1.
Republic of Hawaii
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The Territory of Hawaii was formally established as part of the U. S. on June 14,1900. The Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown in 1893 in a revolt against a Queen who rejected the constitution then in effect. American officials immediately recognized the new government and U. S, marines landed to protect American citizens during the upheaval. The Queens supporters charged their presence frightened the Queen and thus enabled the revolution, in 1887, members of the Reform Party of Hawaii forced the King to accept a new constitution limiting the monarchs constitutional power as defined by the Constitution of 1864. The Constitution of 1887, also called the Bayonet Constitution for the used to secure the kings approval, was enacted without legislative approval. In 1893 a coup détat against the monarch was carried out by more than 1,000 armed local men who were led by sugar planters. There was no bloodshed as the armed force did not resist. A temporary Provisional Government of Hawaii was formed by the Committee of Safety, the leaders of the coup, who had strong economic ties with the United States wanted to join the United States, in part to avoid import taxes. Annexation was delayed by two petitions with over 20,000 signatures representing over half of the Native Hawaiian population, the Queen herself took up residence in Washington to lobby for her restoration. President Grover Cleveland, a Democrat opposed to American expansion, sent an investigator who wrote the Blount Report, the report concluded that Minister Stevens had manipulated and orchestrated the revolt. Cleveland decided that the United States should restore the Queen, he asked for Doles resignation, however, the U. S. Senate held hearings regarding the Morgan Report, undermining the Blount Reports claims. Public opinion in the United States favored annexation, in May 1894 the U. S. President Cleveland thereupon dropped the issue, leaving the Republic of Hawaii to fend for itself. The Provisional Government convened a convention and established the Republic of Hawaiʻi on July 4,1894. The president of Hawaii was the head of state and head of government. The constitution provided that the term of office would be six years. The President had the authority to legislation, which could be overridden by two-thirds majority in both houses of the legislature, and he was also commander-in-chief of the military. The President appointed, subject to the confirmation of the Senate, Cabinet members were considered usurers of both houses of the Legislature, they could participate in proceedings, but could not vote as they were not elected members of the Legislature. If the presidency became vacant, the Minister of Foreign Affairs could serve as Acting President until the Legislature voted to elect a successor, article 23 of the 1894 Constitution specifically named Sanford B. Dole as the republics first President
2.
Queen of Hawaii
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Kamehameha I established the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1795 after conquering most of the Hawaiian archipelago. In 1810, Kaumualii became a vassal of Kamehameha I, who emerged as the sole sovereign of the island chain of Hawaiʻi. His dynasty lasted until 1872, and Kingdom of Hawaii lasted until 1893, on November 23,1993, the Congress passed Public Law 103-150, also known as the Apology Resolution, acknowledging the American role in the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy. President Bill Clinton signed the joint resolution the same day, House of Keoua Nui House of Kawananakoa List of Governors of Hawaii Alexander, William DeWitt. Appendix H, Sovereigns of the Hawaiian Islands, a Brief History of the Hawaiian People. Hawaiian Kingdom 1778–1854, Foundation and Transformation, Hawaiian Kingdom 1854–1874, Twenty Critical Years. Hawaiian Kingdom 1874–1893, the Kalakaua Dynastism, dismembering Lāhui, A History of the Hawaiian Nation to 1887. Under Hawaiian Skies, A Narrative of the Romance, Adventure, honolulu, Advertiser Publishing Company, Ltd. p.399. Hawaiian Head of State Kingdom of Hawaii
3.
Liliuokalani
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Liliʻuokalani, was a composer of Hawaiian music, an author, and the last reigning monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii. She reigned from January 29,1891, until the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17,1893 and she was born on September 2,1838, in Honolulu, on the island of Oʻahu. Her parents were Analea Keohokālole and Caesar Kapaʻakea, but she was hānai at birth to Abner Pākī and she was raised with the family of Bernice Pauahi Bishop, founder of the Kamehameha Schools. Baptized as a Christian and educated at the Royal School, she and her siblings and she married American-born John Owen Dominis, who later became the Governor of Oahu. The couple had no children but adopted several. After the accession of her brother, Kalākaua to the throne as monarch in 1874, she and her siblings were given Western style titles of Prince, in 1877, after her younger brother Leleiohoku IIs death, she was proclaimed as heir apparent to the throne. During the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria, she represented her brother as an envoy to the United Kingdom. Liliʻuokalani became monarch on January 29,1891, after her brothers death, during her reign, she attempted to draft a new constitution which would restore the power of the monarchy and the voting rights of the economically disenfranchised. Threatened by her attempts to abrogate the Bayonet Constitution, pro-American elements in Hawaii overthrew the monarchy on January 17,1893, the overthrow was backed by the landing of U. S. Marines under John L. Stevens, which rendered the monarchy unable to protect itself, after the failed 1895 Wilcox Rebellion, the government of the Republic of Hawaii placed the former Queen under house arrest at the ʻIolani Palace. Attempts were made to restore the monarchy and oppose annexation to United States, but with the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, living out the remainder of her later life as a private citizen, Liliʻuokalani died at her residence Washington Place in Honolulu on November 11,1917. According to Hawaiian custom, she was named after an event linked to her birth, at the time she was born, Kuhina Nui Elizabeth Kīnaʻu had developed an eye infection. She named the child using the words, liliʻu, loloku, walania, upon her baptism by Reverend Levi Chamberlain, she was given the Christian name Lydia. From her biological parents, she descended from Keaweaheulu and Kameʻeiamoku, Kameʻeiamoku, the grandfather of both her mother and father, was one of the royal twins alongside Kamanawa depicted on the Hawaiian coat of arms. Liliʻuokalani referred to her line as the Keawe-a-Heulu line after her mothers line. The third surviving child of a family, her biological siblings included, James Kaliokalani, David Kalākaua, Anna Kaʻiulani, Kaʻiminaʻauao, Miriam Likelike. She, along with her siblings, was hānai to other family members, the Hawaiian custom of hānai is an informal form of adoption between extended families practiced by Hawaiian royals and commoners alike. She was given at birth to Abner Pākī and his wife Laura Kōnia, as a young child she would spend much of her time with Bernice Pauahi, the Pākīs birth daughter
4.
Kingdom of Hawaii
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The Kingdom of Hawaiʻi originated in 1795 with the unification of the independent islands of Hawaiʻi, Oʻahu, Maui, Molokaʻi, and Lānaʻi under one government. In 1810 the whole Hawaiian archipelago became unified when Kauaʻi and Niʻihau joined the kingdom voluntarily, two major dynastic families ruled the kingdom, the House of Kamehameha and the House of Kalākaua. The kingdom won recognition from major European powers, the United States became its chief trading partner, and the kingdom was watched jealously lest Britain, Japan, or another power threaten to seize control. Hawaii adopted a new constitution in 1887 to reduce the power of King Kalākaua. Queen Liliuokalani, who succeeded Kalākaua in 1891, tried to restore the old order, Hawaii became a republic until the United States annexed it in 1898. Before the founding of a formal, united kingdom, the islands were all ruled by independent aliʻi nui or supreme executives. All of these rulers were believed to come from a hereditary line descended from the first Polynesian, Papa, Captain James Cook stumbled across the islands, but was killed while attempting to kidnap the aliʻi nui of Hawaii Island in 1779. Three years later Hawaii was passed to Kalaniʻōpuʻus son, Kīwalaʻō, while religious authority was passed to the rulers nephew, a series of battles, lasting 15 years, was led by the warrior chief who became Kamehameha the Great. The Kingdom of Hawaii was established with the help of weapons and advisors, such as John Young. Although successful in attacking both Oʻahu and Maui, he failed to secure a victory in Kauaʻi, his effort hampered by a storm, eventually, Kauaʻis chief swore allegiance to Kamehameha. The unification ended the ancient Hawaiian society, transforming it into an independent constitutional monarchy crafted in the traditions, from 1810 to 1893, the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was ruled by two major dynastic families, the House of Kamehameha and the Kalākaua Dynasty. Five members of the Kamehameha family led the government styled as Kamehameha, Lunalilo was a member of the House of Kamehameha through his mother. Liholiho and Kauikeaouli, were sons of Kamehameha the Great. For a period of Liholiho and Kauikeaoulis reigns, the wife of Kamehameha the Great, Queen Kaʻahumanu, ruled as Queen Regent and Kuhina Nui. Economic and demographic factors in the 19th century reshaped the islands, in 1848 the Great Māhele was imposed by the king, it resulted in the selling off virtually all the village land farmed by the natives. For the natives, contact with the world represented demographic disaster. The Hawaiian population of natives fell from approximately 128,000 in 1778 to 71,000 in 1853, American missionaries converted most of the natives to Christianity. The missionaries and their children became a powerful elite into the mid-19th century and they provided the chief advisors and cabinet members of the kings, and dominated the professional and merchant class in the cities
5.
Annexation of Hawaii
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It was written by and named after United States Congressman Francis G. Newlands. In 1897 President of the United States William McKinley signed the treaty of annexation for Hawaii, after the failure, Hawaii was annexed by means of joint resolution, called the Newlands Resolution. It was approved on July 4,1898 and signed on July 7 by William McKinley, in August of the same year, a ceremony was held on the steps of ʻIolani Palace to signify the official transfer of Hawaiian sovereignty to the United States. The Newlands Resolution established a commission to study which laws were needed in Hawaii. The commission included, Territorial Governor Sanford B, dole, Senators Shelby M. Cullom and John T. Morgan, Representative Robert R. Hitt and former Hawaii Chief Justice and later Territorial Governor Walter F. Frear. The commissions final report was submitted to Congress for a debate which lasted over a year, Congress raised objections that establishing an elected territorial government in Hawaii would lead to the admission of a state with a non-white majority. On July 12,1898, the Joint Resolution passed and the Hawaiian Islands was annexed by the United States and this allowed duty-free trade between the islands and the mainland, and made the existing American military presence permanent. The creation of the Territory of Hawaii was the step in a long history of dwindling Hawaiian sovereignty. Debate between anti-sovereignty and sovereignty activists still exists over the legality of the acquisition of Hawaiian land under the United States constitution, maine took place in Cuba in February,1898. That bombing triggered the Spanish–American War, which caused events to soon force the annexation issue. President Benjamin Harrison submitted a treaty to annex the Hawaiian Islands to the United States Senate for ratification, in 1897, the treaty was blocked due to lobbying by Hawaiian public officials and a petition from native Hawaiians. Only 46 out of 90 senators voted in favor of the resolution, Hawaiian Organic Act, approved in 1900 by Congress to adopt a form of government for the new territory, in supplement of the Newlands Resolution. Debating American exceptionalism, empire and democracy in the wake of the Spanish-American War Osborne, Thomas J
6.
