1.
1896 in Italy
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See also,1895 in Italy, other events of 1896,1897 in Italy. Events from the year 1896 in Italy, tovinis purpose was to create a Catholic bank as a counterbalance to Italys lay banks, and its goals were serving moral organisations, pious works, and religious bodies set up for charitable aims. The bank came to be known as the priests bank, february 1 – The world première performance of La bohème by Giacomo Puccini took place in Turin at the Teatro Regio and was conducted by the young Arturo Toscanini. March – The first Italian cinema screening by the Lumière brothers occurred in Turin, march 1 – The Battle of Adwa between Ethiopia and Italy near the town of Adwa, Ethiopia, in Tigray. It was the battle of the First Italo-Ethiopian War, securing Ethiopian sovereignty. The Italians suffered about 7,000 killed and 1,500 wounded in the battle and subsequent retreat back into Eritrea, Ethiopian losses have been estimated at around 4, 000–5,000 killed and 8,000 wounded. When the news reached Italy, street demonstrations and rioting broke out in major cities. March 8 – Crispi is succeeded by Antonio di Rudinì as Prime Minister and Minister of the Interior in a formed by the veteran Conservative, General Ricotti. April 3 – The first European sports newspaper La Gazzetta dello Sport was first published allowing it to cover the first modern 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, july 12 – The government of Prime Minister Di Rudini resigns after a proposal of War Minister Ricotti to reduce army personnel. July 14 – Di Rudini reforms his Cabinet, getting support from Giovanni Giolitti, Luigi Luzzatti becomes Minister of the Treasury and Luigi Pelloux Minister of War. September 30 – Italy and France sign a treaty whereby Italy virtually recognizes Tunisia as a French dependency, october 23 – The Treaty of Addis Ababa formally ended the First Italo–Ethiopian War on terms mostly favorable to Ethiopia. This treaty superseded an agreement between Ethiopia and Italy negotiated days after the decisive Battle of Adowa, in which Ethiopian forces commanded by Menelek II defeated the Italians. The most important concession the Italians made was the abrogation of the Treaty of Wuchale, december 25 – The first issue of Avanti. The official voice of the Italian Socialist Party, is published under the direction of Leonida Bissolati and it took its name from its German counterpart Vorwärts
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1860s
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The 1860s were an extremely different decade with numerous cultural, social, and political upheavals in Europe and America. Revolutions were prevalent in Germany and the Ottoman Empire, the abolition of slavery in America led to the breakdown of the Atlantic Slave Trade, which was already suffering from the abolition of slavery in most of Europe in the late 1820s and ’30s. After the Civil War, turmoil continued in Reconstruction, with the rise of white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, replacement of President of Mexico Benito Juárez at first with Juan Nepomuceno Almonte and then by Emperor Maximilian of Mexico with the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire. Juárez eventually manages to recover his position, on 18 October 1860, the first Convention of Peking formally ended the Second Opium War. The American Civil War lasted from 1861 to 1865, the Paraguayan War starts in South America, with the invasion of Paraguay by the Triple Alliance. It will kill almost 60% of the country’s population, the main phase of the New Zealand Wars between British colonials and the Māori population begins with the First Taranaki War in 1860. The most significant campaign is the Invasion of Waikato in 1863, the Kingdom of Prussia under Bismarck invaded Denmark in 1864, which ended in the division of Schleswig, the location of a pro-German revolt, between Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Though Prussia and Austria had both fought side by side in war, Prussia later attacked Austria in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. The technological and logistical superiority of Prussias armed forces obliterated Austria and its allies, by the end of these conflicts, Prussia was seen as the most powerful state in Germany, and had total hegemony over the other German states. The NGF was formed after the Austro-Prussian war, uniting the states of north Germany, the Bhutan War between the British Empire and Bhutan lasted from 1864 to 1865. It ended in a British victory and the loss of some Bhutanese territory to British India, beginning of the Reconstruction era under President Andrew Johnson. 1863–64 January Uprising in the Russian Empire, on 19 July 1864 the fall of Nanjing formally ended the 14-year Taiping Rebellion. Italian Unification under King Victor Emmanuel II, Wars for expansion and national unity continue until the incorporation of the Papal States. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, 15th and last of the Tokugawa shoguns loses control to the Meiji Emperor, the samurai class fails to survive while the daimyōs turn to politics. The Dominion of Canada is created by the British North America Act on July 1,1867, President of the United States Abraham Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, April 14,1865. King of Madagascar Radama II is captured by soldiers and strangled to death, manuel Isidoro Belzu, President of Bolivia is assassinated. Father of Canadian Confederation, Thomas DArcy McGee is assassinated by Patrick J. Whelan, sakamoto Ryōma, a prominent figure in the Bakumatsu era in Japan and part of the movement to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate, is assassinated along with Nakaoka Shintarō at a Kyoto inn in 1867. The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA is completed in 1869, the Suez Canal in Egypt is opened in 1869
6.
1870s
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The 1870s continued the trends of the previous decade, as new empires, imperialism and militarism rose in Europe and Asia. The United States was recovering from the American Civil War, germany unified in 1871 and began its Second Reich. Labor unions and strikes occurred worldwide in the part of the decade. The Reconstruction era of the United States brought a legacy of bitterness, franco-Prussian War resulted in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic and the German Empire. The Anglo-Zulu War lasted from 11 January 1879 to 4 July 1879, the Third Carlist War was the last Carlist War in Spain. Bulgaria and Romania declared independence following a war against the Ottoman Empire, the Sioux battled the United States Cavalry and resisted encroachment by white settlers on the Great Plains. Passive resistance was used to prevent the confiscation of Māori land at Parihaka in New Zealand, the German Empire and Alliance System emerged. Racial and economic politics in Americas Reconstruction were bitter, pessimistic, the Gilded Age began in 1874, lasting until 1896. The prototype telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the first version of the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, the steam drill is invented in 1879. Ludwig Boltzmann statistically defined thermodynamic entropy,1873 Weltausstellung in Vienna,1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia and 1878 Exposition universelle in Paris. Members of the association, which soon included Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar, the group soon became known as the Impressionists. Jeanne Calment, born 1875, would become the longest-living human being in recorded history. She lived until 1997, at the age of 122 and she still holds the record as of 2016. Lewis Carroll publishes Through the Looking-Glass
7.
1880s
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The 1880s was a decade that began on January 1,1880, and ended on December 31,1889. They occurred at the period of the Second Industrial Revolution. Most Western countries experienced an economic boom, due to the mass production of railroads. The modern city as well as the rose to prominence in this decade as well. The 1880s were also part of the Gilded Age, which lasted from 1874 to 1907, aceh War War of the Pacific Mahdist War 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War 13 September 1882 — British troops occupy Cairo, and Egypt becomes a British protectorate. American Indian Wars 20 July 1881 — Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of his people in surrender to United States troops at Fort Buford in Montana. Frequent lynchings of African Americans in Southern United States during the years 1880–1890 and this would be followed over the next few decades by conquest of almost the entirety of the remaining uncolonised parts of the continent, broadly along the lines determined. 3 August 1881, The Pretoria Convention peace treaty is signed,1884, International Meridian Conference in Washington D. C. held to determine the Prime Meridian of the world. 1884–1885, Berlin Conference, when the western powers divided Africa, the United States had five Presidents during the decade, the most since the 1840s. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Grover Cleveland, may to August,1883, Krakatoa, a volcano in Indonesia, erupted cataclysmically,36,000 people were killed, the majority being killed by the resulting tsunami. September 1887, The Yellow river flooded and killed about 900,000 people, the 1880s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts,13 March 1881 — Assassination of the Tsar of the Russian Empire Alexander II of Russia. 19 September 1881 — James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States 2 March 1882 — Roderick Maclean fails to assassinate Queen Victoria,3 April 1882 — Bob Ford assassinates Jesse James, legendary outlaw. 6 May 1882 - Lord Frederick Cavendish, Chief Secretary for Ireland,1880, Oliver Heaviside of Camden Town, London, England receives a patent for the coaxial cable. In 1887, Heaviside introduced the concept of loading coils, in the 1890s, Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin would both create the loading coils and receive a patent of them, failing to credit Heavisides work. 1880–1882, Development and commercial production of lighting was underway. Thomas Edison of Milan, Ohio, established Edison Illuminating Company on December 17,1880, based at New York City, it was the pioneer company of the electrical power industry. Edisons system was based on creating a power plant equipped with electrical generators. Copper electrical wires would then connect the station with other buildings, Pearl Street Station was the first central power plant in the United States
8.
1890s
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The phrase, The Gay Nineties, was not coined until the 1920s. This decade was also part of the Gilded Age, a phrase coined by Mark Twain, alluding to the seemingly profitable era that was riddled with crime and poverty. In the United States, the 1890s were marked by an economic depression sparked by the Panic of 1893. As of January 23,2017, there is only 1 verified living person who was born in the 1890s. On December 29,1890,365 troops of the US 7th Cavalry, supported by four Hotchkiss guns, surrounded an encampment of Miniconjou and Hunkpapa Sioux near Wounded Knee Creek, the Army had orders to escort the Sioux to the railroad for transport to Omaha, Nebraska. One day earlier, the Sioux had been cornered and agreed to themselves in at the Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota. They were the very last of the Sioux to do. the process of disarming the Sioux, the 7th Cavalry quickly suppressed the Sioux fire, and the surviving Sioux fled, but US cavalrymen pursued and killed many who were unarmed. By the time it was over, about 146 men, women, twenty-five troopers also died, some believed to have been the victims of friendly fire as the shooting took place at point-blank range in chaotic conditions. Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, with a number later dying from hypothermia. The incident is noteworthy as the engagement in history in which the most Medals of Honor have been awarded in the military history of the United States. This was the last tribe to be invaded which broke the backbone of the American Indian Wars,1891, Chilean Civil War fought from January to September. José Manuel Balmaceda, President of Chile, and the Chilean Army loyal to him face Jorge Montts Junta, the latter was formed by an alliance between the National Congress of Chile and the Chilean Navy. 1891, Tobacco Protest in Qajar dynasty Persia, on March 20,1890, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, Shah of Iran granted a concession to Major G. F. Talbot for a full monopoly over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for fifty years. In exchange, Talbot paid the shah an annual sum of £15,000 in addition to a quarter of the profits after the payment of all expenses. Now they were forced to seek permits from the Tobacco Régie as well as required to inform the concessionaires of the amount of tobacco produced, during the spring of 1891 mass protests against the Régie began to emerge in major Iranian cities. Initially it was the bazaaris who led the opposition under the conviction that it was their income, the reference to the Hidden Imam, a critical person in Shia Islam, meant that Shirazi was using the strongest possible language to oppose the Régie. Initially there was skepticism over the legitimacy of the fatwa, however Shirazi would later confirm the declaration,1892, The Johnson County War in Wyoming. Actually this range war took place in April 1892 in Johnson County, Natrona County, the combatants were the Wyoming Stock Growers Association and the Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers Association
9.
