party seesawed between the Turati-led reformists and the revolutionaries under various leaders. After 1906, splits surfaced among the reformists themselves, in 1912, as a result of Socialist reaction against the Italo-Turkish War, revolutionaries took over the party. Benito Mussolini, one of their leaders, became editor of the party newspaper Avanti, Turati opposed Mussolini, but proved unable to dislodge him. He had opposed the conflict, and would oppose Italys entrance into World War I – while Mussolini moved to an irredentist position, despite the fact that he was a pacifist in June 1918 he strongly supported the Italian Army that was fighting the Battle of Solstizio. Following World War I, Mussolini created the paramilitary Fasci Italiani di Combattimento, Filippo Turati and Anna Kulischov, who knew Mussolini well, were major opponents of Fascism, and lived under constant surveillance and threats. This policy was rejected and the PSI split in 1921, with the formation of the Italian Communist Party, in 1922, when Turatis group was expelled and established a new group, the Unitary Socialist Party. In 1924, Turatis disciple and Secretary of the PSU, Giacomo Matteotti, was assassinated by Mussolinis Ceka, this seminal event prompted Mussolini to formalize his dictatorship between 1925 and 1926. In 1926, Turati fled Italy in an escape to France – aided by Carlo Rosselli, Ferruccio Parri, Sandro Pertini and Adriano Olivetti. He died in the French capital in March 1932, after World War II, Turatis remains were transferred after to Milans Cimitero Monumentale, where he is buried next to Anna Kulischov
33.
Cristoforo Colombo (opera)
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Cristoforo Colombo is an opera in four acts and an epilogue by Alberto Franchetti to an Italian libretto by Luigi Illica. It was written in 1892 to commemorate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus arrival in America, an essentially melodic opera only tangentially influenced by the emerging verismo style, it is harmonically rich, with obvious references to the work of Richard Wagner and Meyerbeer. The Act 2 monologue contains a Rhine-like motif, after cries of Terra, the orchestra replies with Tristan-like ecstasy, and then a rainbow bridge-like triumph. The opera premiered at Genoas Teatro Carlo Felice on October 6,1892 conducted by Luigi Mancinelli with sets designed by Ugo Gheduzzi, the same year, it was performed in a revised version at La Scala, Milan. It had a number of performances throughout Italy, many of them conducted by Arturo Toscanini, the final version of 1923 contained three acts, omitting the American content altogether, although containing much of its music. One of Luigi Illicas first librettos, it had a difficult gestation due to difficulties with the composer, Illica withdrew his name from the project after the first performance. Individual arias Titta Ruffo Edition Two arias from Act 2 of the opera Aman lassu le stelle, Complete opera Cristoforo Colombo Renato Bruson, Roberto Scandiuzzi, Rosella Ragatzu, Gisella Pasino, Marco Berti, Hungarian Radio Chorus, Budapest, Frankfurt Radio Symphony Orchestra. Further Sources George Jellinek, History through the glass, Kahn & Averill,1994. ISBN 0-912483-90-3 Gustav Kobbé, The Complete Opera Book, G. P. Putnam, jürgen Maehder and Antonio Rostagno, Franchetti, Baron Alberto in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Stanley Sadie and John Tyrell,2001. Mercedes Viale Ferrero, La visione scenica di Cristoforo Colombo, Cristoforo Colombo – section on the official Alberto Franchetti web site. Discography of Franchettis Cristoforo Colombo – including live and unofficial recordings
34.