Hawaii
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Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
7.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
Sanford B. Dole
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Sanford Ballard Dole was a lawyer and jurist in the Hawaiian Islands as a kingdom, protectorate, republic and territory. A descendant of the American missionary community to Hawaii, Dole advocated the westernization and destruction of Hawaiian government, after the overthrow of the monarchy, he served as President of Hawaii until his government secured Hawaiis annexation by the United States. Dole was born April 23,1844 in Honolulu to Protestant Christian missionaries from Maine in the United States and his father was Daniel Dole principal at Punahou School and mother was Emily Hoyt Ballard. His mother died from complications within a few days of his birth, Dole was named after his uncle, Sandford K. Ballard, who was a classmate of his fathers at Bowdoin College who died in 1841. He was nursed by a native Hawaiian, and his father remarried to Charlotte Close Knapp in 1846, in 1855 the family moved to Kōloa on the island of Kauaʻi, where they operated another school. Dole attended Punahou school for one year, and then Williams College in 1866–1867 and he worked in a law office in Boston for another year, and although he never attended law school, he received an honorary LL. D. degree from Williams in 1897. In December 1880 he was commissioned as a Notary Public in Honolulu, Dole won the 1884 and 1886 elections to the legislature of the Hawaiian Kingdom as a representative from Kauaʻi. In addition, the new Constitution minimized the power of the Monarch in favor of more influential governance by the cabinet, Dole and other lawyers of American descent drafted this document, which became known as the Bayonet Constitution. King Kalākaua appointed Dole a justice of the Supreme Court of the Kingdom of Hawaii on December 28,1887, after Kalākauas death, his sister Queen Liliʻuokalani appointed him to her Privy Council on August 31,1891. The monarchy ended on January 17,1893 after the Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii organized by many of the actors involved in the 1887 revolt. Although Dole declined to officially be part of the Committee of Safety on January 14 and his cabinet included James A. King as minister of the interior, William Owen Smith as attorney general, and banker Peter Cushman Jones as minister of finance. Dole acted as minister of foreign affairs himself until February 15,1894, later Samuel Mills Damon would serve as minister of finance. With Grover Clevelands election as President of the United States, the Provisional Governments hopes of annexation were derailed for a time, indeed, Cleveland tried to directly help reinstate the monarchy, after an investigation led by James Henderson Blount. On November 16,1893, Albert Willis presented the Queen with Clevelands request that she grant amnesty to the Revolutionists in return for reinstatement, the Queen refused, and, according to Willis, demanded capital punishment for those involved. Queen Liliuokalani wrote in her book Hawaiis Story by Hawaiis Queen, the Provisional Government held a constitutional convention and on July 4,1894, established the Republic of Hawaii. Lorrin A. Thurston declined the presidency of the republic, Dole would serve as the first and only president from 1894 to 1898. Dole in turn appointed Thurston to lead an effort in Washington, DC. Dole was successful as a diplomat – every nation that recognized the Kingdom of Hawaii also recognized the republic, Doles government weathered several attempts to restore the monarchy, including an attempted armed rebellion, the January 24,1895 counter-revolution
9.
Edward Griffin Hitchcock
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Edward Griffin Holy Terror Hitchcock was a law enforcement officer in the Kingdom of Hawaii, who rose to the position of Marshal of the Republic of Hawaii. Edward Griffin Hitchcock was born January 20,1837 in Lahaina on the island of Maui and his father was early missionary Harvey Rexford Hitchcock, and mother was Rebecca Howard. They were assigned the station called Kaluaʻaha on the eastern end of the island of Molokaʻi. He attended Punahou School from 1847 to 1853 and he married Mary Tenney Castle, daughter of Castle & Cooke founder Samuel Northrup Castle on April 11,1862. He managed the sugarcane plantation at Pāpaʻikou. He was appointed as Sheriff of the island of Hawaiʻi on April 5,1888, in December 1889, deputy sheriff Rufus Anderson Lyman informed him of the lynching case of Japanese immigrant Katsu Goto in Honokaʻa. Hitchcock tracked down his suspects who were tried and found guilty, the episode was dramatized in a 2001 play by Eric Anderson Another Heaven, and a memorial was erected in Honokaʻa for Goto. After the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii in early 1893, Hitchcock replaced Wilson as Marshal, the highest law enforcement officer in the country. His effectiveness at rounding up suspects and his ties to missionaries earned him the nickname Holy Terror and he lived in the capital Honolulu while serving as Marshal of the Provisional Government of Hawaii and the Republic of Hawaii. One of the first of several uprisings he faced was called the Leper War and he ordered victims of Leprosy to the remote colony of Kalaupapa. Some on the island of kauaʻi had to be captured by force, the Kalaupapa colony was considered more like a prison than a medical facility. A leader of the uprising named Koʻolau was dramatized in the Jack London short story Koolau the Leper, the 1895 Counter-Revolution in Hawaii, was an organized armed revolt on the capital. After an initial victory by the Royalists, on January 7,1895 President Sanford B. Dole declared martial law and employed troops, Hitchcock eventually arrested the leaders and the Queen. Hitchcock resigned on August 1,1895 and Arthur M. Brown and he returned to his island Sheriff duties, until he was appointed circuit court judge of the island of Hawaiʻi in October 1896 replacing Antone Rosa. He died October 9,1898 in the Kohala district of Hawaiʻi island and he and Mary had six children who grew to adulthood. Harvey Rexford Hitchcock was born August 17,1864, married Hannah Julia Meyer, daughter of German businessman Rudolph Wilhelm Meyer on February 18,1891 and their son Harvey Rexford Hitchcock, Jr. was on the 1913 College Football All-America Team. Mary Rebecca Hitchcock was born June 27,1866, married Frederick Galen Snow in 1898, harriet Castle Hitchcock was born September 15,1868 and died August 26,1933. Edward Northrup Hitchcock was born June 25,1870, married Clara Louise Fasset, eloise Tenney Hitchcock was born January 8,1873, married Frank Tallant Smith in 1895, and died August 31,1899 in San Francisco
10.
Prisoner of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
11.
Robert William Wilcox
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Robert William Kalanihiapo Wilcox, nicknamed the Iron Duke of Hawaiʻi, was a Native Hawaiian revolutionary soldier and politician. He led uprisings against both the government of the Kingdom of Hawaii under King Kalākaua and the Republic of Hawaii under Sanford Dole and he was later elected the first delegate to the United States Congress for the Territory of Hawaii. Wilcox was born February 15,1855 on the island of Maui and his father, Captain William Slocum Wilcox was a native of Newport, Rhode Island. His mother was a native of Maui, named Kalua and she was the daughter of Makole and Haupa. Makole was the grandson of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku. Wilcoxs grandmother, Haupa was descended from Umi-a-Liloa of Maui and Lonomakaihonua and he attended Haleakala Boarding School in the town of Makawao. Upon completion of his studies, Wilcox became a teacher at a Maui country school, in 1880, Wilcox was elected to the royal legislature in Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu. He represented the citizens of Wailuku and its neighboring Maui towns, by the time he completed his training in 1885, he achieved the rank of sublieutenant of artillery. Impressed with his skills, Italian officials sent Wilcox to the Royal Application School for Engineer. In 1888, the Reform Party took power in the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi, the Reform Party ended costly programs such as Wilcoxs training in Italy. On August 29,1887, Wilcox received his orders to return home, returning to Hawaiʻi in October, he began a career as a surveyor with the patronage of Charles B. Wilson but soon quit. He had now lost confidence that Kalākaua was strong enough to protect the interests of the Hawaiian people, Wilcox along with Charles Wilson and Sam Nowlein, planned a coup détat to replace Kalākaua with his sister Liliʻuokalani, but the plot was never executed. On February 11,1888, Wilcox left Hawaiʻi intending to return to Italy with his wife, instead of returning to Italy, Wilcox took up residence in San Francisco, California, and worked as a surveyor while his wife earned extra money teaching French and Italian. When he decided to return to Hawaiʻi in the spring of 1889, his wife, Gina Wilcox, refused to go with him, and took their daughter back to Italy. Wilcox planned and this time executed another attempt to force King Kalākaua to sign a new constitution to replace the 1887 Document on July 30,1889, Kalākaua, apparently aware of the plot, avoided the palace, afraid that the rebellion would replace him with his sister Liliʻuokalani. Thus stymied, Wilcox was finally confronted by the Honolulu Rifles militia unit, after a pitched battle, Wilcox surrendered. In October 1889, he was tried for treason before judge Albert Francis Judd, being one of the few leaders to stand up to the conservative royalist Reform Party earned him respect among the people. The American minister John L. Stevens, who called Wilcox a half breed, wrote and he helped form a new political party called the National Reform Party which advocated restoring power to the monarch
12.
Honolulu Police Department
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The Honolulu Police Department is the principal law enforcement agency of the City and County of Honolulu, Hawaii, headquartered in the Alapai Police Headquarters in Honolulu CDP. The island is divided into 8 patrol districts which are subdivided into sectors. HPD currently has more than 2,500 employees,2,134 of which are sworn officers. A2003 Department of Justice report listed HPD as the 20th largest police department in the nation, unlike the other 49 states, Hawaii does not have a state police agency per se or individual city agencies, law enforcement is the jurisdiction of the individual county governments. HPD is nationally accredited by the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, in 1840, the Supreme Court of Kamehameha III established the first constitution for the Kingdom of Hawaii. The constitution paved the way for the Act to Organize the Executive Departments of the Government signed on April 27,1846, the law created the office of marshal of the kingdom, the highest ranking police officer in the Hawaiian nation. He nominated, instructed, supervised and controlled the sheriffs of the kingdom of which there were four, one for each region of Kauai, Oahu, Maui. Each sheriff administered a corps of constables appointed by the four royal governors. Constables wore a distinct police insignia that consisted of a crown with the initials KIII in honor of Kamehameha III. The insignia was worn on the arm and on a red band on their police hats, in 1893, the Kingdom of Hawaii was replaced by the Provisional Government of Hawaii which quickly deposed the marshal of the kingdom and dissolved the constabulary. In 1894, the newly proclaimed Republic of Hawaii formed its own police system, after a few years under the governance of the Territory of Hawaii, four county governments were established out of the original administrative regions of the monarchy. In 1905, each county established a department led by an appointed sheriff. Police officers wore an octagon-shaped police badge similar in appearance to those of police departments of the period. In the 1920s the badge was redesigned with an eagle on top, in Hawaii, the Office of Sheriff falls under the Sheriff Division of the Hawaii Department of Public Safety. The division also enforces laws relating to firearms, ammunition, DLNR officers have full police powers. Judd appointed a Governors Advisory Committee on Crime, the committee recommended that a police commission be appointed by the mayor of Honolulu whose duty would be to appoint a chief of police and to supervise the operating of the police department. The committee also advised that the office of sheriff should be retained and charged with the duty of serving process, of maintaining the Honolulu prison system. On January 22,1932, a session of the territorial legislature passed Act 1, establishing the Honolulu Police Commission
13.
Insurgency
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An insurgency is a rebellion against authority when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents. The nature of insurgencies is an ambiguous concept, where a revolt takes the form of armed rebellion, it may not be viewed as an insurgency if a state of belligerency exists between one or more sovereign states and rebel forces. When insurgency is used to describe a movements unlawfulness by virtue of not being authorized by or in accordance with the law of the land, criticisms of widely held ideas and actions about insurgency started to occur in works of the 1960s, they are still common in recent studies. Sometimes there may be one or more simultaneous insurgencies occurring in a country, the Iraq insurgency is one example of a recognized government versus multiple groups of insurgents. Other historic insurgencies, such as the Russian Civil War, have been rather than a straightforward model made up of two sides. During the Angolan Civil War there were two sides, MPLA and UNITA. At the same time, there was another separatist movement for the independence of the Cabinda region headed up by FLEC, if there is a rebellion against the authority and those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents, the rebellion is an insurgency. However, not all rebellions are insurgencies, as a state of belligerency may exist between one or more states and rebel forces. When insurgency is used to describe a movements unlawfulness by virtue of not being authorized by or in accordance with the law of the land, its use is neutral. The use of the term insurgency recognizes the political motivation of those who participate in an insurgency, if an uprising has little support, such a resistance may be described as brigandry and those who participate as brigands. The distinction on whether an uprising is an insurgency or a belligerency has not been as clearly codified as many other covered by the internationally accepted laws of war for two reasons. The dispute resulted in a compromise wording being included in the Hague Conventions known as the Martens Clause from the diplomat who drafted the clause. The United States Department of Defense defines it as this, An organized movement aimed at the overthrow of a government through use of subversion. The United States counterinsurgency Field Manual, This definition does not consider the morality of the conflict, or the different viewpoints of the government and it is focused more on the operational aspects of the types of actions taken by the insurgents and the counter-insurgents. The Department of Defenses definition focuses on the type of violence employed towards specified ends and this characterization fails to address the argument from moral relativity that one mans terrorist is another mans freedom fighter. The French expert on Indochina and Vietnam, Bernard Fall, who wrote Street Without Joy, insurgency has been used for years in professional military literature. Under the British, the situation in Malaya as often called the Malayan insurgency or the Troubles in Northern Ireland, each had different specifics but shared the property of an attempt to disrupt the central government by means considered illegal by that government. North points out, however, that insurgents today need not be part of an organized movement, Some are networked with only loose objectives
14.