1900s (decade)
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The 1900s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1900, and ended on December 31,1909. The term nineteen-hundreds can also equally be used for the years 1900–1999, the Edwardian era covers a similar span of time. There are several varieties of how individual years of the decade are pronounced in English. Using 1906 as an example, they are nineteen-oh-six, nineteen-six, which variety is most prominent depends somewhat on global region and generation. In American English, nineteen-oh-six is the most common, nineteen-six is less common, nineteen-ought-six is recognized, the strength of the comedic effect diminished during the aughts of the next century, as the public grew used to questioning how to refer to an ohs or aughts decade. Russo-Japanese War establishes the Empire of Japan as a world power, battle of Riyadh was a minor battle of the Unification of Saudi Arabia. Battle of Dilam was a battle of the Unification War between Rashidi and Saudi rebels. First Saudi–Rashidi War was engaged between the Saudi loyal forces of the newborn Emirate of Riyadh versus the Emirate of Hail, demand for Home Rule for Ireland Herero and Namaqua Genocide in German South-West Africa. January 1,1901, British colonies in Australia federate, forming the Commonwealth of Australia May 20,1902 — Cuba gains independence from the United States, june 7,1905 — The Norwegian Parliament declares the union with Sweden dissolved, and Norway achieves full independence. October 5,1908 — Bulgaria declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire, April 19,1902 — A magnitude 7.5 earthquake rocks Guatemala, killing 2,000. May 8,1902 — In Martinique, Mount Pelée erupts, destroying the town of Saint-Pierre, April 7,1906 — Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples. September 18,1906 — A typhoon and tsunami kill an estimated 10,000 in Hong Kong, January 14,1907 — An earthquake in Kingston, Jamaica kills more than 1,000. December 28,1908 — An earthquake and tsunami destroys Messina, Sicily and Calabria, April 26,1900 — The Great Lumber Fire of Ottawa–Hull kills 7 and leaves 15,000 homeless. The fire began on a wharf and spread to the adjacent piers, warehouses, may 3,1901 — The Great Fire of 1901 begins in Jacksonville, FL, USA. July 10,1902 – The Rolling Mill Mine disaster in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, August 10,1903 — Paris Métro train fire. December 30,1903 — A fire at the Iroquois Theater in Chicago, February 7,1904 — The Great Baltimore Fire in Baltimore, USA destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours. June 15,1904 — A fire aboard the steamboat General Slocum in New York Citys East River kills 1,021, june 28,1904 — The Danish ocean liner SS Norge runs aground and sinks close to Rockall, killing 635, including 225 Norwegian emigrants. January 22,1906 — The SS Valencia strikes a reef off Vancouver Island, Canada, the 1900s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts, July 29,1900 — King Umberto I of Italy is assassinated by Italian-born anarchist Gaetano Bresci
10.
1910s
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The 1910s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1910, and ended on December 31,1919. The 1910s represented the culmination of European militarism which had its beginnings during the half of the 19th century. The murder triggered a chain of events in which, within 33 days, the conflict dragged on until a truce was declared on November 11,1918, leading to the controversial, one-sided Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on June 28,1919. However, each of these states had large German and Hungarian minorities, the decade was also a period of revolution in a number of countries. Russia also had a similar fate, since World War I led to a collapse in morale as well as to economic chaos and this atmosphere encouraged the establishment of Bolshevism, which was later renamed as communism. Like the Mexican Revolution, the Russian Revolution of 1917, known as the October Revolution, much of the music in these years was ballroom-themed. Many of the restaurants were equipped with dance floors. Prohibition in the United States began January 16,1919, with the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, armenian Genocide during and just after World War I. Wadai War Italo-Turkish War First Balkan Wars – two wars took place in South-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. Saudi-Ottoman War Latvian War of Independence - a military conflict in Latvia between the Republic of Latvia and the Russian SFSR. The Russian Revolution is the term for the series of revolutions in Russia in 1917. April 13,1919 - The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, at Amritsar in the Punjab Province of British India, sows the seeds of discontent, xinhai Revolution causes the overthrow of Chinas ruling Qing Dynasty, and the establishment of the Republic of China. Madero proclaims the elections of 1910 null and void, and calls for a revolution at 6 p. m. against the illegitimate presidency/dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. The revolution lead to the ouster of Porfirio Díaz six months later, the Revolution progressively becomes a civil war with multiple factions and phases, culminating with the Mexican Constitution of 1917, but combat would persist for three more years. Germany abolishes its monarchy and becomes under the rule of a new elected government called the Weimar Republic, federal Reserve Act is passed by United States Congress, establishing a Central Bank in the US. George V becomes king in Britain, fourteen Points as designed by United States President Woodrow Wilson advocates the right of all nations to self-determination. Rise to power of the Bolsheviks in Russia under Vladimir Lenin, creating the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, easter Rising against the British in Ireland, eventually leads to Irish independence. Several nations in Eastern Europe get their own state, thereby replacing major multiethnic empires
11.
1920s
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The 1920s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,1920, and ended on December 31,1929. French speakers refer to the period as the Années folles, emphasizing the social, artistic. The economic prosperity experienced by many countries during the 1920s was similar in nature to that experienced in the 1950s and 1990s, each period of prosperity was the result of a paradigm shift in global affairs. These shifts in the 1920s, 1950s, and 1990s, occurred in part as the result of the conclusion of World War I and Spanish flu, World War II, the 1920s saw foreign oil companies begin operations throughout South America. Venezuela became the second largest oil producing nation. In some countries the 1920s saw the rise of political movements. Communism spread as a consequence of the October Revolution and the Bolsheviks’ victory in the Russian Civil War, fear of the spread of Communism led to the emergence of far right political movements and fascism in Europe. The devastating Wall Street Crash in October 1929 is generally viewed as a harbinger of the end of 1920s prosperity in North America, the Roaring Twenties brought about several novel and highly visible social and cultural trends. These trends, made possible by sustained economic prosperity, were most visible in major cities like New York, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, “Normalcy” returned to politics in the wake of hyper-emotional patriotism during World War I, jazz blossomed, and Art Deco peaked. For women, knee-length skirts and dresses became socially acceptable, as did bobbed hair with a marcel wave, the women who pioneered these trends were frequently referred to as flappers. The media began to focus on celebrities, especially sports heroes, large baseball stadiums were built in major U. S. cities, in addition to palatial cinemas. Most independent countries passed womens suffrage after 1918, especially as a reward for support of the war effort and endurance of its deaths. Egypt officially becomes an independent country through the Declaration of 1922, though it remains under the military. Prohibition was finally repealed in 1933, organized crime turns to smuggling and bootlegging of liquor, led by figures such as Al Capone, boss of the Chicago Outfit. The Immigration Act of 1924 places restrictions on immigration, the major sport was baseball and the most famous player was Babe Ruth. The Lost Generation, was the name Gertrude Stein gave to American writers, poets, and artists living in Europe during the 1920s. A peak in the early 1920s in the membership of the Ku Klux Klan of four to five million members, followed by a rapid decline down to an estimated 30,000 members by 1930. The Scopes Trial, which declared that John T. Scopes had violated the law by teaching evolution in schools, major armed conflict in Ireland including Irish War of Independence resulting in Ireland becoming an independent country in 1922 followed by the Irish Civil War
12.
1890
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As of the start of 1890, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 The Kingdom of Italy establishes Eritrea as its colony in the Horn of Africa, in Michigan, the wooden steamer Mackinaw burns in a fire on the Black River. January 2 The steamship Persia is wrecked off Corsica,130 lives are lost, alice Sanger becomes the first female staffer in the White House. January 25 The United Mine Workers of America is founded, nellie Bly completes her round-the-world journey in 72 days. February 9 – The Weather Bureau is established within the United States Department of Agriculture, february 17 – The British steamship Duburg is wrecked in the South China Sea,400 lives are lost. February 24 – Chicago is selected to host the Columbian Exposition March 1 The British steamship Quetia founders in the Torres Straits,124 lives are lost, léon Bourgeois succeeds Jean Antoine Ernest Constans as French Minister of the Interior. March 3 – The first American football game in Ohio State University history is played in Delaware, Ohio, against Ohio Wesleyan, March 4 – The Forth Bridge across the Firth of Forth in Scotland is opened to rail traffic. March 8 – North Dakota State University is founded in Fargo, March 17 – The first railway in Transvaal, the Randtram, opens between Boksburg and Braamfontein in Johannesburg. March 20 – Kaiser Wilhelm II dismisses Otto von Bismarck, March 27 – The March 1890 middle Mississippi Valley tornado outbreak,24 significant tornadoes are spawned by one system killing least 146 people. March 28 – Washington State University is founded in Pullman, april 2 – Kashihara Shrine, a landmark spot in Nara Prefecture, Japan, officially built by Emperor Mutsuhito. April 14 – First International Conference of American States in Washington DC, may 1 – A coordinated series of mass rallies and one-day strikes held throughout many cities and mining towns in Europe and North America to demand an eight-hour workday. May 2 – Oklahoma Territory becomes effective, may 12 – The first ever official English County Championship cricket match begins in Bristol, Yorkshire beats Gloucestershire by 8 wickets. May 20 – Dutch artist Vincent van Gogh moves to Auvers-sur-Oise on the edge of Paris in the care of Dr Paul Gachet where he will produce around seventy paintings in as many days, may 31 – The 5-story skylight Arcade opens in Cleveland, Ohio. June 1 – The United States Census Bureau begins using Herman Holleriths tabulating machine to tabulate census returns using punched card input, june 12 – In Michigan, the wooden steamer Ryan is lost near Thunder Bay Island. June 20 – The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde published by Philadelphia-based Lippincotts Monthly Magazine, june 27 – Canadian-born boxer George Dixon defeats the British bantamweight champion in London, giving him claim to be the first black world champion in any sport. July 1 – Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty is signed by Great Britain and Germany, July 2 – The Sherman Antitrust Act and Sherman Silver Purchase Act become United States law. July 3 – Idaho is admitted as the 43rd U. S. state, July 10 – Wyoming is admitted as the 44th U. S. state. July 13 – In Minnesota, storms result in the Sea Wing disaster on Lake Pepin, July 14 – First recorded use of lime-green to describe a color
13.