Alberto Franchetti
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Alberto Franchetti was an Italian opera composer. Alberto Franchetti was born in Turin, a Jewish nobleman of independent means and he studied first in Venice, then at the Munich Conservatory under Josef Rheinberger, and finally in Dresden under Felix Draeseke. His first major success occurred in 1888 with his opera Asrael and his operatic style combined Wagnerianism and the traits of Meyerbeer with Italian verismo. During his life, critics referred to him as the Meyerbeer of modern Italy. The words of music critic G. B, in this regard Alberto Franchetti knows that he has no rival. Grove considers Cristoforo Colombo Franchettis best work, however, his most popular opera was Germania. It clung to the operatic repertoire until the First World War, it was performed worldwide. But by the war, Germania had lapsed into obscurity, another version is that Franchetti waived his rights to the opera because he felt that Puccini would make a better job of it - this is believed to have been stated by the Franchetti family. Of Franchettis last opera Glauco only the third act finale No piange ancora with its haunting melody and this was despite a plea for tolerance on his behalf from Pietro Mascagni to Benito Mussolini, which was rejected, just before Franchettis death. Recent revivals and recordings of Cristoforo Colombo and Germania show his work to be of genuine quality with an ability in orchestration and use of the chorus. These traits, along with a tendency for two-dimensional characters, were recognised early. He also wrote a Symphony in E minor and he was the director of the Florence College of Music from 1926 to 1928, it was the only musical post he ever held. He died in Viareggio in 1942, aged 81 and he was a member of the World War 2 Italian Resistance Underground movement from 1946 to 1948. Arnold Franchetti was Professor of Composition at the Hartt School of Music, University of Hartford, the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Opera. London, New York and Melbourne, Oxford University Press
35.
Teatro Carlo Felice
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The Teatro Carlo Felice is the principal opera house of Genoa, Italy, used for performances of opera, ballet, orchestral music, and recitals. It is located on the Piazza De Ferrari, the hall is named for Duke Carlo Felice, and dates from 24 December 1824, when the Most Excellent Department of Theatres was established. On 31 January 1825, local architect Carlo Barabino submitted his design for the house which was to be built on the site of the church of San Domenico. The Dominican monks were moved elsewhere without delay or ceremony, the inaugural performance of Bellinis Bianca e Fernando took place on 7 April 1828, even though the structure and decoration were not quite finished. The auditorium accommodated an audience of about 2,500 in five tiers, a gallery above, the acoustics were considered among the best of the time. For nearly forty years from 1853, Verdi spent the winter in Genoa, in 1892, Genoa commemorated the 400th anniversary of Columbus discovery of America and to celebrate the occasion the Carlo Felice was renovated and redecorated at a cost of 420,000 lire. Verdi was approached to compose an opera, but he declined the honour. Alberto Franchettis opera Cristoforo Colombo premiered at the Carlo Felice on 6 October 1892, further damage was sustained on 5 August 1943 when incendiary bombs started a backstage fire which destroyed all scenery and wooden fittings, but did not reach the main auditorium. Unfortunately additional damage was caused by looters who stripped the back of the theatre of every possible scrap of metal they could find. Finally, an air raid in September 1944 caused the destruction of the front of the theatre leaving virtually only the outside walls, what had been the most richly beautiful of opera houses had become a skeleton of bare walls and roofless porticos. Reconstruction plans began immediately after the wars close, the first design by Paolo Antonio Chessa was rejected, the second by Carlo Scarpa was approved in 1977 but brought to a halt by his untimely death. Aldo Rossi ultimately provided todays design, in portions of the original facade have been recreated. The hall officially reopened in June 1991, with a main hall holding up to 2,000 seats and a smaller auditorium holding up to 200 seats
36.
Christopher Columbus
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Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer, navigator, colonizer, and citizen of the Republic of Genoa. Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean and those voyages and his efforts to establish permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola initiated the European colonization of the New World. Western imperialism and economic competition were emerging among European kingdoms through the establishment of routes and colonies. During his first voyage in 1492, he reached the New World instead of arriving at Japan as he had intended, landing on an island in the Bahamas archipelago that he named San Salvador. Over the course of three voyages, he visited the Greater and Lesser Antilles, as well as the Caribbean coast of Venezuela and Central America. These voyages had, therefore, an impact in the historical development of the modern Western world. He spearheaded the transatlantic trade and has been accused by several historians of initiating the genocide of the Hispaniola natives. Columbus himself saw his accomplishments primarily in the light of spreading the Christian religion, Columbus never admitted that he had reached a continent previously unknown to Europeans, rather than the East Indies for which he had set course. He called the inhabitants of the lands that he visited indios, the name Christopher Columbus is the Anglicisation of the Latin Christophorus Columbus. His name in Italian is Cristoforo Colombo and, in Spanish and he was born before 31 October 1451 in the territory of the Republic of Genoa, though the exact location remains disputed. His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who worked both in Genoa and Savona and who also owned a cheese stand at which young Christopher worked as a helper. Bartolomeo, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo were his brothers, Bartolomeo worked in a cartography workshop in Lisbon for at least part of his adulthood. He also had a sister named Bianchinetta, Columbus never wrote in his native language, which is presumed to have been a Genoese variety of Ligurian. In one of his writings, he says he went to sea at the age of 10, in 1470, the Columbus family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over a tavern. In the same year, Christopher was on a Genoese ship hired in the service of René of Anjou to support his attempt to conquer the Kingdom of Naples. Some modern historians have argued that he was not from Genoa but, instead and these competing hypotheses have generally been discounted by mainstream scholars. In 1473, Columbus began his apprenticeship as business agent for the important Centurione, Di Negro, later, he allegedly made a trip to Chios, an Aegean island then ruled by Genoa. In May 1476, he took part in a convoy sent by Genoa to carry valuable cargo to northern Europe
37.