Desertion
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In military terminology, desertion is the abandonment of a duty or post without permission and is done with the intention of not returning. In contrast, unauthorized absence or absence without leave refers to a temporary absence, the United States Marine Corps, United States Navy, and United States Coast Guard generally refer to this as unauthorized absence or UA. Personnel are dropped from their unit rolls after thirty days and then listed as deserters, however, people who are away for more than thirty days but return voluntarily or indicate a credible intent to return may still be considered AWOL. Those who are away for fewer than thirty days but can credibly be shown to have no intent to return may nevertheless be tried for desertion, in rare occasions, they may be tried for treason if enough evidence is found. Missing movement is another term used to describe members of the armed forces fail to arrive at the appointed time to deploy with their assigned unit, ship. In the United States Armed Forces, this is a violation of the Article 87 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice, the offense is similar to absence without leave but may draw more severe punishment. Failure to repair consists of missing a formation or failing to appear at an assigned place and it is a lesser offense within article 86 of the UCMJ. In 2011, Vienna decided to honour Austrian Wehrmacht deserters, in 2014, on October, 24th a Memorial for the Victims of Nazi Military Justice was inaugurated on Viennas Ballhausplatz by Austrias President Heinz Fischer. The monument was created by German artist Olaf Nicolai and is located opposite the Presidents office, the inscription on top of the three step sculpture features a poem by Scottish poet Ian Hamilton Finlay with just two words, all alone. During WWI approximately 600 French soldiers were executed for desertion, during WWI, only 18 Germans who deserted in the First World War were executed. In contrast of the Germans who deserted the Wehrmacht,15,000 men were executed, in June 1988 the Initiative for the Creation of a Memorial to Deserters came to life in Ulm. A central idea was, Desertion is not reprehensible, war is, during WWI a total of 28 New Zealand soldiers were sentenced to death for desertion, of these, five were executed. These soldiers were pardoned in 2000 through the Pardon for Soldiers of the Great War Act. Those who deserted before reaching the front were imprisoned in what were claimed to be harsh conditions, the execution of soldiers for desertion is controversial, particularly considering the age of some of the soldiers and the potential of shell-shock. 270, dated August 16,1941, was issued by Joseph Stalin, the order required superiors to shoot deserters on the spot. Their family members were subjected to arrest,227, dated July 28,1942, directed that each Army must create blocking detachments which would shoot cowards and fleeing panicked troops at the rear. During World War II, the Soviets executed 158,000 soldiers for desertion, analyses of desertion rates argue that motivations were far less ideological than individual accounts claim. Desertion rates increased prior to announcements of upcoming operations, and were highest during the summer and winter, seasonal desertions were probably a response to the harsh weather conditions of the winter and immense field work required in the summer
15.
1887 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii
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It became known as the Bayonet Constitution for the use of intimidation by the armed militia which forced King Kalākaua to sign it or be deposed. The document denied the King most of his authority, empowering the legislature. Their concerns about Gibson stemmed from the fact that he supported the king’s authority, the meeting was called to order by Sanford B. Dole, and chaired by Peter Cushman Jones, the president of the largest sugarcane plantation agency in Hawaii, the Hawaiian League and Americans controlled a vast majority of the Kingdom of Hawaii’s wealth. Lorrin A. Thurston, the instigator of the subsequent overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy. The meeting also insisted a new constitution be written, on the next morning, July 1,1887, a shipment of arms was discovered from a neutral Australian ship. The Honolulu Rifles took control and arrested and almost hanged Gibson, Thurston then became the powerful interior minister although Englishman William Lowthian Green was nominally head of the Cabinet as Minister of Finance. Gibson was later exiled to San Francisco, over less than a week, the new constitution was drafted by a group of lawyers, including Thurston, Dole, William Ansel Kinney, William Owen Smith, George Norton Wilcox, and Edward Griffin Hitchcock. All were also associated with the Hawaiian League, which had wanted the end of the kingdom. Kalākaua signed the document July 6,1887, despite arguments over the scope of the changes and it stripped the king of most of his personal authority, empowering the legislature and cabinet of the government. It has since widely known as the Bayonet Constitution because of the threat of force used to gain Kalākauas cooperation. While Thurston and Dole denied this use of coercion and threats, Queen Liliuokalani asserted that Kalakaua’s life was threatened, the new constitution was never ratified in the Hawaiian Kingdoms legislature. The 1887 constitution replaced the absolute veto, allowed to the king. It also removed language from the 1864 constitution implying that the king was above the law, the cabinet was now allowed to vote in the legislature, but to reduce the kings influence, he was not allowed to appoint legislators to any other government post. The legislature also gained the authority to imprison those that disrespected, published reports or comments about or threatened or assaulted any of its members. The 1887 constitution had also attempted to limit spending, which had become a problem under Kalakauas reign, namely with the costly construction. The constitution stipulated that the King was required to appoint a Minister of Finance to oversee government spending, the 1887 constitution made significant changes to voting requirements. It allowed foreign resident aliens to vote, not just naturalized citizens, asians, including subjects who previously enjoyed the right to vote, were specifically denied suffrage
16.
Wilcox rebellions
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The Wilcox Rebellions were a plot in 1888, a revolt in 1889, and a counter-revolution in 1895, led by Robert William Wilcox against the governments of Hawaii. He was considered a populist revolutionary and menace to both the government of the Kingdom of Hawaii under King David Kalākaua and the Republic of Hawaiʻi under Sanford Dole, wilcox’s revolts were part of the Hawaiian Revolutions. The plot was to overthrow King David Kalākaua, king of Hawaii, the constitution stripped Asians of their voting rights while at the same time limited suffrage to wealthy Native Hawaiians, Americans and other Europeans. The kings own powers were limited substantially, hostilities grew over the new constitution that limited mostly non-white commoners rights and power. Kalākauas sister, Princess Liliʻuokalani and wife, Queen Kapiolani returned from Queen Victorias Golden Jubilee immediately after news reached them in Great Britain, Princess Liliʻuokalani felt that her brother, Kalākaua, was not competent to be King. Kalākauas distant cousin, a native Hawaiian officer and veteran of the Italian military, Wilcox had returned in October 1887 when the funding for his study program stopped after the new constitution was signed. Wilson, Princess Liliʻuokalani, and Sam Nowlein plotted to overthrow King Kalākaua to replace him with his sister, no one was prosecuted but Wilcox was exiled. So on February 11,1888 Wilcox left Hawaii for San Francisco, the constitution stripped Asians of their voting rights while at the same time limited suffrage to wealthy native Hawaiians, Americans and other Europeans. The kings own powers were limited substantially, a native Hawaiian officer and veteran of the Italian military, Robert William Wilcox, organized a rebellion on July 30,1889 to revive the powers of the monarch over administration. The rebellion was thwarted by the absence of the King at Iolani Palace, Wilcox was tried for treason, and acquitted despite his obvious guilt. The Burlesque Conspiracy also known for an event called the Sandbag Incident. The name of the conspiracy, Burlesque, was mainly to mock Marshal of the Kingdom C. B. Wilson for appearing to have been tricked into putting the Kingdom on a state of alert for no reason. Wilcox organized another plot in 1892 by forming a group called the Hawaiian Patriotic League which included John Edward Bush, Volney V. Ashford, the intentions of this group were to overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic. Wilcox and Bush’s speeches drew the attention of Marshal of the Kingdom Charles Wilson and he had agents infiltrate the group and inform him of the League’s activities. In March 1892 Wilson was informed of an imminent Coup détat, in response he put the Kingdom under high alert and sandbagged ʻIolani Palace, effectively divert the attempt. In response by the League to the Kingdom’s lockdown, they aborted the coup, to the public the heightened alertness appeared to have no basis, since no confrontation happened, making Wilson look like a paranoid fool. Wilson raided the League on May 20 arresting and jailing more than a dozen conspirators including Wilcox for plotting to overthrow the government, Wilcox spent 36 days in jail and was not convicted leading to his release. Ministers to the felt that the exposing of the conspiracy made it harmless
17.
Wilcox rebellion of 1889
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The Wilcox rebellion of 1889 was a revolt led by Robert Wilcox to force King Kalākaua of Hawaii to reenact the Hawaiian Constitution of 1864 from the Constitution of 1887. Wilcox let Robert N. Boyd in on the plot, Boyd was a friend of Wilcox from his academy in Italy. Wilcox and Boyd recruited 150 Hawaiians, Europeans and Chinese to form the Liberal Patriotic Association, Chinese businessmen who lost rights under the Bayonet Constitution supported his plot and provided funding for weapons. Each rebel was bought a red shirt uniform inspired by Giuseppe Garibaldis Redshirt volunteers, the Bayonet Constitution was forced on Kalakaua by the Honolulu Rifles, a paramilitary group loyal to the Reform Party. The constitution was extremely unpopular to most people affected or not, the voting restrictions led the Reform Party to win the legislature in the elections on September 12,1887, putting the government in the hands of American business interests. The Bayonet Constitution left Kalakaua mainly a figurehead and gave the legislature most of the power, hearing of the Rebellion, he believed it was another attempt to oust him and avoided the palace. He move to a location, his boathouse, so that he could escape by sea if necessary. On the morning of July 30,1889 Wilcoxs Redshirts entered the Palace grounds and surrounded ʻIolani Palace while others garrisoned surrounding buildings including Aliʻiōlani Hale, the Redshirts aimed two captured heavy cannons at the palace where 30 Royal Guard were stationed. Lt. Robert Parker Waipa, commander of the 30 guards, in place of the absent Captain John Paul Kahalewai, King Kalākaua was aware of the rebellion and had avoided the palace, fearing it was a new plot to overthrow him. The Reform Party alerted to the rebellion sent the Honolulu Rifles under the command of Colonel Ashford, Ashford was a Canadian immigrant who had come to Hawaii to join his brother. The Rifles took up positions in buildings, notably the Opera House. Snipers were stationed in the Kawaiahaʻo Church clock tower, one of the cannons was turned and opened fire on the Opera House at close range, but the gun was also well within range of the riflemen and the crews were forced to abandon their cannons. The Redshirts were driven into surrounding buildings where they exchanged fire with the Honolulu Rifles, the Royal Guard at the palace maintained neutrality during the battle under Kalākauas orders not to fire unless the rebels tried to enter the palace. Members of the Honolulu Rifles felt this to be an act of collaboration, Liliʻuokalani had gone to the guardsmen before the battle and ordered them to remain neutral during the fight. Shortly after noon the surrounding buildings were cleared of Wilcox’s men, including the men in Aliʻiōlani Hale, leaving only the palace grounds. Later on the Rifles used grenadiers with sticks of dynamite to attack the Palace Bungalow and they threw the dynamite over the walls encompassing the palace grounds. The explosions blew open the roof of the Palace Bungalow killing and wounding rebels, shortly after the explosion Wilcox and his men surrendered. By the end of the rebellion, Wilcox lost seven men, the Bungalow was damaged beyond repairs and eventually demolished
18.
Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii
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They prevailed upon American minister John L. Stevens to call in the U. S. Marines to protect American interests, an action that effectively buttressed the rebellion, the revolutionaries established the Republic of Hawaii, but their ultimate goal was the annexation of the islands to the United States, which finally occurred in 1898. The Kamehameha Dynasty was the monarchy of the Kingdom of Hawaii, beginning with its founding by Kamehameha I in 1795, until the death of Kamehameha V in 1872. On July 6,1846, U. S. Secretary of State John C, calhoun, on behalf of President Tyler, afforded formal recognition of Hawaiian independence under the reign of Kamehameha III. The kingdom would continue for another 21 years until its overthrow in 1893 with the fall of the House of Kalakaua, sugar had been a major export from Hawaii since Captain James Cooks arrival in 1778. The first permanent plantation in the islands was on Kauai in 1835, William Hooper leased 980 acres of land from Kamehameha III and began growing sugar cane. Within thirty years there would be plantations on four of the main islands, sugar had completely altered Hawaiis economy. American influence in Hawaiian government began with American-born plantation owners demanding a say in Kingdom politics and this was driven by missionary religion and the economics of the sugar industry. Pressure from these foreign born politicians was being felt by the King, during the 1850s, the U. S. import tariff on sugar from Hawaii was much higher than the import tariffs Hawaiians were charging the U. S. and Kamehameha III sought reciprocity. The monarch wished to lower the tariffs being paid out to the U. S. while still maintaining the Kingdoms sovereignty, in 1854 Kamehameha III proposed a policy of reciprocity between the countries but the proposal died in the U. S. Senate. American control of Hawaii was considered vital for the defense of the west coast of the United States and he showed the two U. S. officers around the lochs, although his wife, Bernice Pauahi Bishop, privately disapproved of selling Hawaiian lands. As monarch, William Charles Lunalilo, was content to let Bishop run almost all business affairs, many islanders thought that all the islands, rather than just Pearl Harbor, might be lost and opposed any cession of land. By November 1873, Lunalilo canceled negotiations and returned to drinking, against his doctors advice, his health declined swiftly, the legislature was empowered by the constitution to elect the monarch in these instances and chose David Kalākaua as the next monarch. The new ruler was pressured by the U. S. government to surrender Pearl Harbor to the Navy, in 1874 through 1875, Kalākaua traveled to the United States for a state visit to Washington DC to help gain support for a new treaty. Congress agreed to the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 for seven years in exchange for Ford Island, after the treaty, sugar production expanded from 12,000 acres of farm land to 125,000 acres in 1891. At the end of the reciprocity agreement, the United States showed little interest in renewal. On January 20,1887, the United States began leasing Pearl Harbor, shortly afterwards, a group of mostly non-Hawaiians calling themselves the Hawaiian Patriotic League began the Rebellion of 1887. They drafted their own constitution on July 6,1887, the new constitution was written by Lorrin Thurston, the Hawaiian Minister of the Interior who used the Hawaiian militia as threat against Kalākaua
19.
Black Week (Hawaii)
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The Black Week was a crisis in Honolulu, Hawaii that nearly caused a war between the Provisional Government there and United States. President Grover Cleveland of the United States denounced the Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Cleveland vowed to reverse the damage done and restore the Kingdom. Following the Overthrow, Cleveland launched an investigation headed by James Blount as United States Minister to Hawaii, after the investigation, Blount was replaced by Albert Willis, who began negotiations between ex-queen Liliuokalani for a US led invasion to restore the monarchy. On December 14,1893, Albert Willis arrived in Honolulu aboard the USRC Corwin unannounced, with the hysteria of a military assault, he stimulated fears by staging a mock invasion with the USS Adams and USS Philadelphia, directing their guns toward the capital. He stated there were more than 1,000 men of age in the city the Provisional Government was arming. Willis ordered Rear Admiral John Irwin to organize an operation using troops on the two American ships. He made no attempt to conceal preparations of the operation, as men readied equipment on deck. The next shipment of mail, news, and information was yet to arrive aboard the Alameda, Dole, President of Hawaii attempted to quell the anxiety by assuring the public there would be no invasion. On January 3,1894 public anxiety became critical which gave the incident its name, the Commanders of the Japanese HIJMS Naniwa and the British HMS Champion asked to join the landing operation, like Irwin, to protect lives and property of their respective nationalities. On January 11,1894, Willis revealed to Dole the invasion to be a hoax. Though Willis did not restore the monarchy, he was able to doubt in the Hawaiian public over the Provisional Government. This was one of the resulting in the formation of the Republic of Hawaii
20.
Oahu
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Oʻahu or Oahu /oʊˈɑːhu/, known as The Gathering Place, is the third largest of the Hawaiian Islands. It is home to about two-thirds of the population of the U. S. state of Hawaii, the state capital, Honolulu, is on Oʻahus southeast coast. Along with the rest of the Hawaiian Islands, Oahu is one of the largest and northernmost islands of Polynesia, in the greatest dimension, this volcanic island is 44 miles long and 30 miles across. The length of the shoreline is 227 miles, the island is the result of two separate shield volcanoes, the Waiʻanae and Koʻolau Ranges, with a broad valley or saddle between them. The highest point is Kaʻala in the Waiʻanae Range, rising to 4,003 feet above sea level, the island was home to the Kunia Regional SIGINT Operations Center from 1941 to 2012, it is now home to the National Security Agencys Hawaii Cryptologic Center. The island is home to 953,207 people in 2010, Oʻahu has for a long time been known as the Gathering Place. The term Oʻahu has no confirmed meaning in Hawaiian, other than that of the place itself, ancient Hawaiian tradition attributes the names origin in the legend of Hawaiʻiloa, the Polynesian navigator credited with discovery of the Hawaiian Islands. The story relates that he named the island after a son, residents of Oʻahu refer to themselves as locals, no matter their ancestry. The city of Honolulu—largest city, state capital, and main deepwater marine port for the State of Hawaiʻi—is located here. As a jurisdictional unit, the island of Oʻahu is in the Honolulu County, although as a place name. Well-known features found on Oʻahu include Waikīkī, Pearl Harbor, Diamond Head, Hanauma Bay, Kāneʻohe Bay, Kailua Bay, being roughly diamond-shaped, surrounded by ocean and divided by mountain ranges, directions on Oʻahu are not generally described with the compass directions found throughout the world. Locals instead use directions originally using Honolulu as the central point, to go ewa means traveling toward the western tip of the island, Diamond Head is toward the eastern tip, mauka is inland and makai toward the sea. Oʻahu is also known for having the longest rain shower in history, kaneohe Ranch, Oʻahu, Hawaiʻi reported 247 straight days with rain from August 27,1993 to April 30,1994. The island has many one of them being rainbow state. This is because rainbows are a sight in Hawaiʻi due to the frequent rain showers. The average temperature in Oʻahu is around 70 to 85 degrees, the weather during the winter is cooler, but still warm with the average temperature of 68-78 degrees. The windward side is known for some of the most beautiful beaches in the world, lanikai Beach on the windward coast of Oʻahu has been consistently ranked among the best beaches in the world. The 300-year-old Kingdom of Oʻahu was once ruled by the most ancient aliʻi in all of the Hawaiian Islands, the first great king of Oʻahu was Mailikukahi, the lawmaker, who was followed by many generation of monarchs
21.
Counter-revolutionary
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A counter-revolutionary is anyone who opposes a revolution, particularly those who act after a revolution to try to overturn or reverse it, in full or in part. The adjective, counter-revolutionary, pertains to movements that would restore the state of affairs, or the principles, for example, the transitory success of Agis and Cleomenes of ancient Sparta in restoring the constitution of Lycurgus was considered by Plutarch to be counter-revolutionary in a positive sense. In some ways, the supporters of Jacobitism may be placed in this category, the Jacobites were supporters of the Stuart houses claim to the English throne since 1688. The Jacobites survive to this day in their support for the Stuart familys claim to the English throne, more recently, it has been used in France to describe political movements that reject the legacy of the 1789 Revolution, which historian René Rémond has referred to as légitimistes. The royalist legitimist counter-revolutionary French movement survives to day, albeit marginally. After the French Revolution, anti-clerical policies and the execution of King Louis XVI led to the Revolt in the Vendee and this counter-revolution produced what is debated to be the first modern genocide. Monarchists and Catholics took up arms against the revolutionaries French Republic in 1793 after the government asked that 300,000 Vendeans be conscripted into the Republican military, the Vendeans would also rise up against Napoleons attempt to conscript them in 1815. In Italy, after the conquer of the Napoleons army in the late 18th century, a resurgence of the phenomenon happened during the Napoleons second Italian campaign in the early 19th century. Another example of counter-revolution was the rebellion in Southern Italy after the national unification, fomented by the Bourbon government in exile. The revolt, labelled as brigandage, resulted in a civil war that lasted almost ten years. The supporters of Carlism during the 19th century to the present day are perhaps the oldest surviving counter-revolutionary group in Spain, supporters uphold the legitimist view of royal succession, as well as regional autonomy under the monarchy, tradition and Catholicism. The Carlist cause began with the First Carlist War in 1833, general Victoriano Huerta, and later the Felicistas, attempted to thwart the Mexican Revolution in the 1910s. In the late 1920s, Mexican Catholics took up arms against the Mexican Federal Government in what known as the Cristero War. The President of Mexico, Plutarco Elias Calles, was elected in 1924, Calles began carrying out anti-Catholic policies which caused peaceful resistance from Catholics in 1926. The counter-revolution began as a movement of resistance against the anti-clerical laws. In the Summer of 1926, fighting broke out, the Spanish Civil War was in some respects, a counter-revolution. Supporters of Carlism, monarchy, and nationalism joined forces against the Spanish Republic in 1936, the counter-revolutionaries saw the Spanish Constitution of 1931 as a revolutionary document that defied Spanish culture, tradition and religion. On the Republican side, the acts of the Communist Party of Spain against the rural collectives can also be considered counter-revolutionary, more recently, the 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion into Cuba was conducted by counter-revolutionaries who hoped to overthrow the revolutionary government of Fidel Castro
22.