1891
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As of the start of 1891, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Paying of old age pensions begins in Germany, january 5 – Beginning of the Australian shearers strike that leads indirectly to the foundation of the Australian Labor Party. January 16 – The Chilean Civil War of 1891 breaks out, january 20 – Jim Hogg becomes the first native Texan to be governor of that state. January 27–May 2 – Jamaica International Exhibition, january 29 – Liliuokalani is proclaimed Queen of Hawaii. January 31 – The Portuguese republican revolution breaks out in the city of Porto. February – Beginning of the Tobacco Protest in Iran, february 14 – In the FA Cup quarter final in English Association football, a goal is deliberately stopped by handball on the goal line. An indirect free kick is awarded, since the penalty kick and this event probably changes public opinion on the penalty kick, seen previously as an Irishmans motion. February 15 – Allmänna Idrottsklubben sports club is founded in Stockholm, february 21 – Springhill, Nova Scotia, suffers a serious mining disaster. March 3 – The International Copyright Act of 1891 is passed by the 51st United States Congress, march 12 – Djurgårdens IF sports club is founded in Stockholm. March 14 – In New Orleans, a lynch mob storms the Old Parish Prison and lynches 11 Italians arrested, march 15 – Jesse W. Reno patents the first escalator at Coney Beach. March 17 – The British steamship SS Utopia, carrying Italian migrants to New York, sinks in the harbor of Gibraltar after collision with the battleship HMS Anson. March 18 – Official opening of the London–Paris telephone system, april 1 The Wrigley Company is founded in Chicago. The London–Paris telephone system is opened to the general public. April 5 – Census in the United Kingdom,15.6 million people live in cities of 20,000 or more in England, may – Mirza Ghulam Ahmad claims to be the Promised Messiah and the Mahdi awaited in Islam. May 1 Troops fire on a workers May Day demonstration in support of the 8-hour workday in Fourmies, France, killing 9, the first Fascio dei lavoratori is founded by Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida in Catania, Sicily. May 5 – The Music Hall in New York has its opening and first public performance. May 11 – Ōtsu incident, Tsesarevich Nikolay Alexandrovich of Russia survives an assassination attempt while visiting Japan, may 15 – Pope Leo XIII issues the encyclical Rerum novarum on the rights and duties of capital and labor, resulting in the creation of many Christian Democrat parties throughout Europe. May 20 – Thomas Edisons prototype kinetoscope is first displayed at Edisons Laboratory, june 1 – The Johnstown Inclined Plane opens in Johnstown, Pennsylvania
14.
1892
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As of the start of 1892, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Ellis Island begins accommodating immigrants to the United States, January 15 –James Naismiths rules for basketball are published for the first time in the Springfield YMCA International Training Schools newspaper, in an article titled A New Game. February 18 – Pennsauken Township, New Jersey is incorporated, February 27 – Rudolf Diesel applies for a patent on his compression ignition engine. February 29 – St. Petersburg, Florida is incorporated, march 1 – Theodoros Deligiannis ends his term as Prime Minister of Greece and Konstantinos Konstantopoulos takes office. March 6–8 – Exclusive Agreement, Rulers of the Trucial States sign an agreement by which they become de facto British protectorates, march 11 – First basketball game ever played in public, between students and faculty at the Springfield YMCA. The final score is 5–1 in favor of the students, with the goal for the faculty being scored by Amos Alonzo Stagg. A crowd of 200 spectators watches the game, march 13 – Ernest Louis, a grandson of Queen Victoria, becomes Grand Duke of Hesse and the Rhine on the death of his father, Grand Duke Louis IV. March 15 – The Liverpool Football Club is founded by John Houlding, Houlding decides to form his own team after Everton leaves Anfield in an argument over rent. March 18 – Sir Frederick Stanley announces his intention to donate the Stanley Cup, march 20 – The first ever French rugby championship final takes place in Paris. Pierre de Coubertin referees the match, which Racing Club de France wins 4–3 over Stade Français, march 31 – The worlds first fingerprinting bureau is formally opened by the Buenos Aires Chief of Police, it has been operating unofficially since the previous year. April – The Johnson County War breaks out between small farmers and large ranchers in Wyoming, April 15 – The General Electric Company is established through the merger of the Thomson-Houston Company and the Edison General Electric Company. April 29 – Redondo Beach, California, USA is founded, may 7 – The Cook Islands issue their first postage stamps. May 19 – Battle of Yemoja River, British troops defeat Ijebu infantry in modern-day Nigeria, may 20 – Last broad gauge Down train from Paddington on Great Western Railway. May 22 – The British conquest of Ijebu Ode marks a major extension of power into the Nigerian interior. May 24 – Prince George becomes Duke of York, may 28 – In San Francisco, John Muir organizes the Sierra Club. June 4 – Abercrombie & Fitch is established by David T. Abercrombie, june 5 – An oil fire in Oil City, Pennsylvania, kills 130 people. June 7 – Homer Plessy is arrested for sitting on the car in Louisiana. June 11 – The Limelight Department, later one of the worlds first film studios, is established in Melbourne
15.
1893
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As of the start of 1893, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 2 – Webb C. Ball introduces railroad chronometers, which become the general railroad timepiece standards in North America, january 13 – The Independent Labour Party of the United Kingdom has its first meeting. January 15 – The Telefon Hírmondó service starts with around 60 subscribers in Budapest, january 21 – The Cherry Sisters first perform in Marion, Iowa. February 1 – Thomas Edison finishes construction of the first motion picture studio in West Orange, february 19 – The SS Naronic is believed to have sunk due to a storm. February 23 – Rudolf Diesel receives a patent for the diesel engine, february 24 – American University is established by an Act of Congress in Washington, D. C. February 28 – USS Indiana, the first battleship in the United States Navy comparable to other battleships of this time, is launched. March 4 – Grover Cleveland is sworn in as President of the United States, march 10 – Ivory Coast becomes a French colony. March 20 – In Belgium, Adam Worth is sentenced to 7 years for robbery, april 1 – The rank of Chief Petty Officer is established in the United States Navy. April 6 – The iconic Salt Lake Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is dedicated after 40 years of construction, april 8 – The first recorded college basketball game occurs in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania between the Geneva College Covenanters and the New Brighton YMCA. April 17 – Riots of Mons during the Belgian general strike of 1893, The day after, april 17 – The sorority Alpha Xi Delta is founded at Lombard College in Galesburg, Illinois. May – The Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland is formed, may 1 – The 1893 Worlds Fair, also known as the Worlds Columbian Exposition, opens to the public in Chicago, USA. The first United States commemorative postage stamps are issued for the Exposition, may 5 – Panic of 1893, A crash on the New York Stock Exchange starts a depression. May 9 – Edisons 1½ inch system of Kinetoscope is first demonstrated in public at the Brooklyn Institute, may 10 – Nix v. Hedden, the United States Supreme Court legally declares the tomato to be a vegetable. June 6 – Prince George, Duke of York marries Mary of Teck, june 7 – Gandhi commits his first act of civil disobedience in India. June 17 – Gold is found in Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, june 20 – The Wengernalpbahn railway in Wengen, Switzerland is opened. June 20 – Lizzie Borden acquitted of murdering her parents in Fall River, june 22 – The flagship HMS Victoria of the British Mediterranean Fleet collides with HMS Camperdown and sinks in 10 minutes, Vice-admiral Sir George Tryon goes down with his ship. July 1 – U. S. President Grover Cleveland is operated on in secret, July 6 – The small town of Pomeroy, Iowa, is nearly destroyed by a tornado,71 people are killed and 200 injured. July 11 A revolution led by general and politician José Santos Zelaya takes over power in Nicaragua
16.
1894
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As of the start of 1894, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. February – In Korea, peasant unrest erupts in the Donghak Peasant Revolution, both China and Japan send military forces, claiming to come to the ruling Joseon dynasty governments aid. January 7 – William Kennedy Dickson receives a patent for motion picture film, january 9 – New England Telephone and Telegraph installs the first battery-operated telephone switchboard in Lexington, Massachusetts. February 17 – American outlaw John Wesley Hardin is released from prison, march 12 – For the first time, Coca-Cola is sold in bottles. March 21 – A syzygy of planets occurs as Mercury transits the Sun as seen from Venus, march 25 – Coxeys Army, the first significant protest march in the United States, departs from Massillon, Ohio, for Washington, D. C. January 4 – A military alliance is established between the French Third Republic and the Russian Empire, february 12 French anarchist Émile Henry sets off a bomb in a Paris café, killing one person and wounding twenty. The barque Elisabeth Rickmers of Bremerhaven is wrecked at Haurvig, Denmark, february 15 – At 04,51 GMT, French anarchist Martial Bourdin attempts to destroy the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, England, with a bomb, killing himself instead. April 11 – Britain establishes a Protectorate over Uganda, April 16 – Manchester City Football Club is formed in England. April 21 A bituminous coal miners strike closes mines across the central United States, April 23 – St. April 27 – Canadas largest known landslide occurred in Saint-Alban, Quebec. Displacing 185 million cubic metres of rock and dirt, leaving a 40 metres scar, may – Bubonic plague breaks out in the Tai Ping Shan area of Hong Kong. May 1 Coxeys Army arrives in Washington, Coxey is arrested, the May Day Riots break out in Cleveland, Ohio. May 11 – Pullman Strike, Three thousand Pullman Palace Car Company factory workers go on a strike in Illinois. May 14 A meteor shower is seen in southern France, Blackpool Tower is opened in Blackpool, England. May 21 – The Manchester Ship Canal and Docks are opened by Queen Victoria, june 22 – Dahomey becomes a French colony. June 23 – The International Olympic Committee is founded at the Sorbonne, Paris, june 24 – Sadi Carnot, president of France, is assassinated. June 30 – The Tower Bridge in London opens for traffic, july – A fire at the site of the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago destroys most of the remaining buildings. July 4 The Republic of Hawaii is proclaimed by Sanford B, the football club FC La Chaux-de-Fonds is founded in Switzerland. July 22 – Paris–Rouen Competition for Horseless Carriages, the first automobile competition, august 1 – War is declared between the Qing Empire of China and the Empire of Japan, over their rival claims of influence on their common ally, the Joseon dynasty of Korea
17.