Italian general election, 1892
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General elections were held in Italy on 6 November 1892, with a second round of voting on 13 November. The ministerial left-wing bloc emerged as the largest in Parliament, winning 323 of the 508 seats, the electoral system reverted to the pre-1882 method of using single-member constituencies with second round run-offs. Giovanni Giolittis first term as Prime Minister was marked by misfortune, the building crisis and the commercial rupture with France had impaired the situation of the state banks, of which one, the Banca Romana, had been further undermined by misadministration. The Banca Romana had loaned large sums to property developers but was left with huge liabilities when the real estate bubble collapsed in 1887, the new law failed to effect an improvement. The senate declined to admit Tanlongo, whom Giolitti, in consequence of an intervention in parliament upon the condition of the Banca Romana, was obliged to arrest, during the prosecution Giolitti abused his position as premier to abstract documents bearing on the case. Simultaneously a parliamentary commission of inquiry investigated the condition of the state banks and its report, though acquitting Giolitti of personal dishonesty, proved disastrous to his political position, and the ensuing Banca Romana scandal obliged him to resign. His policy was “to allow these economic struggles to resolve themselves through amelioration of the condition of the workers” and not to interfere in the process
38.
L'Asino
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The two took the pseudonyms Goliardo and Ratalanga, and with these nicknames signed the outputs of the weekly. The magazine immediately focused its attention on the collapse of the Banca Romana in 1893 and Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti, the success of the magazine led its two founders to embark on a daily publication at the beginning of 1895. However, this proved to be unsustainable and, in August 1895, in 1897 Podrecca and Galantara were arrested for subversive propaganda and LAsino had to suspend publication for a short period. After 1901, the magazine started to target the Catholic Church, as a result, the magazine was banned from Vatican City. In 1904 LAsino reached a circulation of 60,000, which rose to 100,000 before 1912, the magazine circulated widely among Italian immigrants in the United States. Due to its anticlerical and alleged pornographic content the papal nuncio in Washington D. C. succeeded to get it banned from entry in 1908, however, the ban was circumvented by printing an American edition in New York City. LAsino floundered, giving space to both positions, but the cartoons of Galantara against the war were more effective than the articles of Podrecca in favour of it. Both founders sided with the interventionists during World War I, publication was interrupted from 1918 to 1921, due to technical and economic difficulties, such as lack of paper. While Podrecca became a fascist, Galantara, who had returned to his initial socialist principles, for the cover of the final issue of LAsino, Galantara made a caricature of Mussolini, entitled Lui that would become a role model of foreign designers worldwide. Mussolini appeared with a bald head and surmounted by a crown on which is written trouble to anyone who touches me. In 1927, the sentence was commuted to probation, but he remained barred from any journalistic activity, danky, James Philip & Wiegand Wayne A. Print Culture in a Diverse America, Champaign, University of Illinois Press, ISBN 0-252-02398-6 Goldstein, the War for the Public Mind, Political Censorship in Nineteenth-century Europe, Westport, Praeger Publishers, ISBN 0-275-96461-2 Lernout, Geert. Help My Unbelief, James Joyce and Religion, London/New York, Continuum, ISBN 978-1-4411-9474-9 Tholas-Disset, Clémentine & Ritzenhoff, Karen A