Provisional Government of Hawaii
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The Provisional Government of Hawaii, abbreviated P. G. was proclaimed after the coup détat on January 17,1893, by the 13 member Committee of Safety under the leadership of Sanford B. It usurped the Kingdom of Hawaii after the overthrow of Queen Liliʻuokalani as a government until the Republic of Hawaii was established on July 4,1894. Following the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii, the forces behind the established the Provisional Government. The provisional government sent a commission including Lorrin A. Thurston to the United States, at the same time Princess Victoria Kaʻiulani was in Washington D. C. to campaign for the monarchist side and against the coup, which she decried as illegal. President Grover Cleveland opposed the idea of annexation, being an anti-imperialist himself, after commissioning the official Blount Report, he stated that the U. S. had unlawfully used military force and called for the reinstatement of Queen Liliʻuokalani. After the findings of this committee were submitted, Cleveland reiterated his position, following the overthrow of the monarchy a military was formed on January 27,1893, and put under the command of Colonel John Harris Soper. This military consisted of four companies, three national companies and one regular army company. The regulars were D company made up, like B Company, from the Honolulu Rifles, after Hawaii was annexed becoming the Territory of Hawaii in 1898, the companies entered the Army National Guard system and became part of the Hawaii Army National Guard. Under the new administration the Government was made more restrictive, including denying citizenship to Chinese immigrants, the Hawaii Department of Education drove the Hawaiian language to near extinction in favor of English. They also restricted voting from 14,000 under the Bayonet Constitution to 4,000 people, James Henderson Blount would comment on this disproportion of voters and population in his report Blount Report. One group proposed the assumption of power of Princess Kaʻiulani while a body formed by the Committee of Safety could act as a regency government, with the physical absence of the princess from the islands, the proposal was immediately struck down. The Provisional Government was dealt a blow when United States President Benjamin Harrison. Grover Cleveland, an anti-imperialist, assumed the presidency and right away worked to stop the treaty of annexation, just a month before Cleveland became president, Lorrin A. Thurston had struck a deal with Congress as it prepared to ratify a treaty of annexation. Cleveland, having heard the appeals of Princess Kaʻiulani on behalf of her aunt, withdrew the treaty. Cleveland appointed James Henderson Blount of Macon, Georgia, as Commissioner Paramount and his chief mission was to investigate the overthrow of Liliuokalanis government. Blount concluded in his report that the overthrow had utilized the aid of the John L. Stevens, on the basis of Blounts report, Cleveland sent Albert Sydney Willis of Kentucky to Honolulu as Minister to Hawaii with secret instructions. Willis, initially rebuffed by the queen, obtained Liliuokalanis promise to grant an amnesty after a considerable delay. Taking the demand at face value, on December 23,1893, John Tyler Morgan, an expansionist pro-annexation Senator from Alabama, chaired the commission
23.
Committee of Safety (Hawaii)
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The Committee of Safety, formally the Citizens Committee of Public Safety, was a 13-member group of the Annexation Club. The goal of this group was to achieve annexation of Hawaiʻi to the United States. S, the Committee of Safety originated from a leadership group when members of the Missionary Party began to run as Independent Party candidates. For the elections of 1884 the Missionary Party strictly ran all candidates as Independent Party candidates, to ensure that Missionaries were on the Independent ticket the “Committee of Nine” was formed April 16,1883, to assume the leadership position of the Independent Party. The Committee of Nine were staunchly loyal to the Missionary Party, having social, the Independent Party won 13 seats and was the minority party in the Hawaii legislature. For the following elections of 1886 the committee reconvened, this time calling themselves the “Committee of Thirteen” due to the change in members and their intent was to make the Independent Party the majority party in the legislature. At the end of the elections the Independents won ten seats, in January 1887 the Committee of Thirteen formed a secret society called the Hawaiian League. No official records were kept, but Lorrin A. Thurston drafted the groups constitution, the group was headed by an executive committee of lawyers and businessmen mostly of non-aboriginal non-indigenous naturalized United States citizens. Membership grew through the year, including some German and British citizens, although the politicians changed the name of their party from Missionary to Reform, many wanted to become part of the United States, not just reform the monarchy. This was why the Hawaiian League was also called the Annexation Club, the Hawaiian League came into control of the Honolulu Rifles. Made of about 200 armed local men, who fought under the command of enthusiastic annexationist Volney V. Ashford, in June 1887, the Hawaiian League used the Rifles to force King Kalākaua to enact the Bayonet Constitution which limited his power. After Queen Liliʻuokalani came to power in 1891, she attempted to power to the throne. This caused the group to act again, the conspirators stated goals were to depose the queen, overthrow the monarchy, and seek Hawaiis annexation to the United States. On January 16, the Marshal of the Kingdom Charles B. Wilson was tipped off to the imminent planned coup, Wilson requested warrants to arrest the 13 member Committee of Safety, and put the Kingdom under martial law. After a failed negotiation with Thurston, Wilson began to collect his men for the confrontation, Wilson and Captain of the Royal Household Guard, Samuel Nowlein, had rallied a force of 496 men who were kept at hand to protect the Queen. The Revolution ignited on January 17 when a policeman was shot, the Committee of Safety feared the shooting would bring government forces to rout out the conspirators and stop the coup before it could begin. The Rifles garrisoned Aliiolani Hale across the street from ʻIolani Palace, as these events were unfolding, the Committee of Safety expressed concern for the safety and property of American residents in Honolulu. Marines from the USS Boston and two companies of U. S. sailors to land on the Kingdom and take up positions at the U. S. Legation, Consulate, and Arion Hall on the afternoon of January 16,1893. 162 sailors and Marines aboard the USS Boston in Honolulu Harbor came ashore well-armed, the sailors and Marines did not enter the Palace grounds or take over any buildings, and never fired a shot, but their presence served to intimidate royalist defenders
24.
Benjamin Harrison
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Before ascending to the presidency, Harrison established himself as a prominent local attorney, Presbyterian church leader, and politician in Indianapolis, Indiana. Harrison unsuccessfully ran for governor of Indiana in 1876, the Indiana General Assembly elected Harrison to a six-year term in the U. S. Senate, where he served from March 4,1881, to March 4,1887. A Republican, Harrison was elected to the presidency in 1888, defeating the Democratic incumbent, hallmarks of Harrisons administration included unprecedented economic legislation, including the McKinley Tariff, which imposed historic protective trade rates, and the Sherman Antitrust Act. Harrison also facilitated the creation of the national forest reserves through an amendment to the Land Revision Act of 1891, during his administration six western states were admitted to the Union. Due in large part to surplus revenues from the tariffs, federal spending reached one billion dollars for the first time during his term, the spending issue in part led to the defeat of the Republicans in the 1890 mid-term elections. Cleveland defeated Harrison for re-election in 1892, due to the unpopularity of the high tariff. Harrison returned to life and his law practice in Indianapolis. In 1900 Harrison represented the Republic of Venezuela in a case against the United Kingdom. Harrison traveled to Europe as part of the case and after a brief stay returned to Indianapolis and he died at his home in Indianapolis in 1901 of complications from influenza. S. Historians, however, have not questioned Harrisons commitment to personal and official integrity, Harrisons paternal ancestors were the Harrison family of Virginia, whose immigrant ancestor, Benjamin Harrison, arrived in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1630. Benjamin, the president, was born on August 20,1833, in North Bend, Ohio. Benjamin was also a grandson of U. S. Harrison was seven years old when his grandfather was elected U. S. president, although Harrisons family was distinguished, his parents were not wealthy. John Scott Harrison, a two-term U. S. congressman from Ohio, despite the familys modest resources, Harrisons boyhood was enjoyable, much of it spent outdoors fishing or hunting. Benjamin Harrisons early schooling took place in a log cabin near his home, fourteen-year-old Harrison and his older brother, Irwin, enrolled in Farmers College near Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1847. In 1850, Harrison transferred to Miami University in Oxford, Ohio and he joined the Phi Delta Theta fraternity, which he used as a network for much of his life. He was also a member of Delta Chi, a law fraternity which permitted dual membership, classmates included John Alexander Anderson, who became a six-term U. S. congressman, and Whitelaw Reid Harrisons vice presidential running mate in 1892. At Miami, Harrison was strongly influenced by history and political economy professor Robert Hamilton Bishop, Harrison also joined a Presbyterian church at college and, like his mother, became a lifelong Presbyterian. Carolines father, a Presbyterian minister, performed the ceremony, the Harrisons had two children, Russell Benjamin Harrison, and Mary Mamie Scott Harrison
25.
Grover Cleveland
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Stephen Grover Cleveland was an American politician and lawyer who was the 22nd and 24th President of the United States. He was also the first and to date only President in American history to serve two terms in office. Cleveland was the leader of the pro-business Bourbon Democrats who opposed high tariffs, Free Silver, inflation, imperialism and his crusade for political reform and fiscal conservatism made him an icon for American conservatives of the era. Cleveland won praise for his honesty, self-reliance, integrity, and he fought political corruption, patronage, and bossism. As a reformer Cleveland had such prestige that the wing of the Republican Party, called Mugwumps, largely bolted the GOP presidential ticket. As his second administration began, disaster hit the nation when the Panic of 1893 produced a national depression. It ruined his Democratic Party, opening the way for a Republican landslide in 1894 and for the agrarian, the result was a political realignment that ended the Third Party System and launched the Fourth Party System and the Progressive Era. Cleveland was a formidable policymaker, and he also drew corresponding criticism, critics complained that Cleveland had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nations economic disasters—depressions and strikes—in his second term. Even so, his reputation for probity and good character survived the troubles of his second term, biographer Allan Nevins wrote, n Grover Cleveland, the greatness lies in typical rather than unusual qualities. He had no endowments that thousands of men do not have and he possessed honesty, courage, firmness, independence, and common sense. But he possessed them to a degree other men do not, today, Cleveland is considered by most historians to have been a successful leader, generally ranked among the second tier of American presidents. Stephen Grover Cleveland was born on March 18,1837, in Caldwell, New Jersey to Richard Falley Cleveland, Clevelands father was a Presbyterian minister who was originally from Connecticut. His mother was from Baltimore and was the daughter of a bookseller, on his fathers side, Cleveland was descended from English ancestors, the first of the family having emigrated to Massachusetts from Cleveland, England in 1635. On his mothers side, he was descended from Anglo-Irish Protestants and he was distantly related to General Moses Cleaveland, after whom the city of Cleveland, Ohio, was named. Cleveland, the fifth of nine children, was named Stephen Grover in honor of the first pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of Caldwell and he became known as Grover in his adult life. In 1841, the Cleveland family moved to Fayetteville, New York, neighbors later described him as full of fun and inclined to play pranks, and fond of outdoor sports. In 1850, Clevelands father took a pastorate in Clinton, Oneida County, New York, despite his fathers dedication to his missionary work, the income was insufficient for the large family. Financial conditions forced him to remove Grover from school into a mercantile apprenticeship in Fayetteville
26.
Cleveland
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Cleveland is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County, the states second most populous county. The city proper has a population of 388,072, making Cleveland the 51st largest city in the United States, Greater Cleveland ranked as the 32nd largest metropolitan area in the United States, with 2,055,612 people in 2016. The city is the center of the Cleveland–Akron–Canton Combined Statistical Area, the city is located on the southern shore of Lake Erie, approximately 60 miles west of the Pennsylvania border. Clevelands economy has diversified sectors that include manufacturing, financial services, healthcare, Cleveland is also home to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Residents of Cleveland are called Clevelanders, Cleveland has many nicknames, the oldest of which in contemporary use being The Forest City. Cleaveland oversaw the plan for what would become the downtown area, centered on Public Square, before returning home. The first settler in Cleaveland was Lorenzo Carter, who built a cabin on the banks of the Cuyahoga River, the Village of Cleaveland was incorporated on December 23,1814. In spite of the swampy lowlands and harsh winters, its waterfront location proved to be an advantage. The area began rapid growth after the 1832 completion of the Ohio, growth continued with added railroad links. Cleveland incorporated as a city in 1836, in 1836, the city, then located only on the eastern banks of the Cuyahoga River, nearly erupted into open warfare with neighboring Ohio City over a bridge connecting the two. Ohio City remained an independent municipality until its annexation by Cleveland in 1854, the citys prime geographic location as a transportation hub on the Great Lakes has played an important role in its development as a commercial center. Cleveland serves as a point for iron ore shipped from Minnesota. In 1870, John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil in Cleveland, other manufacturers located in Cleveland produced steam-powered cars, which included White and Gaeth, as well as the electric car company Baker. Because of the significant growth, Cleveland was known as the Sixth City during this period, by 1920, due in large part to the citys economic prosperity, Cleveland became the nations fifth largest city. The city counted Progressive Era politicians such as the populist Mayor Tom L. Johnson among its leaders, many prominent Clevelanders from this era are buried in the historic Lake View Cemetery, including President James A. Garfield, and John D. Rockefeller. In commemoration of the centennial of Clevelands incorporation as a city, conceived as a way to energize a city after the Great Depression, it drew four million visitors in its first season, and seven million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937. The exposition was housed on grounds that are now used by the Great Lakes Science Center, following World War II, the city experienced a prosperous economy. In sports, the Indians won the 1948 World Series, the hockey Barons became champions of the American Hockey League, as a result, along with track and boxing champions produced, Cleveland was dubbed City of Champions in sports at this time
27.