1895
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As of the start of 1895, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 5 – Dreyfus affair, French officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his army rank, january 17 – Félix Faure is elected President of French Republic after the resignation of Jean Casimir-Perier. January 21 – The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty is founded in England by Octavia Hill, Robert Hunter, february 9 – Mintonette, later known as volleyball, is created by William G. Morgan at Holyoke, Massachusetts. February 11 – The lowest ever UK temperature of −27.2 °C is recorded at Braemar in Aberdeenshire and this record is equalled in 1982 and again in 1995. February 14 – Oscar Wildes last play, the comedy The Importance of Being Earnest, is first shown at St Jamess Theatre in London, february 20 – Venezuelan crisis of 1895, U. S. The bill recommends Venezuela and Great Britain settle their dispute by arbitration, february 25 – The first rebellions take place marking the start of the Cuban War of Independence. March 1 – William Lyne Wilson is appointed United States Postmaster General, March 3 – In Munich, bicyclists have to pass a test and display license plates. March 4 – Japanese troops capture Liaoyang and land in Taiwan, March 18 – First worldwide gasoline bus started in Germany between Siegen and Netphen March 30 – Rudolf Diesel patents the Diesel engine in Germany. April 6 – Oscar Wilde is arrested in London for gross indecency after losing a libel case against the Marquess of Queensberry. April 7 – Nansens Fram expedition to the Arctic reaches 86°13. 6N, april 14 – A major earthquake severely damages Ljubljana, the capital of Carniola. April 16 – The town of Sturgeon Falls, Ontario, is incorporated, april 17 – The Treaty of Shimonoseki is signed between China and Japan. The huge indemnity exacted from China is used to establish the Yawata Iron, april 22 – Gongche Shangshu movement,603 candidates sign a 10, 000-word petition against the Treaty of Shimonoseki. April 27 – The historic Spiral Bridge was constructed to carry U. S.61 over the Mississippi River at Hastings, the picturesque Spiral Bridge was a one-of-a-kind and served the citizens of Hastings for 56 years until it was demolished in 1951 Hastings, Minnesota. May 1 – Dundela Football, Sports & Association Club formed in Belfast, may 2 – Gongche Shangshu movement, Thousands of Beijing scholars and citizens protest against the Treaty of Shimonoseki. May 24 – Anti-Japanese officials led by Tang Ching-sung in Taiwan declare independence from the Qing dynasty, may 25 – R. v. June 5 Liberal Revolution begins in Ecuador, being the civil war more intense in this country. June 11 Britain annexes Tongaland, between Zululand and Mozambique, paris–Bordeaux–Paris is sometimes called the first automobile race in history or the first motor race. June 20 The Kiel Canal, connecting the North Sea to the Baltic across the base of the Jutland peninsula in Germany, is officially opened, Treaty of Amapala establishes union of Nicaragua, Honduras and El Salvador begins. June 28 – The United States Court of Private Land Claims rules that James Reaviss claim to Barony of Arizona is wholly fictitious, night of July 10–July 11 – The Doukhobors pacifist protests culminate in the Burning of the ass in the South Caucasus
18.
1896
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As of the start of 1896, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January – Fourth Anglo-Ashanti War, British redcoats enter the Ashanti capital, Kumasi, January 2 – The Jameson Raid comes to an end, as Jameson surrenders to the Boers. January 4 – Utah is admitted as the 45th U. S. state, January 5 – An Austrian newspaper reports that Wilhelm Röntgen has discovered a type of radiation later known as X-rays. January 6 – Cecil Rhodes is forced to resign as Prime Minister of the Cape of Good Hope for his involvement in the Jameson Raid, January 7 – Fannie Farmer publishes her first cookbook. January 12 – H. L. Smith takes the first X-ray photograph, January 18 – The X-ray machine is exhibited for the first time. January 28 – Walter Arnold, of East Peckham, Kent, England, is fined 1 shilling for speeding at 8 mph, february 1 – Puccinis opera La bohème premieres in Turin, Italy. February 4 – International Association of Bridge and Structural Iron Workers is established in Pittsburgh, february 11 – Oscar Wildes play Salomé premieres in Paris. February 19 – Braamfontein Explosion, A train carrying 56 tons of dynamite explodes at Braamfontein, Johannesburg, march 1 – Battle of Adwa, Ethiopia defends its independence from Italy, ending the First Italo-Ethiopian War. March 3 – Publication begins of the worlds first magazine with an orientation to male homosexuality, Der Eigene, march 9 – Responding to national outrage at the defeat at Adwa, Italian Prime Minister Francesco Crispi resigns. March 23 – The New York State Legislature passes the Raines law, april – The first study of the sensitivity of global climate to atmospheric carbon dioxide is published. April 3 – The first edition of the Italian sports newspaper La Gazzetta dello Sport is published, april 4 – The first known womens basketball game between two colleges is played between Stanford and California. April 6 – The opening ceremonies of the 1896 Summer Olympics, april 9 – The National Farm School is chartered in Doylestown, PA. May 8 – Cricket, Against Warwickshire, Yorkshire sets a still-standing County Championship record when they accumulate a total of 887. May 13 – The Franchise Bill is passed by the Colony of Natals Legislative Assembly, may 18 – Plessy v. Ferguson, The U. S. Supreme Court introduces the separate but equal doctrine and upholds racial segregation. May 26 – Eleven years after its foundation, a group of 12 purely industrial stocks were chosen to form the Dow Jones Industrial Average, the index was composed entirely of industrial shares for the first time. June 4 – The Ford Quadricycle, the first Ford vehicle ever developed, is completed, june 7 – Mahdist War, British and Egyptian victory at the Battle of Ferkeh. June 12 – J. T. Hearne sets a record for the earliest date of taking 100 wickets in cricket, june 15 – The 1896 Sanriku earthquake and tsunami in Japan kills 27,000. June 18 – The New York Telephone Company is formed, succeeding the Metropolitan Telephone and Telegraph Company, june 23 – Liberal leader Wilfrid Laurier defeats Charles Tupper during Canadian federal elections for the 8th Canadian Parliament to become the first francophone Prime Minister of Canada
19.
Kingdom of Italy
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The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state. Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia in 1866, Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power. Italy entered into a Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations. Fascist Italy is the era of National Fascist Party rule from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government, according to Payne, Fascist regime passed through several relatively distinct phases. The first phase was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, then came the second phase, the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper from 1925 to 1929. The third phase, with activism, was 1929–34. The war itself was the phase with its disasters and defeats. Italy was allied with Nazi Germany in World War II until 1943 and it switched sides to the Allies after ousting Mussolini and shutting down the Fascist party in areas controlled by the Allied invaders. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the referendum of 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic, the Kingdom of Italy claimed all of the territory which is modern-day Italy. The development of the Kingdoms territory progressed under Italian re-unification until 1870, the state for a long period of time did not include Trieste or Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, which are in Italy today, and only annexed them in 1919. After the Second World War, the borders of present-day Italy were founded, the Kingdom of Italy was theoretically a constitutional monarchy. Executive power belonged to the monarch, as executed through appointed ministers, two chambers of parliament restricted the monarchs power—an appointive Senate and an elective Chamber of Deputies. The kingdoms constitution was the Statuto Albertino, the governing document of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In theory, ministers were responsible to the king. However, in practice, it was impossible for an Italian government to stay in office without the support of Parliament, members of the Chamber of Deputies were elected by plurality voting system elections in uninominal districts. A candidate needed the support of 50% of those voting, and of 25% of all enrolled voters, if not all seats were filled on the first ballot, a runoff was held shortly afterwards for the remaining vacancies. After a brief multinominal experimentation in 1882, proportional representation into large, regional, Socialists became the major party, but they were unable to form a government in a parliament split into three different factions, with Christian Populists and classical liberals
20.
Umberto I of Italy
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It can also refer to Humbert I, Count of Savoy and to Humbert I of Viennois, Dauphin of the Viennois. Umberto I, nicknamed the Good, was the King of Italy from 9 January 1878 until his assassination on 29 July 1900. Umbertos reign saw Italy attempt colonial expansion into the Horn of Africa, successfully gaining Eritrea, in 1882, he approved the Triple Alliance with the German Empire and Austria-Hungary. He was deeply loathed in leftist circles because of his conservatism and he was especially hated by anarchists, who attempted an assassination on him during the first year of his reign. He was killed by another anarchist, Gaetano Bresci, two years after the Bava-Beccaris massacre. The son of Victor Emmanuel II and Archduchess Adelaide of Austria, Umberto was born in Turin and his education was entrusted to, amongst others, Massimo Taparelli, marquis dAzeglio and Pasquale Stanislao Mancini. From March 1858 he had a career in the Sardinian army. It proved difficult to find any royal bride for either of the sons of king Victor Emmanuel II and their conflict with the papacy did not help these matters. Not many eligible Catholic royal brides were easily available for young Umberto. At first, Umberto was to marry Archduchess Mathilde of Austria, on 21 April 1868 Umberto married his first cousin, Margherita Teresa Giovanna, Princess of Savoy. Their only son was Victor Emmanuel, prince of Naples, the King warded off the blow with his sabre, but Cairoli, in attempting to defend him, was severely wounded in the thigh. The would-be assassin was condemned to death, even though the law allowed the death penalty if the King was killed. The King commuted the sentence to one of penal servitude for life, passanante would later die in a psychiatric institution. In foreign policy Umberto I approved the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany, repeatedly visiting Vienna, many in Italy, however, viewed with hostility an alliance with their former Austrian enemies, who were still occupying areas claimed by Italy. Umberto was also favorably disposed towards the policy of colonial expansion inaugurated in 1885 by the occupation of Massawa in Eritrea, Italy expanded into Somalia in the 1880s as well. In the summer of 1900, Italian forces were part of the Eight-Nation Alliance which participated in the Boxer Rebellion in Imperial China, through the Boxer Protocol, signed after Umbertos death, the Kingdom of Italy gained a concession territory in Tientsin. Umbertos attitude towards the Holy See was uncompromising, in an 1886 telegram, he declared Rome untouchable and affirmed the permanence of the Italian possession of the Eternal City. The reign of Umberto I was a time of social upheaval, the protesters included the young Benito Mussolini, then a member of the socialist party
21.
Prime Minister of Italy
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The office of Prime Minister is established by Articles 92 through to 96 of the Constitution of Italy. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Republic after each general election, prior to the establishment of the Italian Republic, the position was called President of the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of Italy. King Victor Emmanuel III removed Mussolini from office in 1943 and the position was restored with Marshal Pietro Badoglio becoming Prime Minister in 1943, Alcide De Gasperi became the first Prime Minister of the Italian Republic in 1946. The Prime Minister is the President of the Council of Ministers—which holds executive power, the position is similar to those in most other parliamentary systems. The formal Italian order of precedence lists the office as being ceremonially the fourth most important Italian state office, as the President of the Council of Ministers the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet. In addition the Prime Minister leads a political party and generally commands the majority in the Parliament. Article 95 of the Italian constitution provides that the Prime Minister directs, the Prime Ministers activity has often consisted of mediating between the various parties in the majority coalition, rather than directing the activity of the Council of Ministers. The office was first established in 1848 in Italys predecessor state, the Kingdom of Sardinia—although it was not mentioned in its constitution, from 1848 to 1861 ten Prime Ministers governed the Kingdom, most of them being right-wing politicians. After the Unification of Italy and the establishment of the kingdom, in fact the candidate for office was appointed by the king, and presided over a very unstable political system. The first Prime Minister was Camillo Benso di Cavour, who was appointed on 23 March 1861, from 1861 to 1911 Historical Right and Left Prime Ministers alternatively governed the country. One of the most famous and influential Prime Ministers of this period was Francesco Crispi, a patriot and statesman. He led the country for six years, from 1887 until 1891, Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as Bismarck, Gladstone and Salisbury. Originally an enlightened Italian patriot and democrat liberal, he went on to become a bellicose authoritarian prime minister, ally, and admirer of Bismarck. His career ended amid controversy and failure due to becoming involved in a banking scandal. He is often seen as a precursor of the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, in 1892 Giovanni Giolitti, a young leftist politician, was elected Prime Minister by king Umberto I, but after less than a year he was forced to resign and Crispi returned to power. In 1903 after a period of instability he was appointed head of the government. Giolitti was the Prime Minister five times between 1892 and 1921 and the second-longest serving Prime Minister in Italian history, after Mussolini, under his influence, the Italian Liberals did not develop as a structured party. They were instead a series of informal personal groupings with no links to political constituencies
22.
Giovanni Giolitti
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Giovanni Giolitti was an Italian statesman. He was the Prime Minister of Italy five times between 1892 and 1921 and he is the second-longest serving Prime Minister in Italian history, after Benito Mussolini. He was a prominent leader of the Historical Left and the Liberal Union, under his influence, the Italian Liberals did not develop as a structured party, they were, instead, a series of informal personal groupings with no formal links to political constituencies. Besides putting in place several tariffs, subsidies and government projects, Giolitti also nationalized the private telephone, Liberal proponents of free trade criticized the Giolittian System, although Giolitti himself saw the development of the national economy as essential in the production of wealth. However his highly complex legacy continues to stimulate debate amongst writers. His father Giovenale Giolitti had been working in the avvocatura dei poveri and he died in 1843, a year after Giovanni was born. The family moved in the home of his mother Enrichetta Plochiù in Turin and his mother taught him to read and write, his education in the gymnasium San Francesco da Paola of Turin was marked by poor discipline and little commitment to study. He did not like mathematics and the study of Latin and Greek grammar, preferring the history and reading the novels of Walter Scott, at sixteen he entered the University of Turin and, after three years, he earned a law degree in 1860. His uncle was a member of the Parliament of the Kingdom of Sardinia and a friend of Michelangelo Castelli. However Giolitti did not appear interested in the Risorgimento and differently to many of his fellow students. Subsequently, he pursued a career in administration in the Ministry of Grace and Justice. In 1869 he moved to the Ministry of Finance, becoming an official and working along with important members of the ruling Right, like Quintino Sella. In the same year he married Rosa Sobrero, the granddaughter of Ascanio Sobrero, a famous chemist, who discovered nitroglycerine. In 1877 Giolitti was appointed to the Court of Audit and in 1882 to the Council of State At the 1882 Italian general election he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the Historical Left. This election was a victory for the ruling Left of Agostino Depretis. As deputy he chiefly acquired prominence by attacks on Agostino Magliani, following Depretis’s death on 29 July 1887 Francesco Crispi, a notable politician and patriot, became the leader of the Left group and was also appointed Prime Minister by King Umberto I. On 9 March 1889 Giolitti was selected by Crispi as new Minister of Treasury, but in October 1890, Giolitti resigned from his office due to contrasts with Crispis colonial policy. Menelik informed the press and the scandal erupted
23.
Francesco Crispi
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Francesco Crispi was an Italian patriot and statesman. Crispi served as Italys Prime Minister for six years, from 1887 until 1891 and again from 1893 until 1896, Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as Bismarck, Gladstone and Salisbury. Originally an enlightened Italian patriot and democrat liberal he went on to become a bellicose authoritarian prime minister and ally, due to his authoritarian policies and style, Crispi is often regarded as a strongman and seen as a precursor of the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini. Crispi’s paternal family originally from the small agricultural community of Palazzo Adriano. It had been founded in later fifteenth century by Orthodox Albanians and his grandfather was an Arbëreshë Orthodox priest, the parish priests were married men, and Arbëreshë was the family language down to the lifetime of the young Crispi. Crispi himself was born in Ribera, Sicily, to Tommaso Crispi, belonging to a family of Arbëreshë descent, he spoke Italian as his third or fourth language. His uncle Giuseppe wrote the first monograph on the Albanian language, at the age of 5 years old he was sent to a family in Villafranca, where he could receive an education. In 1829, at 11 years old, he attended a seminary in Palermo, the rector of the institute was Giuseppe Crispi, his uncle. Crispi attended the seminary until 1834 or 1835, when his father, after becoming mayor of Ribera, encountered difficulties in health. In the same period Crispi became a friend of the poet and doctor Vincenzo Navarro. In 1835 he studied law and literature at the University of Palermo receiving a law degree in 1837, in the year he fell in love with Rosina DAngelo. Despite his fathers ban, Crispi married Rosina in 1837, when she was already pregnant, in May Crispi became father of his first daughter, Giuseppa, who was named after his grandmother. Anyway it was a marriage, in fact Rosina died on 29 July 1839, the day after giving birth to her second son, Tommaso. Between 1838 and 1839, Crispi founded his own newspaper, LOreteo and this experience brought him into contact with a number of political figures including the Neapolitan liberal activist and poet, Carlo Poerio. In 1845 Crispi took up a judgeship in Naples, where he distinguished himself for his liberal, the revolution started on 12 January 1848, and therefore was the very first of the numerous revolutions to occur that year. Three revolutions had previously occurred on the island of Sicily starting from 1800 against Bourbon rule, the uprising was substantially organized from, and centered in, Palermo. The popular nature of the revolt is evident in the fact that posters, the timing was deliberately planned, by Crispi and the other revolutionaries, to coincide with the birthday of Ferdinand II. Vincenzo Fardella was elected president of Sicilian Parliament, the idea was also put forward for a confederation of all the states of Italy
24.
Banca Romana scandal
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The Banca Romana scandal surfaced in January 1893 in Italy over the bankruptcy of the Banca Romana, one of the six national banks authorised at the time to issue currency. The scandal was the first of many Italian corruption scandals, and, like the others, the crisis prompted a new banking law, tarnished the prestige of the Prime Ministers Francesco Crispi and Giovanni Giolitti and prompted the collapse of the latters government in November 1893. The Banca Romana was founded by French and Belgian investors in 1835, in 1851 the bank became the official bank of the Papal State and in 1874 it was made one of the six national banks authorised to issue currency. Due to rising inflation and easy credit, the Banca Romana, in 1887 five of the issue banks had exceeded their legal limit, a fact well known to the government and banking and financial circles. However, restricting credit in a period of construction boom was considered politically impossible. Since the late 1880s, the Italian economy had been sliding into a deep recession, New tariffs had been introduced in 1887 on agricultural and industrial goods, followed by a trade war with France, which badly damaged Italian commerce. Many farmers, especially in southern Italy suffered severely, which led to the uprising of the Fasci Siciliani. Additionally the collapse of a speculative boom based on a substantial urban rebuilding programme gravely damaged Italian banks, the governor of the Banca Romana at the time of the scandal, Bernardo Tanlongo, was peculiar man, a semi-literate with a genius for accounts and finance. He was not a womanizer, he never played, he is the antithesis of all elegance, a former farm hand and former spy during the short-lived Roman Republic in 1849, he made his career in the bank in the Papal State, providing illicit entertainment to Vatican officials. He remained at his post in the Banca Romana after the unification of Italy and was promoted governor in 1881 and he had a ramarkable ability to secure friendships and protections through corruption and loans to cover up secrets. Three Turin banks, heavily involved in building speculation in Rome, the issue banks were persuaded by the government to bail out other banks, in order to avoid a major disaster, and became riskily mixed up in the crisis. They were allowed to issue bank notes in excess of their reserves. In June 1889 inspections by a commission of the Banca Romana, revealed serious irregularities in its administration. Moreover, the directors had committed a criminal offence by permitting an additional number of banknotes with double numbering to be printed. The Banca Romana had loaned large sums to property developers but was left with huge liabilities when the real estate bubble collapsed in 1887. In addition, they wanted to avoid that it became known that the Banca Romana, like other banks, had handed out substantial loans to politicians. This was a way to finance election expenses in return for favours. Over the next three years there was talk of the need for a single issue bank and for a reduction in the note circulation
25.