Constitution
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A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i. e. constitute, some constitutions are uncodified, but written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases or treaties. Constitutions concern different levels of organizations, from states to companies. A treaty which establishes an international organization is also its constitution, within states, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made and by whom. Some constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a states rulers cannot cross, the term constitution comes through French from the Latin word constitutio, used for regulations and orders, such as the imperial enactments. Later, the term was used in canon law for an important determination, especially a decree issued by the Pope. The Latin term ultra vires describes activities of officials within an organization or polity that fall outside the constitutional or statutory authority of those officials. Ultra vires gives a justification for the forced cessation of such action. A violation of rights by an official would be ultra vires because a right is a restriction on the powers of government, and therefore that official would be exercising powers they do not have. It was never law, even though, if it had been a statute or statutory provision, in such a case, only the application may be ruled unconstitutional. Historically, the remedy for such violations have been petitions for common law writs, excavations in modern-day Iraq by Ernest de Sarzec in 1877 found evidence of the earliest known code of justice, issued by the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash ca 2300 BC. Perhaps the earliest prototype for a law of government, this document itself has not yet been discovered, for example, it is known that it relieved tax for widows and orphans, and protected the poor from the usury of the rich. After that, many governments ruled by codes of written laws. The oldest such document still known to exist seems to be the Code of Ur-Nammu of Ur, some of the better-known ancient law codes include the code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin, the code of Hammurabi of Babylonia, the Hittite code, the Assyrian code and Mosaic law. In 621 BC a scribe named Draco codified the cruel oral laws of the city-state of Athens, in 594 BC Solon, the ruler of Athens, created the new Solonian Constitution. It eased the burden of the workers, and determined that membership of the class was to be based on wealth. Cleisthenes again reformed the Athenian constitution and set it on a footing in 508 BC. The most basic definition he used to describe a constitution in general terms was the arrangement of the offices in a state
28.
Aliiolani Hale
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Aliʻiōlani Hale is a building located in downtown Honolulu, Hawaiʻi, currently used as the home of the Hawaiʻi State Supreme Court. It is the seat of government of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. Located in the courtyard is the famed gold-leaf statue of Kamehameha the Great. The Aliʻiōlani Hale was designed by Australian Thomas Rowe in an Italian Renaissance Revival as the palace for King Kamehameha V. In the Hawaiian language, Aliʻiōlani Hale means House of Heavenly Kings, the name Aliʻiōlani was also one of the given names of Kamehameha V. Although the building was designed to be a palace, Kamehameha V realized that the Hawaiian government desperately needed a government building, at that time, the several buildings in Honolulu used by the government were very small and cramped, clearly inadequate for the growing Hawaiian government. Thus, when Kamehameha V ordered construction of Aliʻiōlani Hale, he commissioned it as a government office building instead of a palace, Kamehameha V laid the cornerstone for the building on February 19,1872. He died before the building was completed, and it was dedicated in 1874 by one of his successors, at the time, Hawaiian media criticized the buildings extravagant design, suggesting that the building be converted into a palace as originally designed. Until 1893, the building held most of the departments of the Hawaiian government as well as the Hawaiian legislature. It was from Aliʻiōlani Hale in 1893 that the Committee of Safety, under the leadership of Lorrin A. Thurston, as a result, Aliʻiolani Hale became primarily a judicial building. The growing size of Hawaiʻis government continued to be a problem for the building, however, in 1911, the building was extensively renovated to help solve these space problems. The entire interior of the building was gutted and rebuilt, giving the interior a completely new floorplan. Since the building was designed to be a palace, its floorplan was not adequate for its later usage as a judicial building. The new layout of the building fixed this problem, the size of the territorial government continued to grow. In the 1940s, a new wing was added to the building to alleviate the growing problem of overcrowding. The architects who designed the new wing tried to blend it in with the building that dated back to the 1870s. Over the next decades, most of the state judiciary functions moved out of Aliʻiōlani Hale to various other buildings around Honolulu. Today, the houses the Hawaiʻi State Supreme Court and is the administrative center of the Hawaiʻi State Judiciary
29.
George Lycurgus
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George Lycurgus was a Greek American businessman who played an influential role in the early tourist industry of Hawaii. He ran afoul of the government of the Republic of Hawaii and was accused of treason, later he was instrumental in the development of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory and Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park. He was born in 1858 in Vasara, in 1877 he traveled in steerage class to New York City, and worked his way across the country. A relative convinced him to join a wholesale fruit business trading between Hawaii and California in 1881, in San Francisco he shipped California produce and wine to his cousin in Honolulu, who shipped Hawaiian bananas to the mainland. He became friends with Claus Spreckels, whose family owned the Oceanic Steamship Company, in 1889 he was supervising shipment being loaded at the docks, when some of the Spreckels family invited him on board for a poker game. By the time he noticed, the ship was on its way across the Pacific and he spent only a week in Hawaii, but must have enjoyed the stay, since he took more trips and spent more time on the islands. In 1892 he sent for his nephew Demosthenes Lycurgus, who would help him manage his Hawaiian enterprises, along with other recent immigrants, he formed the Pearl City Fruit Company. Their competition was the Hawaiian Fruit and Packing Company, owned by established descendants of American missionaries such as Lorrin A. Thurston, eventually he would sell his restaurant in San Francisco and move to the islands. Lycurgus leased the small guest house of Allen Herbert in 1893 on Waikīkī beach in Honolulu and he expanded it and renamed it the Sans Souci for the Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam. It became one of the first beach resorts and the area at coordinates 21°15′49″N 157°49′17″W is still called Sans Souci Beach, celebrities such as Robert Louis Stevenson stayed there on his second trip later that year, and it became a popular destination for tourists from the mainland. In 1894 Lycurgus made his first trip to the Kīlauea volcano with Admiral Royal R. Ingersoll, the volcano impressed him and he took note of the future possible business opportunities. A friendship had evolved between Lycurgus and the Hawaiian royal Kalākaua family, who were regulars at his resorts and this earned him the nickname Duke of Sparta, a title borne by the Crown Prince of Greece. Despite being a commoner, he felt comfortable with monarchy than the Americans. In 1893, after the death of Kalākaua, Thurston and other Americans led the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and declared a Republic of Hawaii, the new government, controlled by conservative missionaries, fined Lycurgus for selling liquor at his resort. Lycurgus hired a band of Hawaiians who played music honoring Queen Liliʻuokalani instead of The Star-Spangled Banner, after the failed 1895 counter-revolution, he was accused of smuggling guns to the Royalists. Several leaders had meetings in the Sans Souci hotel, by January 20 the leaders were all captured. Lycurgus was arrested, charged with treason, spent 52 days in jail, by 1898, the Spanish–American War had increased American interest in the Pacific. He entertained press correspondents on their way to the Philippines at his Sans Souci hotel, Hawaii was annexed as a territory of the United States that year and the practical Lycurgus applied for American citizenship
30.
Charles T. Gulick
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Charles Thomas Gulick was a politician in the Kingdom of Hawaii. He was one of the few members of the missionary families of the time to side with the monarchy in the 1893 overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Gulick was born in July 25,1841 to a family of American missionaries and his father was William Gulick, and mother was Eliza Throop Thomas. He attended Punahou School 1855–1862, where he was a pitcher on a called the Pacifics playing early games of baseball with the sons of Alexander Cartwright. In September 1869 he officially became a citizen of the Kingdom of Hawaii and he ran a business as notary public and issued government documents such as marriage licenses. He became the commander of the original Honolulu Rifles, with rank of Captain and he also later served as adjutant general from 1878. On February 5,1876 he married Sarepta A. Thompson in Honolulu and he was appointed to the cabinet of King Kalākaua as Minister of the Interior on August 6,1883, and served until June 30,1886. It is widely thought that sugar magnate Claus Spreckles had suggested both changes, both before and after Gulick, Walter M. Gibson acted as Minister of the Interior, while also acting as minister of Foreign Affairs and even attorney general. He went back into business, and became a real estate broker, Gulick was appointed again to the post of Minister of the Interior of Queen Liliʻuokalani on September 12,1892 and served until November 1,1892. He met with Liliʻuokalani other leaders loyal to her on January 15,1893, in the 1895 Counter-Revolution in Hawaii he was tentatively selected to be Minister of Finance in the cabinet, and drafted the new constitution to be used if the plot had succeeded. He and the leaders were arrested, and put on trial for treason starting January 21,1895. The defence was led by attorney general Paul Neumann. Although Gulick denied involvement in plans for strikes, witnesses testified the group met at his house. He was convicted and first sentenced to death, which on February 23 was reduced to 35 years in prison, Gulick was part of the last batch of prisoners to be released when the remaining eight prisoners including him and Wilcox were pardoned and released on January 1,1896. A street was named Gulick Avenue for him in Honolulu, at 21°20′11″N 157°52′27″W and his mother lived to almost 100 years and died August 27,1903
31.
Honolulu
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Honolulu is the capital and largest city of the U. S. state of Hawaii. It is an part of and the county seat of the City and County of Honolulu on the island of Oahu. The city is the gateway to Hawaii and a major portal into the United States. The city is also a hub for international business, military defense, as well as famously being host to a diverse variety of east-west and Pacific culture, cuisine. Honolulu is the most remote city of its size in the world and is both the westernmost and the southernmost major U. S. city. For statistical purposes, the U. S. Census Bureau recognizes the area commonly referred to as City of Honolulu as a census county division. Honolulu is a financial center of the islands and of the Pacific Ocean. The population of the city of Honolulu was 337,256 as of the 2010 census, while the Honolulu CCD was 390,738, Honolulu means sheltered harbor or calm port. The old name is said to be Kou, a district encompassing the area from Nuuanu Avenue to Alakea Street. The city has been the capital of the Hawaiian Islands since 1845, as of 2015, Honolulu was ranked high on world livability rankings, and was also ranked as the 2nd safest city in the U. S. It is also the most populated Oceanian city outside Australasia and ranks second to Auckland as the most populous city in Polynesia, evidence of the first settlement of Honolulu by the original Polynesian migrants to the archipelago comes from oral histories and artifacts. These indicate that there was a settlement where Honolulu now stands in the 11th century, however, after Kamehameha I conquered Oʻahu in the Battle of Nuʻuanu at Nuʻuanu Pali, he moved his royal court from the Island of Hawaiʻi to Waikīkī in 1804. His court relocated in 1809 to what is now downtown Honolulu, the capital was moved back to Kailua-Kona in 1812. In 1794, Captain William Brown of Great Britain was the first foreigner to sail into what is now Honolulu Harbor, more foreign ships followed, making the port of Honolulu a focal point for merchant ships traveling between North America and Asia. In 1845, Kamehameha III moved the permanent capital of the Hawaiian Kingdom from Lahaina on Maui to Honolulu and he and the kings that followed him transformed Honolulu into a modern capital, erecting buildings such as St. Andrews Cathedral, ʻIolani Palace, and Aliʻiōlani Hale. At the same time, Honolulu became the center of commerce in the islands, an economic and tourism boom following statehood brought rapid economic growth to Honolulu and Hawaiʻi. Modern air travel brings, as of 2007,7.6 million visitors annually to the islands, today, Honolulu is a modern city with numerous high-rise buildings, and Waikīkī is the center of the tourism industry in Hawaiʻi, with thousands of hotel rooms. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 68.4 square miles
32.
Native Hawaiians
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Native Hawaiians are the indigenous Austronesian people of the Hawaiian Islands or their descendants. Native Hawaiians trace their ancestry back to the original Polynesian settlers of Hawaii,140,652 people identified themselves as being Native Hawaiian alone. The majority of Native Hawaiians reside in the State of Hawaiʻi, and the rest are scattered among other states, especially in the American Southwest, another is that a single, extended period of settlement populated the islands. Early historians, such as Fornander and Beckwith, subscribed to this Tahitian invasion theory, king Kalakaua claimed that Paʻao was from Samoa. Some writers claim that other settlers in Hawaiʻi were forced into remote valleys by newer arrivals and they claim that stories about the Menehune, little people who built heiau and fishponds, prove the existence of ancient peoples who settled the islands before the Hawaiians. At the time of Captain Cooks arrival in 1778, the population is estimated to have been between 250,000 and 800,000, over the span of the first century after first contact, the native Hawaiians were nearly wiped out by diseases introduced to the islands. Native Hawaiians had no resistance to influenza, smallpox, measles, or whooping cough, the 1900 U. S. Census identified 37,656 residents of full or partial native Hawaiian ancestry. The 2000 U. S. Census identified 283,430 residents of Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ancestry, the Hawaiian language was once the primary language of the native Hawaiian people, today, native Hawaiians predominately speak the English language. A major factor for this change was an 1896 law that required that English be the medium and basis of instruction in all public. This law prevented the Hawaiian language from being taught as a second language, in spite of this, some native Hawaiians have learned ʻŌlelo as a second language. Nowadays ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi is the language of the State of Hawaii. The Hawaiian language has been promoted for revival most recently by a program of cultural preservation enacted in 1978. Programs included the opening of Hawaiian language immersion schools, and the establishment of a Hawaiian language department at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, as a result, Hawaiian language learning has climbed among all races in Hawaiʻi. In 2006, the University of Hawaii at Hilo established a program in the Hawaiian Language. In fall 2006, they established a program in the Hawaiian Language. In addition to being the first doctoral program for the study of Hawaiian, both the masters and doctoral programs are considered by global scholars as pioneering in the revival of native languages. Hawaiian is still spoken as the language by the residents on the private island of Niʻihau. Alongside ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi, some Maoli spoke Hawaiʻi Sign Language, little is known about the language by Western academics and efforts are being made to preserve and revitalize the language
33.
Day labor
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Day labor is work done where the worker is hired and paid one day at a time, with no promise that more work will be available in the future. It is a form of contingent work, Day laborers find work through three common routes. Firstly, some employment agencies specialize in very short-term contracts for manual labor most often in construction, factories, offices and these companies usually have offices where workers can arrive and be assigned to a job on the spot, as they are available. Secondly, a looking for additional labor to fill an unexpected change in plans is presented with a problem of finding the needed quantity of labor with the right skills. The benefit of representation is applied to both the labor and employer, Labor is given a source of recourse to achieve a safe work environment free of favoritism and arbitrary work assignments. Employers benefit from organized labor training programs, benefit plans, dispute resolution, the benefit of a labor supply arriving at a specified time and location within less than a days notice is reduced overhead resources. Much of this work is in residential construction or landscaping. These workers earn, on average, $8–$10 an hour, the media and a study by UCLA portrays day laborers as being illegal immigrants from Mexico and Central America, who otherwise cant get work due to current employment regulations. Other research has found that day laborers are not typically illegal immigrants, many even being citizens of the US, informal day labor is not new to the United States, and day laborers are not always migrant workers in many cases. In his study of day laborers in Atlanta, Terry Easton interviews white, non-immigrant informal day labor, seen in many cities, does not generate the controversy or calls to police and local government seen when immigrant day laborers gather to wait for work. Low wages and poor working conditions, employer abuse, and lack of insurance for work related accidents is common, numerous complaints are made about immigrant day laborers. These include loitering, noise, crime and rushing cars of potential employers in parking lots, cities and counties have tried a variety of solutions with varied success. Workers Centers of this date back at least 18 years to Los Angeles. Other municipalities have targeted day labor sites for aggressive enforcement of immigration laws, though united in their commitment to the rights of immigrant workers, NDLON and the Day Labor Research Institute represent two very different models of day labor center. NDLON represents the social service model and the Institute the day laborer designed model. These different models of day labor centers may yield different results that reflect the different goals of each model. Low levels of work at the centers, low wages, geographies of Hope and Despair, Atlantas African American, Latino, and White Day Laborers. Global Lives, Local Struggles, Latin American Immigrants in Atlanta, latinos, the American South, and the Future of U. S
34.
Waikiki
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Waikīkī is a beachfront neighborhood of Honolulu, on the south shore of the island of Oʻahu, in Hawaii, United States. Waikiki is most famous for Waikīkī Beach, but it is just one of six beaches in the district, Waikīkī is home to public places including Kapiʻolani Park, Fort DeRussy, Kahanamoku Lagoon, Kūhiō Beach Park, and Ala Wai Harbor. The name Waikīkī means spouting fresh water in the Hawaiian language, for springs, the area was a retreat for Hawaiian royalty in the 1800s who enjoyed surfing there on early forms of longboards. A few small hotels opened in the 1880s, in 1893, Greek-American George Lycurgus leased the guest house of Allen Herbert and renamed it the Sans Souci creating one of the first beach resorts. Later that year Robert Louis Stevenson stayed at the resort, subsequently it became a destination for tourists from the mainland. The area at coordinates 21°15′49″N 157°49′17″W is still called Sans Souci Beach, the beach hosts many events a year, including surf competitions, outdoor performances, hula dancing and outrigger canoe races. It is also where Kurt Cobain, the frontman for the band group Nirvana, married Courtney Love, the neighborhood extends from the Ala Wai Canal on the west and north, to Diamond Head on the east. Waikīkī Beach is noted for its views of the Diamond Head tuff cone, its warm and cloud-free climate. The Waikīkī skyline is now dotted with an abundance of both high-rises and resort hotels, the beach is actually fairly short, with half of it marked off for surfers. For some distance into the ocean the water is quite shallow, as with most ocean beaches the waves can have some force, particularly on windy days. The surf at Waikīkī is known for its long rolling break, making it ideal for long boarding, tandem surfing and beginners. Waikīkīs main thoroughfare is Kalakaua Avenue, named after King Kalakaua, waikīkīs other main thoroughfare, Kuhio Avenue, named after Prince Kuhio, is better known for its restaurants, cafes and grocers, along with its clubs, nightlife and prostitution. Over time, Waikīkī beach has had problems with erosion, leading to the construction of groynes, for example, in the 1920s and 1930s sand was imported from Manhattan Beach, California, via ship and barge to Waikīkī. Officials are looking for ways to sustain the existing sand by eliminating loss due to tidal flow, subject to permits, a partial restoration was completed in the spring of 2012. The proposed project imported sand from nearby shoals and widened the 1, the project restored the beach to its 1985 shoreline. Waikiki Beach has had problems with sewage spills. China Airlines operates its Honolulu Branch Office in Waikīkī, NTT DoCoMo also has limited operations here for the convenience of Japanese tourists. Hawaiian Airlines is based in Honolulu, district 6 of the Honolulu Police Department encompasses Waikiki
35.
Diamond Head, Hawaii
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Its English name was given by British sailors in the 19th century, who mistook calcite crystals on the adjacent beach for diamonds. Diamond Head, like the rest of the Honolulu Volcanic Series, is younger than the main mass of the Koʻolau Mountain Range. While the Koʻolau Range is about 2.6 million years old, the interior and adjacent exterior areas were the home to Fort Ruger, the first United States military reservation on Hawaii. Only a National Guard facility and Hawaii State Civil Defense remain in the crater, an FAA air traffic control center was in operation from 1963 to 2001. Diamond Head is a feature of the view known to residents and tourists of Waikīkī. The volcanic tuff cone is a State Monument, a 0. 75-mile hike leads to the edge of the craters rim. Signs at the trailhead say that the hike takes 1. 5–2 hours round-trip, and recommends that hikers bring water. Although not difficult, the signs also say that the hike is not a casual one, next is a small lighted tunnel to a narrow spiral staircase inside a coastal artillery observation platform built in 1908. From the summit above the observation platform both Waikīkī and the Pacific Ocean can be seen in detail and it is a short but steep hike – it is a 170 m elevation gain for a total elevation of 232 m. There is a fountain near the bathrooms at the foot of the trail in case you want to hydrate before the hike or fill an empty bottle. The park closes at 6,00 pm and signs posted indicate that you are not allowed to head up the trail after 4,30 pm, a downloadable certificate is available to those who complete the climb. In 1968, Diamond Head was declared a National Natural Landmark, the crater, also called Diamond Head Lookout was used as a strategic military lookout in the early 1900s. Spanning over 475 acres, it served as an effective defensive lookout because it provides views of Waikīkī. The Diamond Head Lighthouse, a lighthouse built in 1917 is directly adjacent to the craters slopes. In addition, a few pillboxes are located on Diamond Head’s summit, various views of Diamond Head Diamond Head appears on an 80-cent air mail stamp issued in 1952 to pay for shipping orchids to the mainland of the U. S. A1975 televised game show, The Diamond Head Game was set at Diamond Head, official website Hawaii State Parks - Diamond Head State Monument Geographic data related to Diamond Head, Hawaii at OpenStreetMap Satellite image of Diamond Head
36.