Sicily
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Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is an autonomous Region of Italy, along with surrounding minor islands, Sicily is located in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula, from which it is separated by the narrow Strait of Messina. Its most prominent landmark is Mount Etna, the tallest active volcano in Europe, the island has a typical Mediterranean climate. The earliest archaeological evidence of activity on the island dates from as early as 12,000 BC. It became part of Italy in 1860 following the Expedition of the Thousand, a revolt led by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the Italian unification, Sicily was given special status as an autonomous region after the Italian constitutional referendum of 1946. Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially regard to the arts, music, literature, cuisine. It is also home to important archaeological and ancient sites, such as the Necropolis of Pantalica, the Valley of the Temples, Sicily has a roughly triangular shape, earning it the name Trinacria. To the east, it is separated from the Italian mainland by the Strait of Messina, about 3 km wide in the north, and about 16 km wide in the southern part. The northern and southern coasts are each about 280 km long measured as a line, while the eastern coast measures around 180 km. The total area of the island is 25,711 km2, the terrain of inland Sicily is mostly hilly and is intensively cultivated wherever possible. Along the northern coast, the ranges of Madonie,2,000 m, Nebrodi,1,800 m. The cone of Mount Etna dominates the eastern coast, in the southeast lie the lower Hyblaean Mountains,1,000 m. The mines of the Enna and Caltanissetta districts were part of a leading sulphur-producing area throughout the 19th century, Sicily and its surrounding small islands have some highly active volcanoes. Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in Europe and still casts black ash over the island with its ever-present eruptions and it currently stands 3,329 metres high, though this varies with summit eruptions, the mountain is 21 m lower now than it was in 1981. It is the highest mountain in Italy south of the Alps, Etna covers an area of 1,190 km2 with a basal circumference of 140 km. This makes it by far the largest of the three volcanoes in Italy, being about two and a half times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius. In Greek Mythology, the deadly monster Typhon was trapped under the mountain by Zeus, Mount Etna is widely regarded as a cultural symbol and icon of Sicily. The Aeolian Islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, to the northeast of mainland Sicily form a volcanic complex, the three volcanoes of Vulcano, Vulcanello and Lipari are also currently active, although the latter is usually dormant
26.
Fasci Siciliani
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The Fasci Siciliani, short for Fasci Siciliani dei Lavoratori, were a popular movement of democratic and socialist inspiration, which arose in Sicily in the years between 1889 and 1894. The Fasci gained the support of the poorest and most exploited classes of the island by channeling their frustration, the leaders of the movement were not able to keep the situation from getting out of control. Some reforms followed, including compensation and pension schemes. The suppression of the strikes led to an increase in emigration. The immediate demands of the movement were fair land rents, higher wages, lower local taxes, between 1889 and 1893 some 170 Fasci were established in Sicily. According to some sources the movement reached a membership of more than 300,000 by the end of 1893, the Fasci constituted autonomous organizations with their own insignia, uniforms and sometimes even musical bands, and their own local halls for reunions and congresses. They were called Fasci because everyone can break a single stick, while many of the leaders were of socialist or anarchist leanings, few of their supporters were true revolutionaries. Nevertheless, the peasants who assembled into the Fasci were eager for social justice, a crucifix hung beside the red flag in many of their meeting-places, and portraits of the King beside those of the revolutionaries Garibaldi, Mazzini and Marx. Cheers for the King were often heard in their marches that almost resembled quasi-religious processions, many of the Fasci were part of the Italian Workers Party that had been founded at a conference in Genoa on August 14,1892. The rural Fasci in particular were a phenomenon, both ancient and modern. They combined millenarian aspirations with urban intellectual leadership often in contact with workers’ organizations, the Fasci, which included many women, were encouraged by the messianic belief that the start of a new reign of justice was looming and the movement spread like an epidemic. The agrarian crisis between 1888 and 1892 led to a decrease in wheat prices. The island’s main sources of wealth – wine, fruit and sulphur – suffered a heavy blow, the dominant landowning class channeled most of the economic burden on to the peasantry, in the form of higher rents and discriminatory local taxation. As social tension rose, a handful of young and hitherto quite unknown socialist intellectuals – many of them recent graduates of Palermo University – seized their opportunity. The movement grew under the first government of Prime minister Francesco Crispi and coincided with unpopular tax increases, the Italian economy had been sliding into a deep recession since the late 1880s. The first official Fascio was founded on May 1,1891, other leaders included Rosario Garibaldi Bosco in Palermo, Nicola Barbato in Piana dei Greci, Bernardino Verro in Corleone, and Lorenzo Panepinto in Santo Stefano Quisquina. While the ruling elite depicted the men of the Fasci as treasonous socialists, communists and anarchists seeking to overthrow the monarchy, in fact many were devout Catholics and monarchists. The movement sometimes had a nature, characterised by statements as Jesus was a true socialist
27.
L'Asino
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The two took the pseudonyms Goliardo and Ratalanga, and with these nicknames signed the outputs of the weekly. The magazine immediately focused its attention on the collapse of the Banca Romana in 1893 and Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti, the success of the magazine led its two founders to embark on a daily publication at the beginning of 1895. However, this proved to be unsustainable and, in August 1895, in 1897 Podrecca and Galantara were arrested for subversive propaganda and LAsino had to suspend publication for a short period. After 1901, the magazine started to target the Catholic Church, as a result, the magazine was banned from Vatican City. In 1904 LAsino reached a circulation of 60,000, which rose to 100,000 before 1912, the magazine circulated widely among Italian immigrants in the United States. Due to its anticlerical and alleged pornographic content the papal nuncio in Washington D. C. succeeded to get it banned from entry in 1908, however, the ban was circumvented by printing an American edition in New York City. LAsino floundered, giving space to both positions, but the cartoons of Galantara against the war were more effective than the articles of Podrecca in favour of it. Both founders sided with the interventionists during World War I, publication was interrupted from 1918 to 1921, due to technical and economic difficulties, such as lack of paper. While Podrecca became a fascist, Galantara, who had returned to his initial socialist principles, for the cover of the final issue of LAsino, Galantara made a caricature of Mussolini, entitled Lui that would become a role model of foreign designers worldwide. Mussolini appeared with a bald head and surmounted by a crown on which is written trouble to anyone who touches me. In 1927, the sentence was commuted to probation, but he remained barred from any journalistic activity, danky, James Philip & Wiegand Wayne A. Print Culture in a Diverse America, Champaign, University of Illinois Press, ISBN 0-252-02398-6 Goldstein, the War for the Public Mind, Political Censorship in Nineteenth-century Europe, Westport, Praeger Publishers, ISBN 0-275-96461-2 Lernout, Geert. Help My Unbelief, James Joyce and Religion, London/New York, Continuum, ISBN 978-1-4411-9474-9 Tholas-Disset, Clémentine & Ritzenhoff, Karen A
28.
Caltavuturo massacre
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The claim for land reform was one of the demands of the Fasci Siciliani, a popular movement of democratic and socialist inspiration in 1891-1894. Before the abolition of feudalism, the villagers had the right to go on estates to collect firewood and vegetables, the citizens of Caltavuturo who waited anxiously to get hold of a piece of land to feed their families, fell from the frying pan into the fire. While the municipality had to distribute the land among the villagers, town administrators and notables stalled the distribution, because they wanted to appropriate the land personally. In the fall of 1892, with the advent of the Fasci Siciliani, however, past mid-January 1893, nothing had been done to divide the land, risking that it could not been sown in time that year. On the evening of January 19 a crowded meeting discussed what to do next, some pleaded for occupying the land while moderates argued for patience. After the meeting, the radical elements went from house to house. Other leaders got wind of the manifestation and informed the army and police, landless peasants occupied the communal land at dawn and began to hoe the fields. The commander of the military stationed in the county tried to persuade the peasants to leave the fields, the crowd ignored the warning and began to whistle and yell at the troops. To prevent the situation worsening, the military withdrew and returned to the town. Shortly thereafter, a group of protesters stopped to till the soil and went to the town hall, demanding to speak with the mayor to no avail. The commander once again tried to persuade the peasants to disperse and return to their homes, but some of the protesters threw stones at the troops, the warning shots did not intimidate the farmers, who continued to advance, throwing stones against the police. At this point, they heard more shots, followed by a salvo of rifle fire, several protesters fell to the ground in a pool of blood. Eight people were killed on the spot and 26 were wounded, at first, people hearing the shots, thought it was firecrackers in honour of San Sebastian, but the tragic massacre soon became clear. The unharmed protesters fled to the mountains, but military reinforcements from Palermo triggered a real manhunt, the socialist leader Napoleone Colajanni harshly attacked the government in parliamentary questions. The memorial service was held in Corleone and attracted more than 4,000 people from the surrounding towns, one of the leaders of the Fasci, Rosario Garibaldi Bosco, wrote a play about the event, Il giorno di San Sebastiano. The play, a monologue depicting a peasant woman whose husband was killed in the events at Caltavuturo, was first performed on February 2,1893, in Palermo to raise money for the victims. The film Il giorno di San Sebastiano, directed by Pasquale Scimeca 100 years after the event, is based on Bosco’s play about the Caltavuturo massacre and it won a Golden Globe and was presented at the Venice film festival. Gli avvenimenti di Sicila e le loro cause, Palermo, Remo Sandron Editore Guglielmo, living the revolution, Italian womens resistance and radicalism in New York City, 1880-1945, University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 0-8078-3356-8 Tilly, Charles, Louise Tilly & Richard H. Tilly
29.
Province of Palermo
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The Province of Palermo was a province in the autonomous region of Sicily, a major island in Southern Italy. Its capital was the city of Palermo, on August 4,2015, it was replaced by the Metropolitan City of Palermo. Its name is derived from Latin word Panormus, from 1072 to 1194 Palermo was the capital of the Kingdom of Sicily before Naples became the new capital under the rule of the French Angevin dynasty. It has also ruled by the Romans, Byzantines, Normans, Arabs, Spanish Empire. Historical accounts recording the existence of the date back to the 8th and 6th century B. C. The province is surrounded by Tyrrhenian Sea in the north, Province of Trapani in the west and it is popular for its beaches, namely Mondello. The land is mountainous and includes Pollina and Imera Valleys, Madonie Range is located in the province. The Province of Palermo has 82 comuni,1,249,533 inhabitants, some major towns of the province are Palermo, Alia, Alimena, Sclafani Bagni and Petralia Soprana. In 1840, for the purpose of administration the province was divided into four districts – Palermo, Corleone, Termini, tourism is also an important industry. A few major tourist destinations include Arab-Norman Palatine Chapel, Church of St. John of the Hermits, Palazzo Abatellis, Gothic Palazzo Chiaramonte, the seat of the Sicilian parliament is located in the province. A cathedral containing the tombs of Frederick II and other rulers is also a known tourist attraction. The Madonie Regional Park is also located in the province and it has an airport called Falcone-Borsellino Airport, which serves about a million passengers every year, while the local port serves about half a million passengers every year. During the months from July to September the province is visited by a number of tourists. Metropolitan City of Palermo Media related to Province of Palermo at Wikimedia Commons
30.