Lieutenant
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A lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer in many nations armed forces, fire service or police. The meaning of lieutenant differs in different military formations, but is often subdivided into senior and junior ranks, in navies it is often equivalent to the army rank of captain, it may also indicate a particular post rather than a rank. The rank is used in fire services, emergency medical services, security services. Lieutenant may also appear as part of a used in various other organisations with a codified command structure. It often designates someone who is second-in-command, and as such, for example, a lieutenant master is likely to be second-in-command to the master in an organisation using both ranks. Political uses include lieutenant governor in various governments, and Quebec lieutenant in Canadian politics, in the United Kingdom, a lord lieutenant is the sovereigns representative in a county or lieutenancy area, while a deputy lieutenant is one of the lord lieutenants deputies. However, their efforts failed, and the French word is used, along with its many variations. The early history of the pronunciation is unclear, Middle English spellings suggest that the /luː-/ and /lɛf-/ pronunciations may have existed even then. The rare Old French variant spelling luef for Modern French lieu supports the suggestion that a final of the Old French word was in certain environments perceived as an, in Royal Naval tradition—and other English-speaking navies outside the United States—a reduced pronunciation /ləˈtɛnənt/ is used. This is not recognised as current by recent editions of the OED, conventionally, armies and other services or branches which use army-style rank titles have two grades of lieutenant, but a few also use a third, more junior, rank. Where more junior officers were employed as deputies to the lieutenant, they went by names, including second lieutenant, sub-lieutenant, ensign. The senior grade of lieutenant is known as first lieutenant in the United States, and as lieutenant in the United Kingdom, in countries which do not speak English, the rank title usually translates as lieutenant, but may also translate as first lieutenant or senior lieutenant. The Israel Defense Forces rank segen literally translates as deputy, which is equivalent to a lieutenant, there is great variation in the insignia used worldwide. In most English-speaking and Arabic-speaking countries, as well as a number of European and South American nations, an example of an exception is the United States, whose armed forces distinguish their lieutenant ranks with one silver bar for first lieutenant and one gold bar for second lieutenant. Second lieutenant is usually the most junior grade of commissioned officer, in non-English-speaking countries, the equivalent rank title may translate as second lieutenant, lieutenant, sub-lieutenant or junior lieutenant. Non-English terms include alferes, alférez, fänrik, ensign, Leutnant, letnan, poručík, a few non-English-speaking militaries maintain a lower rank, frequently translated as third lieutenant OF1c. The rank title may translate as second lieutenant, junior lieutenant, sub-lieutenant or ensign. Warsaw Pact countries standardised their ranking systems on the Soviet system, some of the former Soviet and Warsaw Pact nations have now discarded the third rank while many retain it like Bulgaria
37.
John C. Lane
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John Awena-ika-lani-keahi-o-ka-lua-o-Pele Carey Lane, was Mayor of Honolulu from 1915 to 1917. Born at Makao, Oʻahu, Lane was educated at Hauula School and he held various jobs as a clerk, and from 1893 to 1900 farmed near Honolulu. John Lane was one of 12 children born of William Carey Lane, a Irish sea captain, and Mary Kukeakalani Kahooilimoku, born in County Cork, Ireland, his father was said to be a descendant of Irish kings. Lanes grandfather, a staunch Catholic, had forfeited his lands and move to New York, William Carey Lane later ended up in Hawaii where he married a Hawaiian chiefess. Kukeakalani was the daughter of Kukanaloa, a member of King Kamehameha Is court who served as the keeper of the personal war canoe. John and his brothers, Lot and James, were members of Queen Liliʻuokalanis personal guard at ʻIolani Palace and he was captured during the Battle of Diamond Head along with Harry Bertleman, a fellow insurgent. He was charged with treason but later acquitted, Lane was a devoted follower of the monarchy and joined the Hawaii Republican Party to be aligned with Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaole. Lane became a member of the Hawaii Territorial Senate from 1905 to 1907 and he married Alice Kia Nāhaolelua on March 13,1909 at Honolulu. He failed to win the post of mayor in 1908 and 1910 and he was defeated in his bid for re-election in 1917 by the previous mayor Joseph J. Fern. Appointed high sheriff of the territory and warden of Oʻahu Prison in 1922, he resigned in 1932 during charges of lax administration and he continued his political career until 1948
38.
Colonel
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Colonel is a senior military officer rank below the general officer ranks. However, in small military forces, such as those of Iceland or the Vatican. It is also used in police forces and paramilitary organizations. Historically, in the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a colonel was typically in charge of a regiment in an army, the rank of colonel is typically above the rank of lieutenant colonel. The rank above colonel is typically called brigadier, brigade general or brigadier general, equivalent naval ranks may be called captain or ship-of-the-line captain. In the Commonwealth air force rank system, the equivalent rank is group captain, the word colonel derives from the same root as the word column and means of a column, and, by implication, commander of a column. The word colonel is therefore linked to the column in a similar way that brigadier is linked to brigade. By the end of the medieval period, a group of companies was referred to as a column of an army. Since the word is believed to derive from sixteenth-century Italian, it was presumably first used by Italian city states in that century. The first use of colonel as a rank in an army was in the French National Legions created by King Francis I by his decree of 1534. Building on the reforms of Louis XIIs decree of 1509. Each colonel commanded a legion with a strength of six thousand men. With the shift from primarily mercenary to primarily national armies in the course of the seventeenth century, the Spanish equivalent rank of coronel was used by the Spanish tercios in the 16th and 17th centuries. Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, nicknamed the Great Captain, divided his armies in coronelías or colonelcies, however, the Spanish word probably derives from a different origin, in that it appears to designate an officer of the crown, rather than an officer of the column. This makes the Spanish word coronel probably cognate with the English word coroner and this regiment, or governance, was to some extent embodied in a contract and set of written rules, also referred to as the colonels regiment or standing regulation. By extension, the group of companies subject to a colonels regiment came to be referred to as his regiment as well, the position, however, was primarily contractual and it became progressively more of a functionless sinecure. By the late 19th century, colonel was a military rank though still held typically by an officer in command of a regiment or equivalent unit. As European military influence expanded throughout the world, the rank of colonel became adopted by every nation
39.
Lot Lane
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Lot Lonoikaua Kamehameha Carey Lane was the last insurgent to be captured by government forces after the Uprising of 1895 in Hawaii. He advocated better treatment for prisoners of war by the Republic of Hawaii, Lane was born July 31,1864 in Waialua and was personally named after Kamehameha V. He was a brother of John Carey Lane and of Irish-Hawaiian who claimed to be descended from Kamehameha I and he expressed this claim openly to fellow insurgents receiving the nickname “Kamehameha”. Lane married Elizabeth Lokai Haohele who had their daughter Bernicia Kailiponi Lane, Lane was a Royal Guard during the Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii. He joined the insurgency and was a Lieutenant and third-in-command in the 1895 Uprising under Robert W. Wilcox, Lane was known to be intimidating standing six feet tall. He was a Second-in-command during the Battle of Diamond Head where his brother was captured, during the Battle of Mānoa he was separated from the retreating insurgent force and fled into the Koʻolau mountains. He came out of hiding after fighting subsided believing a foreign intervention had come, contrary to the fears of Lt. Lane and the warning to Government Forces to use caution when encountering him, he surrendered peacefully to police becoming the last insurgent to be captured. After being brought to police headquarters he was escorted by six guards for fear that he might overpower the regular number for a normal prisoner and he was locked in with over a hundred undernourished POWs. He protested that night making noise with food trays and yelling to provide additional food, the guards gave in to his demands because of their fears of him. ”
40.
Irish people
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The Irish people are a nation and ethnic group native to the island of Ireland, who share a common Irish ancestry, identity and culture. Ireland has been inhabited for about 9,000 years according to archaeological studies, for most of Irelands recorded history, the Irish have been primarily a Gaelic people. Today, Ireland is made up of the Republic of Ireland, the people of Northern Ireland hold various national identities, including Irish, Northern Irish, British, or some combination thereof. The Irish have their own customs, language, music, dance, sports, cuisine, although Irish was their main language in the past, today the huge majority of Irish people speak English as their first language. Historically, the Irish nation was made up of kin groups or clans, there have been many notable Irish people throughout history. After Irelands conversion to Christianity, Irish missionaries and scholars exerted great influence on Western Europe, the 6th-century Irish monk and missionary Columbanus is regarded as one of the fathers of Europe, followed by saints Cillian and Fergal. The scientist Robert Boyle is considered the father of chemistry, famous Irish writers include Oscar Wilde, W. B. Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, Bram Stoker and James Joyce, notable Irish explorers include Brendan the Navigator, Robert McClure, Ernest Shackleton and Tom Crean. By some accounts, the first European child born in North America had Irish descent on both sides, many presidents of the United States have had some Irish ancestry. The population of Ireland is about 6.3 million, but it is estimated that 50 to 80 million people around the world have Irish forebears, historically, emigration from Ireland has been the result of conflict, famine and economic issues. People of Irish descent are mainly in English-speaking countries, especially the United Kingdom. There are also significant numbers in Argentina, Mexico and New Zealand, the United States has the most people of Irish descent, while in Australia those of Irish descent are a higher percentage of the population than in any other country. Many Icelanders have Irish and Scottish Gaelic forebears, in its summary of their article Who were the Celts. The National Museum Wales notes It is possible that genetic studies of ancient. However, early studies have, so far, tended to produce implausible conclusions from very small numbers of people and using outdated assumptions about linguistics, nineteenth century anthropology studied the physical characteristics of Irish people in minute detail. During the past 10,000 years of inhabitation, Ireland has witnessed some different peoples arrive on its shores, the ancient peoples of Ireland—such as the creators of the Céide Fields and Newgrange—are almost unknown. Neither their languages nor terms they used to describe themselves have survived, as late as the middle centuries of the 1st millennium the inhabitants of Ireland did not appear to have a collective name for themselves. Ireland itself was known by a number of different names, including Banba, Fódla, Ériu by the islanders, Iouerne and Hiverne to the Greeks, other Latin names for people from Ireland in Classic and Mediaeval sources include Attacotti and Gael
41.
Alfred Wellington Carter
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Alfred Wellington Carter was a lawyer and judge in the Republic of Hawaii and the Territory of Hawaii who managed the Parker Ranch. His grandfather Joseph Oliver Carter was a merchant ship captain and his father was Samuel Morrill Carter and mother was Harriet Layman Hempstead. Alfred Wellington Carter was born April 22,1862 and named for an uncle Alfred Wellington Carter, another uncle Henry A. P. Carter had been a cabinet minister and diplomat for the Kingdom of Hawaii. Since many of his relatives were also named Alfred, he went by his initials A. W. Carter attended Punahou School, by November 1889 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. In 1893 he graduated cum laude with an LLB degree from Yale Law School and he returned to live in Waikiki and practice law with his older cousin Charles Lunt Carter. On January 6,1895 he heard gunfire as the 1895 Counter-Revolution in Hawaii had been discovered nearby, the Carters and neighbor James Bicknell Castle took rifles to the scene of the shooting. Charles was hit by gunfire and died early the next morning, on October 12,1895 Carter married Edith Millicent Hartwell, daughter of American Civil War General and later Hawaii judge Alfred S. Hartwell. Alfred Hartwell Carter was born December 1,1896, Edith Millicent Carter was born February 17,1898. Dorothy Layman Carter was born September 29,1899, barbara Juliette Carter was born June 25,1901. In 1899 Carter was appointed guardian of Annie Thelma Kahiluonapuaapiilani Parker and he moved to the island of Hawaiʻi and became manager of the ranch, although his wife stayed in Honolulu where the children attended school. Carter was often at odds with the other half-owner, Samuel Parker, Parker sued, claiming he owned the entire ranch, and tried to remove Carter as manager. The court case dragged on for years, Carter mortgaged the ranch and bought Parker out in 1906. In 1909 he formed the Hawaii Meat Company as a cooperative with other ranchers, after Thelma died in 1914, Carter continued to advise her son Richard Smart who was the new heir. In 1937 Carters son Alfred Hartwell Carter became manager of the ranch, Carter died on April 27,1949. From 1900 to 1917 Carter was a trustee of Kamehameha Schools, the estate of Bernice Pauahi Bishop set up by Charles Reed Bishop, which was an even larger landowner than the Parker Ranch. Hapuna Beach State Recreation Area was originally named A. W. Carter Park for him, as a member of the territorial board of forestry from 1903 to 1907 and 1909 to 1912, he helped establish the Hawaii forest reserves while his cousin George R. Carter was governor. He was inducted into the Paniolo hall of fame in 2003
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Republic of Hawaii
United States