Sicilian Mafia
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The Sicilian Mafia, also known as simply the Mafia or Cosa Nostra, is a criminal syndicate in Sicily, Italy. It is an association of criminal groups that share a common organisational structure. The basic group is known as a family, clan, or cosca or cosche in Sicilian, each family claims sovereignty over a territory, usually a town or village or a neighbourhood of a larger city, in which it operates its rackets. Its members call themselves men of honour, although the public refers to them as mafiosi. The mafias core activities are protection racketeering, the arbitration of disputes between criminals, and the organizing and oversight of illegal agreements and transactions, following waves of emigration, the Mafia has spread to other countries such as the United States, Canada, and Australia. The word mafia originated in Sicily, though its origins are uncertain, the Sicilian adjective mafiusu roughly translates to mean swagger, but can also be translated as boldness, bravado. In reference to a man, mafiusu in 19th century Sicily was ambiguous, signifying a bully, arrogant but also fearless, enterprising and proud, in reference to a woman, however, the feminine-form adjective mafiusa means beautiful and attractive. The Sicilian word mafie refers to the caves near Trapani and Marsala, Sicily was once an Islamic emirate, therefore mafia might have Arabic roots. The words mafia and mafiusi are never mentioned in the play, the play is about a Palermo prison gang with traits similar to the Mafia, a boss, an initiation ritual, and talk of umirtà and pizzu. The play had great success throughout Italy, soon after, the use of the term mafia began appearing in the Italian states early reports on the phenomenon. The word made its first official appearance in 1865 in a report by the prefect of Palermo Filippo Antonio Gualterio, the term mafia has become a generic term for any organized criminal network with similar structure, methods, and interests. Nowadays people have gone so far in the direction that it has become an overused term. According to mafia turncoats, the name of the mafia is Cosa Nostra. Italian-American mafioso Joseph Valachi testified before the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the U. S. Senate Committee on Government Operations in 1963 and he revealed that American mafiosi referred to their organization by the term cosa nostra. At the time, it was understood as a name, fostered by the FBI. The FBI even added the article la to the term, calling it La Cosa Nostra, in 1984, mafia turncoat Tommaso Buscetta revealed to anti-mafia magistrate Giovanni Falcone that the term was used by the Sicilian Mafia, as well. Buscetta dismissed the word mafia as a literary creation. Other defectors such as Antonino Calderone and Salvatore Contorno confirmed the use of Cosa Nostra by members, mafiosi introduce known members to each other as belonging to cosa nostra or la stessa cosa, meaning he is the same thing as you — a mafioso
31.
Chamber of Deputies (Italy)
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The Chamber of Deputies is a house of the bicameral Parliament of Italy. The two houses form a perfect bicameral system, meaning they perform identical functions, but do so separately. Pursuant to article 56 of the Italian Constitution, the Chamber of Deputies has 630 seats, of which 618 are elected from Italian constituencies, Deputies are styled The Honourable and meet at Palazzo Montecitorio. Previously, the seat of the Chamber of Deputies of the Kingdom of Italy had been briefly at the Palazzo Carignano in Turin and the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. Under the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, from 1939 to 1943, the Chamber is composed of all members meeting in session at the Montecitorio. The assembly also has the right to meetings of the Government. If required, the Government is obligated to attend the session, conversely, the Government has the right to be heard every time it requires. The term of office of the House is five years,61.2 of the Constitution, states that representatives whose term has expired shall continue to exercise their functions until the first meeting of the new Chamber. An extension of the term, provided for by art,60.2, can be enacted only in case of war. Election of members to the Chamber of Deputies is by voluntary, universal, terms last for a total of five years, unless an early dissolution of the Chamber is called by the President of the Republic, at which point a snap election is held. Unlike the Senate, which members to be 40 years of age. The current system for elections to the Chamber of Deputies has been in operation since 2015, the territory of Italy is divided into 100 constituencies electing between 3 and 9 deputies depending on their size. For each constituency, the parties designate a list of candidates, head of list candidates can run in up to 10 constituencies, if two preference votes are expressed, they must be of a different sex, otherwise, the second preference is discarded. Only parties passing a 3% minimum threshold in the first round are assigned seats, if the party receiving the plurality of the votes passes a 40% threshold, it is attributed a minimum of 340 seats. The remaining 277 seats are allocated to the other parties using the largest remainder method. This provision was however rendered null and void by a Constitutional Courts judgment in January 2017, the President of the Chamber of Deputies performs the role of speaker of the house and is elected during the first session after the election. During this time the prerogatives of speaker are assumed by the vicepresident of Chamber of Deputies of the legislature who was elected first. If two were elected simultaneously, the oldest deputy serves as president of Chamber of Deputies, the President of Chamber of Deputies has also the role of President during the Parliament joint sessions, when the upper and lower houses have to vote together
32.
Bologna
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Bologna is the largest city of the Emilia-Romagna Region in Northern Italy. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy, located in the heart of an area of about one million. The first settlements back to at least 1000 BC. The city has been a centre, first under the Etruscans. Home to the oldest university in the world, University of Bologna, founded in 1088, Bologna is also an important transportation crossroad for the roads and trains of Northern Italy, where many important mechanical, electronic and nutritional industries have their headquarters. According to the most recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city, Bologna is home to numerous prestigious cultural, economic and political institutions as well as one of the most impressive trade fair districts in Europe. In 2000 it was declared European capital of culture and in 2006, the city of Bologna was selected to participate in the Universal Exposition of Shanghai 2010 together with 45 other cities from around the world. Bologna is also one of the wealthiest cities in Italy, often ranking as one of the top cities in terms of quality of life in the country, after a long decline, Bologna was reborn in the 5th century under Bishop Petronius. According to legend, St. Petronius built the church of S. Stefano. After the fall of Rome, Bologna was a stronghold of the Exarchate of Ravenna in the Po plain. In 728, the city was captured by the Lombard king Liutprand, the Germanic conquerors formed a district called addizione longobarda near the complex of S. Stefano. Charlemagne stayed in this district in 786, traditionally said to be founded in 1088, the University of Bologna is widely considered to be the first university. The university originated as a centre of study of medieval Roman law under major glossators. It numbered Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarca among its students, the medical school is especially famous. In the 12th century, the families engaged in continual internecine fighting. Troops of Pope Julius II besieged Bologna and sacked the artistic treasures of his palace, in 1530, in front of Saint Petronio Church, Charles V was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII. Then a plague at the end of the 16th century reduced the population from 72,000 to 59,000, the population later recovered to a stable 60, 000–65,000. However, there was also great progress during this era, in 1564, the Piazza del Nettuno and the Palazzo dei Banchi were built, along with the Archiginnasio, the centre of the University
33.
Giuseppe Zanardelli
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Giuseppe Zanardelli was an Italian jurisconsult, nationalist and political figure. He was the Prime Minister of Italy from February 15,1901 to November 3,1903 and he was a distinguished jurist and eloquent orator. Throughout his long career he was among the most ardent advocates of freedom of conscience and divorce. Giuseppe Zanardelli was born in Brescia and he was a combatant in the volunteer corps during the First Italian War of Independence of 1848 between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia, within the era of Italian unification. After the lost battle of Novara he went to Pisa to study law, for a time earned a livelihood by teaching law, but was molested by the Austrian police and forbidden to teach in consequence of his refusal to contribute pro-Austrian articles to the press. In 1859 he was forced to flee to Switzerland and he moved to Lugano, but returned in time to organize the insurrection of Brescia in the Second Italian War of Independence and welcomed Giuseppe Garibaldi in the city. Enlisted in the Cacciatori delle Alpi, he remained in the area until the armistice of Villafranca, with the annexation of Lombardy to Piedmont he was elected to Parliament in Turin. In 1876 he became Minister of Public Works in the first government of Agostino Depretis, overthrown with Cairoli in December 1878, he returned to power as Minister of Justice in 1881 the Depretis government, and succeeded in completing the commercial code. He also was the architect of the reform in 1892 which lowered the voting age from 25 to 21. During this period he began the reform of the magistracy and promulgated a new penal code, the code was regarded as a great work by contemporary European jurists. After the fall of the government of Giovanni Giolitti in 1893, Zanardelli made a strenuous and he was rewarded by being enabled to form an administration with the support of the Extreme Left upon the fall of the government of Giuseppe Saracco in February 1901. Giolitti became Minister of the Interior in the administration of Zanardelli, Zanardelli was unable to achieve much during his last term of office, as his health was greatly impaired. His Divorce Bill, although voted in the chamber, had to be withdrawn on account of the opposition of the country. He retired from the administration on October 21,1903, tired and ill, he died in Maderno on December 26,1903. On September 15,1902, Giuseppe Zanardelli stayed at the Imperial Hotel Tramontano, owned by the Commendator Guglielmo Baron Tramontano of Sorrento, the hunchbacks tailor, Giovanni Giolitti and liberal Italy from the challenge of mass politics to the rise of fascism, 1882–1922, Greenwood. Italy, a guide from the Renaissance to the present, New York. Italy from liberalism to fascism, 1870–1925, New York, Taylor & Francis, della vita del professore Camillo Guerini
34.
Bank of Italy
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The Bank of Italy, known in Italian as Banca dItalia, also known as Bankitalia, is the central bank of Italy and part of the European System of Central Banks. It is located in Palazzo Koch, via Nazionale, Rome, the banks current governor is Ignazio Visco, who took the office on 1 November 2011. The main function has thus become banking and financial supervision, following reform in 2005, which was prompted by takeover scandals, the bank has lost exclusive antitrust authority in the credit sector, which is now shared with Italian Competition Authority. Bank of Italy gold reserves are 2,451.8 tonnes, the institution was established in 1893 from the combination of three major banks in Italy. The new central bank first issued bank-notes during 1926, the general meeting takes place yearly and with the purpose of approving accounts and appointing the auditors. The Board of Directors has administrative powers and is chaired by the governor, following reform in 2005, the governor lost exclusive responsibility regarding decisions of external relevance, which has been transferred to the Directorate. The Director General is responsible for the administration of the bank. The Board of Auditors assesses the banks administration and compliance with the law, regulations, the Directorates term of office lasts six years and is renewable once. The appointment of the governor is the responsibility of the government, head of the Board of Directors, the Board of Directors is elected by the shareholders according to the bank statute. On 25 October 2011, Silvio Berlusconi named Ignazio Visco as new governor of the bank, Banca dItalia had 300,000 number of shares with a nominal value of €25,000. Original scattered around the banks of whole Italy, the shares now accumulated due to the merger of the banks since 1990s. The status of the states that a minimum of 54% of profits would go to the Italian government. As of 1st December 2016 Banking in Italy Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato Commissione Nazionale per le Società e la Borsa Economy of Italy Italian lira eabh Official website
35.
Massacre of Italians at Aigues-Mortes
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Estimates range from the official number of eight deaths up to 150, according to the Italian press of the time. Those killed were victims of lynchings, beatings with clubs, drowning and rifle shots, the massacre was not the first attack by French workers on poor Italian immigrant labourers that were prepared to work at cut-rate wages. When the news reached Italy anti-French riots erupted in the country, the case was also one of the greatest legal scandals of the time, since no convictions were ever made. In the summer of 1893, the Compagnie des Salins du Midi began to recruit workers to harvest seasalt from its evaporation ponds, with unemployment increasing because of an economic crisis in Europe, the prospect of finding seasonal employment attracted more applicants than usual. They were divided into three categories, Ardéchois, Piémontais, and trimards, because of the recruitment policies of the Compagnie des Salins du Midi, the team leaders were constrained to form teams comprising French and Italians. On the morning of 16 August, a brawl between the two communities rapidly escalated into a battle of honour, despite the intervention of a justice of the peace and gendarmes, the situation rapidly deteriorated. A group of Italians was then attacked and had to take refuge in a bakery that the wanted to set fire to. The prefect called in troops at around 4 oclock in the morning, they did not arrive on the scene until 6 pm, in the morning, the situation festered. The rioters went into the Peccais salines where there was the largest number of Italians, gendarme captain Cabley was trying to protect them, while promising the rioters he would drive out the Italians once they had been accompanied back to the railway station in Aigues-Mortes. It was during the journey that the Italians were attacked by the rioters, according to the French authorities, there were officially eight deaths. The body of a ninth Italian, Secondo Torchio, was never recovered, following the events,17 Italians were too seriously injured to be evacuated by train - one of them died of tetanus a month later. When the news of the massacre reached Italy, anti-French riots erupted in many cities, the testimonies of the injured Italians as well as inaccurate news agency dispatches contributed to a growing wave of indignation. In Genoa and Naples trams owned by a French company were set on fire, in Rome the windows of the French Embassy were smashed and for a while the angry mob seemed to get out of hand. The affair became a challenge as the foreign press took note. A diplomatic solution was found and the parties were compensated, the Italian workers on the one hand, and France for the riots at the Palazzo Farnese, the mayor of Aigues-Mortes, Marius Terras, had to resign. Although the French authorities stated 8 officially, the number of deaths is known to be 9. The Paris daily Le Temps, in a dispatch dated 18 August, reported there were a dozen bodies in the hospital, others must have drowned. In London, The Graphic, a week after the events, reported that twenty-eight Italians were wounded and eventually six Italians, the Penny Illustrated Paper claimed that several Frenchmen were wounded, and two mortally
36.
Aigues-Mortes
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Aigues-Mortes is a French commune in the Gard department in the Occitanie region of southern France. The medieval city walls surrounding the city are well preserved, the inhabitants of the commune are known as Aigues-Mortais or Aigues-Mortaises. Aigues-Mortes is located in the Petite Camargue some 90 km northwest of Marseilles, by road, Aigues-Mortes is about 33 km southwest of Nîmes, and 20 km east of Montpellier in a direct line. Access to the commune is by route D979 coming south from Saint-Laurent-dAigouze to Aigues-Mortes town, route D979 continues southwest through the commune to Le Grau-du-Roi. Route D62 also starts from Aigues-Mortes heading southwest parallel to D979 before turning eastwards, route D62A continues to Plan dEau du Vidourie. The commune is composed of a portion of the wet plains and it is separated from the Gulf of Lions by the town of Le Grau-du-Roi, however Aigues-Mortes is connected to the sea through the Canal du Rhône à Sète. There is only one other hamlet in the commune called Mas de Jarras Listel on the western border, a rail branch line from Nîmes passes through Aigues-Mortes from north-east to south-west, with a station in the town of Aigues-Mortes, to its terminus on the coast at Le-Grau-du-Roi. This line also transports sea salt, the communes of Saint-Laurent-dAigouze and Le Grau-du-Roi are adjacent to the town of Aigues-Mortes. Its inhabitants are called Aigues-Mortais or Aigues-Mortise, in Occitan they are aigamortencs, Aigues-Mortes is one of 79 member communes of the Schéma de cohérence territoriale of South Gard and is also one of 34 communes in the Pays Vidourle-Camargue. Aigues-Mortes is one of the four communes of the Loi littoral of SCoT in the South of Gard, attested in the Latinized form Aquae Mortuae in 1248. The name comes from the Occitan Aigas Mortas meaning dead water, or stagnant water equivalent to toponymic types in the Morteau Oil dialect cf. Morteau, mortua Aqua and Morteaue, mortua Aqua. The name comes from the Aigues-Mortes marshes and ponds that stretch around the village, Grau comes from the Occitan grau meaning pond with extension. Grau du Roy in French means pond of the King, the foundation of the city is said to have been by Gaius Marius, around 102BC but there is no documentary evidence to support this. A Roman by the name of Peccius fitted out the first salt marsh, salt mining started from the Neolithic period and was continued in the Hellenistic period, but the ancient uses of saline have not resulted in any major archaeological discovery. It is likely any remains were destroyed by modern saline facilities. In 791, Charlemagne erected the Matafère tower amid the swamps for the safety of fishermen and salt workers. Some argue that the signaling and transmission of news was not foreign to the building of tower which was designed to give warning in case of arrival of a fleet. This monastery still existed in 812, as confirmed by an act of endowment made by the Badila from Nîmes at the abbey
37.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
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Reggio Emilia
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Reggio Emilia is a city in northern Italy, in the Emilia-Romagna region. It has about 170,000 inhabitants and is the comune of the Province of Reggio Emilia. The town is referred to by its more official name of Reggio nellEmilia listen. The inhabitants of Reggio nellEmilia usually call their town by the name of Reggio. In some ancient maps the town is also named Reggio di Lombardia, the old town has an hexagonal form, which derives from the ancient walls, and the main buildings are from the 16th–17th centuries. The comunes territory is totally on a plain, crossed by the Crostolo stream, Reggio began as a historical site with the construction by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus of the Via Aemilia, leading from Piacenza to Rimini. Reggio became an administration centre, with a forum called at first Regium Lepidi, then simply Regium. During the Roman age Regium is cited only by Festus and Cicero, however, it was a flourishing city, a Municipium with its own statutes, magistrates and art collegia. Apollinaris of Ravenna brought Christianity in the 1st century CE, the sources confirm the presence of a bishopric in Reggio after the Edict of Milan. In 440 the Reggio diocese was placed under the jurisdiction of Ravenna by Western Roman Emperor Valentinianus III, at the end of the 4th century, however, Reggio had decayed so much that Saint Ambrose included it among the dilapidated cities. Further damage occurred with the Barbarian invasions, after the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476 Reggio was part of Odoacers realm. In 489 it came under Ostrogothic control, from 539 it was part of the Roman Empire, Reggio was chosen as Duchy of Reggio seat. In 773 the Franks took Reggio, charlemagne gave the bishop the authority to exercise royal authority over the city and established the diocese limits. In 888 Reggio was handed over to the Kings of Italy, in 899 the Magyars heavily damaged it, killing Bishop Azzo II. As a result of new walls were built. On 31 October 900 Emperor Louis III gave authority for the erection of a castrum in the citys centre. In 1002 Reggios territory, together with that of Parma, Brescia, Modena, Mantua and Ferrara, were merged into the March of Tuscany, Reggio became a free commune around the end of the 11th or the beginning of the 12th century. In 1167 it was a member of the Lombard League and took part in the Battle of Legnano, in 1183 the city signed the Treaty of Konstanz, from which the citys consul, Rolando della Carità, received the imperial investiture
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Italian Socialist Party
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The Italian Socialist Party was a socialist and, later, social-democratic political party in Italy. Founded in Genoa in 1892, the PSI dominated the Italian left until after World War II, the PSI was disbanded in 1994 as a result of the Tangentopoli scandals. It was part of a wave of new socialist parties at the end of the 19th century and had to endure persecution by the Italian government during its early years. At the start of the 20th century, however, the PSI chose not to oppose the governments led by five-time Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti. This conciliation with the governments and its improving electoral fortunes helped to establish the PSI as a mainstream Italian political party by the 1910s. Despite the partys improving electoral results, however, the PSI remained divided into two branches, the Reformists and the Maximalists. The Reformists, led by Filippo Turati, were mostly in the unions. The Maximalists, led by Costantino Lazzari, were affiliated with the London Bureau of socialist groups, in 1912 the Maximalists led by Benito Mussolini prevailed at the party convention and this led to the split of the Italian Reformist Socialist Party. In the 1919 general election the PSI reached its highest result ever,32. 0% and 156 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, during this time period, Mussolini belonged to the Bolshevik wing of the Italian Socialist Party who purged moderate or reformist socialists. The national syndicalists intended to support Italian republicans in overthrowing the monarchy if such reforms were not made, the dominant internationalist and pacifist wing of the party remained committed to avoiding what it called a bourgeois war. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 the PSI quickly aligned itself in support of the communist Bolshevik movement in Russia, from 1919 to the 1920s the Socialists and the Fascists emerged as prominent rival movements in Italys urban centres, often resorting to political violence in their clashes. In 1919, the Socialist Party of Turin formed the Red Army of Turin, the left-wing of the party broke away in 1921 to form the Communist Party of Italy, a division from which the PSI never been recovered and which had enormous consequences on Italian politics. In 1922, another split occurred when the reformist wing of the party, in 1924 Giacomo Matteotti, a member of the PSU, was assassinated by Fascists and shortly afterwards a Fascist dictatorship was established in Italy. In 1925 the PSI and all political parties except the Fascist Party were banned. The partys leadership remained in exile during the Fascist years and in 1930 the PSU was re-integrated into the PSI, the party was a member of the Labour and Socialist International between 1930 and 1940. In the 1946 general election, the first after World War II, for the 1948 general election the Socialists led by Pietro Nenni chose to take part in the Popular Democratic Front along with the PCI. This caused the split of the faction within the party led by Giuseppe Saragat. The PSI was weakened by the split and was far less organized than the PCI, as a result, the Socialist parliamentary delegation was cut by a half
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Italian language
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By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
